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 CONCEPTUAL
Philosophy:
Knowkdgc is an cvolviug population
Gowin's Vec stfatcgics inñucnce a
oí conccpts.
Knowkdgc is a product oí inquiry in
which thc triadic rclatiou of eonccpts-
evcnts-rccords is pararnount.
Thcory:Ausubel's assímllariou thcory oí
meaningfut tcarniog.
Novak's thcory oí conceptual cducation
Gcwin's thcory of educating
Principies:
t. In meaningful learning, ncw knowlcdgc is
subsumed t,y alrcady cxisting cogniuve struc-
turc clemcnts.
2. The assimilation of ncw mcanillg
transforrns 1hc meaning of both prior
knowledge aud newly acquired knowledge.
). Cognitivc structurc dcvelops by pro·
gressivc diífcrcntation and intcgr ative recen-
clliation.
-4. Cognitive siructurc is organizcd hicrar-
chically according to levcls oí indusivcncss.
f'OCUS METHODOl,OGlCAL
QUESTIONS:
l. How do conccpt mapping and
Valuc claims :
l. A línk between lcarning thcory and
1caching can be madc by concept mapping
high school biology studcnt and Vce ínstructional and lcarning strategies.
in a school year's time?
2. Their use in imtruction and evaluation
2. Wha: diífercncc do these in biolom· is ouc valuablc mcthod.
hcurlstic devtces makc 10
rcachcr and studem in Knowledge clalms:
facilitatiug more l. Studcm tapes su&scsl that lcarning stralcgics re-
mcaningful lcarning quire understondins of thc subject mauer and are
and rctcnt)on of kuowledge hord work. but also iudk-ate thal most studcnts
in I he high school recognize an~I valué undcrstandinc over rote lcarníng.
biology class? 2. Studc.nl conccpt map and test score improvcrncnt
correlate significantly ovcr time.
3. Studcnt's concept map and test scorc irnprovc-
mcut correlaie s\i;nifkantly over time,
Transformotions:
l. Srudcut auitude change: t test
2. Test score impmvcmcnt ovcr time: scaucrgrauis
3. Scattcrgrams of test seores corrclated with con·
cept map seores
4. Scaucrgrams of conecpt map seores ove, tímc:
~. Pearscn Corrclatiou Coeíficicnts of scauergrams

6. Tapcd commcnts, rC\'C3ling naturc of an in·

Concepts: dividual's conceptuetization rclcvant to lcarning,
Mr.aning(ul Icamiug organired iu responses to conccpt map questions,
Cognitive itr~clurc Vce qucstions and qucstions on how 1hcy leam.
Subsurnption f)t9tcss 7. Tape:d and wrinen commcnts organizcd for quc.·s·
Progressivc differentarion lion about scicnce trutlls bcing immutablc.
Intcgrativc rcconciliaÚO,I
Mcaning (A stands for ll) l. Tapcd rccordings and transcriptions of intcrvicws
Thc distinction oí Gowin's Vee (events and ob- 2. Tcsl seores and conccpt map srorcs ov-cr lime
jects, rccords oí events ~nd lransforma1ions oí l. Ukert/Scmantic Diíícrcn1íal Atlítudc Scaks
those récords, conccpts, principies, thcory,
knowlcdgc ctaims, valuc claims and tclling ques- 4. Rccords of daily commcnts madc by studc,m to tcachcr
uons, aboul conccpt maps, Vcc:s, ar lcarning
S. Ro\'inc. sciencc profcssionals as indcpendcnt )ab obscrvcrs'
madc mental rccords of studcnl rcsf)Onses to qucstions askcd
durins lab pcriods

Objcctive/Evenls
Study oí lhe performance on biolosy s111dents who havc
conccpt mar,s a.nd Vees
Study of tapcd intcrvicws of s1udcnts' responses 10 questious
ahoul how thcy lcarn and about conccpt mapping aud Vces
afccr 1·2 scmtstcrs and thcn again thc following Octobcr

Figure 8.4 A Vce diagram for a study in high school biology dasscs that showed that: studcnts who uscd conccpt
maps and V ce diagrams took more rcsponsibilit:y for lcarning than did traclirionally instrnctcd studcnts (Gurley
1982) .

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Philosophy:
Knowkdgc is an cvolving popul al íon
or conccpts.
Knowkdgc is a product of inquiry in
which thc triadic relation of conccpts-
cvcnts-rccords is paramount.
Theory.Ausuoel'sassituilauou thcory of
meaningful Ieamínn.
Novak's thcory of conceptual education
Oowin's thcory of cducaung
Principles:
1. In meaningfut [eaming , ncw knowlcdgc is
subsumed by alrcady cxistíng ccgniuve struc-
turc clements.
2, Thc assimilarion of ncw meaning
trausforms the rueaning of boui prior
knowlcdge aud newly acquircd knowlcdgc.
3. Cognitivo structure dcvclops b)' pro·
grcssive diffcrcntatiou and intcgtative recen-
dliatíon.
4. Cognirive suucturc is crganizcd hicrar-
chically according to levcls of inclusivcncss.
FOCUS METHODOLOGlCAL
QUESTIONS:
t. How do conccpt mapping and vatue claims:
Gowin's vee stratcgics influcnce a t. A link bccwccn lcarníng theory and
high school biology studwt teachiug can be madc hy couccpt mapping
und Vce instrucuona! and Ieamlng strategies.. ··
i11 a school year's time?
2. Theír use in instruction and evaluation ." -'.",·
2. Wha1 di Ifercncc do thcsc in biology is onc valuable method.
heudstic dcvices makc to
tcachcr and student in Knowledgc claims: .
Iacilitat ing more J. Studcnt tapes suggcs.t that learning strategies re-
rncaningfut lcarning quite understonding of the subjcct mattcr and are
and rclcntíon of k nowlcdge hard work, but also indicatc I hat most smdents
in tbc high school rcc:ognize all(_I valuc undcrstaüding over rote lcarning.
biology class? 2. Srndcnl conccpt map and test scorc improvemcnl
corrclaic significamly ovcr time.
3. Studcm's concept map and test score irnprove-
mcnc corrclarc s.ig11ifkanHy ovcr time.
Trausformatlons:
1. Studcnt anitude change: r IC$1
2. Test score improvcmcnt ovcr lime: scauergrarns
3. Scattcrgr ams of 1cs1 seores c:orrdatcd with con-
cept map seores
4. Scancrgrams of ccncc¡n map seores ovcr time
5. Pcarson Corrcla1ion Cocfficicnts oí scattergrams

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Concepts: 6. Tapcd commcnts, revealing naturc oían ~n-

Mcaning(ul lcarniug dividual's conceplualization relevant to lcarning,
organized in responses to concept map qucstions,
Coguitivestrucrurc
Vec qucs.tions and questians on how 1hcy lcarn.
subsurnnuon process 1. Tapcd and wríucn commcnts organized for qucs·
Progressivc dilfcrentation tion about scícnce truths bci ng immutahie.
lntcgrativc reconcilíañon
Mcaniug (A stands for B)
J. Tapcd recording~ and transcríp1io11s of intcrvicws
Thc distinction of Gowin's Vce (events and ob-
2. Tese seores and concept map seores over time.
jccts, récords oí cvents and tran-sformatioos of
thosc récords, conccpls, principles, thcory, 3. Likcrt/Scmantíc Diffcrcntial Allitudc Scaks
knowlcdge claíms, valuc claims aud tclliag qucs- 4. Rccords of daily commcnls madc by sludcnts lo tc.achcr
rions. about conccpt rnaps, Vccs, or lcarning
5. Roving scicncc profcssionals as indcpcndcn1 lab obscrvcrs'
made mental records of student responses. to qucstions askcd
<luríng lab pcriods

Objective/Events
Study of lhc performance 011 biology shldcnts who havc
COUC(:pl lll3pS and Vces
Scudy of taped inlervicws of students' responses to questions
about how 1hey lcarn and ahout conccpt mapping and Ve-e.~
after L-2 sernc.s1ers and I hcn again thc following Oclobcr

Figure 8.4- A Vcc diagram for a study in high school biology dasscs that showcd that studcnts who uscd conccpt
maps and Vec díagrams t:ook more rcsponsibility for lcarning than did traditionally instructcd studcnts (Gurlcy
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~ CHAPTER FIVE

•• The Purpose Statement

••
•
•• W hereas introductions focus on the problem leading to the
study, the purpose statement establishesthe direction for

..•
the research. In fact, the purpose statement is the most
important statement in an entire research study. lt orients the reader
to the- central intent of the study, and from ít. all other aspects of the
research follow. In journal articles, researchers write the purpose
statement into introductions; in dissertatlons and dissertation propos-

....
ols. it often stands as a seporote section. The purpose statement

• needs to be written as cleorlv and concise!y as possible .

This entire chapter focuses on the purpose statement because

....
of its significance in a study. 1 address the reasons for developing
purpose statements, odvonce key principies to use in deslgning
them, and provide examples that illustrate good models .

.. SIGNIFICANCE AND MEANING

•• OF A PURPOSE STATEMENT
According to Locke, Spirduso, and Silverman (2000), the purpose state-

••
ment indicates "why you want to do the study and what you intend to
accomplísh" (p. 9). Unfortunately, method- and proposal-writing texts
give little attention to the purpose statement, and wríters on method

••
often incorporate the purpose statement into díscussíons about other
topícs, such as specífying research questions or hypotheses. Wilkinson
(1991), for example, refers to it wíthín the context of the research ques-

••
tíon and objective. Other authors frame lt as an aspect of the research
problem (Castetter & Heísler, 1977). Closely examining their discussions
indicates that they both are referring to the purpose statement as the

••
central, controllíng idea in a study .

• 87
88 Research Design

For this díscussíon, I will call thís passage the "purpose statement"
because it conveys the ovcrall intent of a proposcd study. In proposals,
researchers need to distinguish clearly betwccn the purpose, the problem
in the study, and the research qucstions. The purpose sets forth the
intent of the study and not the problem or issue leadíng to a need for the
study (see Chaptcr 4). The purpose is also not the rcsearch questions-
those questíons that the data collectíon will attempt to answer-to be
discussed in Chapter 6. Instead. thc purpose sets the objectives, Jhe
intent, and the major idea of a proposal or a study. Thís idea builds on a
nec<l (the problcm) and is reflned into specífíc questíons (the research
questions).
Given the importance of the purpose statement, ít is helpful to set it
apart from other aspects of the proposal or study and to frame itas a
single sentence or paragraph that readcrs can identify easily. Although
qualítatlve, quantitative, and mixed methods purpose statements share
similar topícs, each will be identified below and illustratcd with "scripts"
for constructing a thorough but manageable purpose statement for a ·
proposal or study. ·

A QUALITATIVE PURPOSE STATEMENT

A good qualitative purpose statement contains important elements of

qualítatíve rcsearch, uses research words drawn from the language of
that inquiry (Schwandt, 2001), and employs the procedures of an
cmerging design based on experiences of individuals in a natural set-
ting. Thus, one might consíder severa} basic design features for writing
this statement:

e Use words such as "purpose," "íntent," or "objectíve" to signal atten-

tion to this statement as the central controlling idea in a study. Set
the statement off as a separate sentence or paragraph and use the
Janguage of research by employing words such as "The purpose (or
intent or objective) of this study is (was) (wíll be) .... " Researchers
often use the prcsent or past verb tense in journal articles and dís-
sertations, and the future tense in proposals beca use researchers are
presenting a plan for a study.

e Focus on a single phenomenon (or concept or idea). Narrow the

study to one idea to be explored or understood. This focus means
that a purpose <loes not convey "relatíng" two or more variables or
 •
~ The Purpose Statement 89

• ,·l .
"comparing" twoor more groups, as ¡8 typically found in quantitativc
• research. Instead, advance a single phenomenon to study, recogníz-

• ing that the study may evolve into an exploration of relationships or

comparisons among ideas. None of these related explorations can
• be anticipated at the beginning of a qualitative study. For example,

• a project míght begin by exploring "chaírperson roles" in enhancing

faculty development (Creswell & Brown, 1992). Other qualitative
• studies might start by exploring "teacher ídentíty" and the margin-
• alization of this identity for a teacher in her school (Huber & Whelan,
1999) or the meaning of "baseball culture" in a study ofthe work
• and talk of stadium employees (Trujíllo, 1992). These examples all
• illustrate the focus on a single idea .

• • Use actíon verbs to convey how learning will take place. Action

• verbs and phrases, such as "describe, "understand," "develop,"

"examine the meaníng oí," or "díscover," keep the inquiry open and
• convey an emerging design .
• • An einerging design is also enhanced by nondirectional language
• rather than predetermined outcomes. Use neutral words and

• phrases, such as exploring the "experíences of índívíduals" rather

than the "successíul experienccs of individuals." Other words and
• phrases that may be problematic ínclude "useful;" "posltíve," and

• "informing"-all words that suggest an outcome that may or may

not occur. McCracken (1988) refers to the need in qualitative inter-
• views to let the respondent describe bis or her cxperience.

• Interviewers (or purpose statement writers) violate the "law of

·.. ..,, -nondirectíon" in qualitative research (McCracken, 1988, p. 21) by
• using words that suggest a directional oríentatíon .
• • Provide a general working definition of the central phenomenon or
• idea. Consistent with thc rhetoric of qualitative research, this deñní-
tíon is not rigíd and set, but tentative and evolving throughout a
• ·: study based on information from participants. Hence, a writer
• might use the words, ''A tentative definition at this time for
__ (central phenomenon) is .... " It should also be noted that
• thís definition is not to be confused wíth the detailed "deflnítion of
• terms" section found later in sorne qualitative proposals. The intent

• here is to convey to readers at an early stage in a proposal or

research study a general sense of the central phenomenon so
• that they c~n better understand tníormanon that will unfold in
the study.
•
•
90 Research Deslgn

e Include words-denoting the strategy of inquiry to be used in data

collectíon, analysís, and the process of research. such as whether
the study will use an ethnographic, grounded theory, case study,
phenomenological, or narrative approach.

e Mention the participants in the study, such as whether the partící-

pants might be one .or more índívíduals, a group of people, or an
entire organization.

G Identífy thc site for the research, such as homes, classrooms, organí-
r' _ ..-

zations, programs, or events. Describe this site in enough.detaíl so

that the reader will know exactly where a study will take place.

Although considerable varíatíon exists in the inclusion of these points

in purpose statcments, a good díssertatíon or thesís proposal should
mentíon ali of them.
To assist in designing a purpose statement, 1 include hcre a "scrípt"
that should be helpful in drafting a complete statement. A "scrípt," as
used in this book, contaíns the major words and ideas of a statement -
and provides space for the researcher to insert information that relates
to a project. The "script" for a qualítative purpose statement is this:

The purposc of thís (strategy of inquiry, such as

ethnography, case study, or other type) study is (was? will be?) to
______ (understand? describe? develop? discover?) the
( central phenomenon being studíed) for
(the partícípants, such as the individual,
groups, organizatíon) at (research site). At this
stage in the research, the ( central phenomenon being
studied) will be generally defined as (provide a
general deflnitíon).

The following examples may not íllustrate perfectly all elements of this
"script," but they represent adequate models to study and emulate.

Example 5.1 A Purpose Statement in a Qualitative

Phenomenology Study
Lauterbach (1993) studied five women who had lost a baby in late preg-
nancy and their memories and experíences of this loss. Her purpose
statement was as follows.
•• The Purpose Statement 91

• The phenomenological
•
inquiry, as part of uncovering meanlng,
articulated "essences" ot meaning in momors' lived experiences

•• when their wished-for bables died. Using the lens of the feminist
perspective, the focus was on mothers' memories and their "living
through" experience. This perspective facilitated breaking through

•• the silence surrounding rnothers' experiences: it assisted in articu-

lating and amplifying mothers' memorles and their stories of loss .
Methods of inquíry included phenomenological reflection on data

• elicited by existential investigation of mothers' experiences, and

••
investigation of the phenomenon in the creotlve arts. (Lauterbach,
1993, p. 134)

• I found Lauterbach's purpose statement in the opening section of

••
r

the journal article under the heading 'Aím of Study" Thus, the heading
calls attentíon to this statement. "Mothers' lived experíences" would be

••
the central phenomenon, and the author uses the action word "portray"
to discuss the "meaning" (a neutral word) of these experiences. The
author further defines what experiences will be examined when she

••
identifies "memories" and "líved through" experiences. Throughout thís
passage, it is clear that Lauterbach will use the strategy of phenomeno-
logy. Also, the passage conveys that the participants will be mothers, but

•
later in the article the reader learns that the author interviewed a con-
veníence sample of five mothers, each of whom had experienced a

•• perinatal death of a child in her home.

•• Exomple 5.2 A Purpose Statement in a Case Study

Kos (1991) conducted a multiple case study of perceptions of readíng-

•
disabled míddle-school students concerning factors that prevented these
students from progressing in their readíng development. Her purpose

•• statement read as follows .

The purpose of this study was to explore affective, social, and edu-

• cational factors that may hove contributed to the development of

••
reading disabilities In four adolescents. The study also sought expío-
nation as to why students' reading disabilities persisted despite
years of instruction. This was not an intervt?ntion studv ond, although

••
sorne students may hove improved their reading, reading improve-
ment was not the focus of the study. (Kos, 1991. pp. 876-877)

•
92 Research Design

Notice Kos's disclaimer that thís study was not a quantitative study
measuring of the magnítude · of reading changes in the students.
Instead, Kos clearly placed thís study within the qualítatíve approach by
using words such as "explore." She focused attention on the central
phenomenon of "factors" and provided a tentative definition of this
phenomenon by mentioning examples, such as "affective, social. and
educatíonal." She included this statement under a heading called
"Purpose of the Study" to call attention to the statement, and she
mentioncd the participants who partícípated in the study. In-the
abstract and the methodology sectíon, a reader finds out that thestudy
used the inquiry strategy of case study research and that the study took
place in a classroom.

. Exomple 5.3 A Purpose Statement in an

Ethnographic Study
Rhoads (1997} conducte<l a 2-year ethnographic study exploring how
the campus climate can be improved for gay and bisexual males ata
Iarge university. His purpose statement, included in the opening
section, was as follows.

The article contributes to the literature addressing the needs of

gay and bisexual students by identifying severa! oreas where
progress can be made in improving the campus climate for them.
This paper derives from a 1wo-year ethnographic study of a student
subculture composed of gay and bisexual males at a large
research university; .the focus on men reflects the fact that lesbian
and bisexual women constttute a separate student subculture at
the university under study. (Rhoads, 1997, p. 276)

With intent to improve the campus, this qualitative study falls into
the genre of advocacy research as mentíoned in Chapter l. Also, these
sentences occur at the begínníng of the article to signa! the reader about
the purpose of the study. The "needs" of these students become the
central phenomenon under study, and the author seeks to "ídentííy"
áreas that can improve the climate for gays and bisexual males. The
author also mentioned that the strategy of ínquíry will be ethnographic
and that the study will involve males (participants) at a large uníversity
(site). At this poínt, the author does not provide additional information
. about the exact nature of thcse "needs'' or a working definition to begin
t
i) The Purpose Statement 93

•• the article. However, he <loes refer to "ídennty" and probes a tentative

meaning for that term in the next section of the study.

•• -----------·--------··--
Exomple 5.4 A Purpose Statement ín a Grounded

•• Theory Study
Richie et al. ( 19 9 7) conducted a qualítatíve study to devclop a theory of

••
the career development of 18 promínent, highly achievíng Afrícan
American Black and White women in the United States working in
different occupatíonal ñelds. In the second paragraph of this study, they
stated the purpose statement:
1

•• The present article describes a qualitative study of the coreer

development of 18 prominent, highly achieving African-American
Block and White women in the United States across eight occupa-

9
• tional fields. Our overol! aim in the study was to explore criticar
influences on the career development of these women, particu-

•
larly those related to their attainment of professional success.
(Richie et al., 1997, p. 133)

•• ---·----~~---··--·--······---·····----------·-·············· ····-·-··-

In thís statement, the central phenomenon is "career development,"

'
and the reader learns that the phenomenon will be defined as "critica!
influences'' in the "professional success" of the women. In this study,
1 "success," a dírectíonal word, serves to define the sample of individuals

• to be studied more than to límít the inquiry about the central pheno-

•• mcnon. The authors plan to "explore" this phenomenon, and the reader
learns that the particípants are all women, in different occupational
groups. Grounded theory as a strategy of inquiry is mentioned in the
abstract and later in the procedure discussion.
1
1
1 'A QUANTITATIVE PURPOSE STATEMENT

•• Quantitative purpose statements differ considerably from the qualítatíve

models in terms of the language and a focus on relating or comparing

• variables or constructs. A variable refers to a characterístíc or attribute

••
of an individual or an organízatlon that can be measured or observed
and that varíes among the people or organízatíon beíng studied
(Creswell, 2002). A variable typically will "vary" intwo or more categories

•
94 Research Design

or on a contínuum of seores. Psychologists prefer to use the term

construct (rather than variable), which carríes the connotation of more
of an abstraer idea than a specifically defined term. However, social
scíentísts typically use the term variable, and it wíll be employed in this
discussion. Variables oftcn measured in studíes include gender, age,
socíoeconomíc status (SES), and attitudes or behaviors such as racism,
social control, political power, or leadershíp. Severa! texts provide
detaíled discussions about the types of variables one can use and their
scalc of measurement (e.g., Isaac & Míchael, 1981; Keppel,,..J991; ·

Kerlinger, 1979; Thorndike, 1997). Variables are dístínguíshed by two

characteristics: temporal ordcr and their measurement (or observation).
Temporal order meaos that one variable precedes another in time.
Because of thís time ordering, it is saíd that one variable affects or
"causes" another variable, though a more accurate statement would
indícate "probable causation." When dealing with studies in the natural
setting and with humans, researchers cannot absolutely "prove" cause
and cffect (Rosenthal & Rosnow, 1991). This time ordering causes
researchers ín quantitative approaches to think "leít to right" (Punch,
1998) and order the variables in purpose statements, research questions,
and visual models into left-to-rlght, cause and effect, presentations. Thus,

e Indepemlent variables are variables that (probably) cause, íníluence,

or affect outcomes. They are also called treatment, manipulated,
antecedent, or predictor variables.

@ Deperuient variables are variables that depend on the independent

variables; they are the outcomes or results of the influence of thc
índependent variables. Other names for dependent variables are
criterion, outcome, and effect variables.

~ Inierveninq or mediatíng variables "stand between" the independent

and dependent variables, and they mediate the effects of the íride-
pendent variable on the dependent variable. For example, if
students do well on a research methods test (dependent variable),
that result may be due to ( a) their study preparation (independent
variable) and/or (b) their organization of study ideas into a. frame-
work (intervening variable) that influenced their grade on the test.
The mediating variable, "organízatíon of study," stands between the
independent and dependent variables.

e Two other types of variables are control variables and confounding

variables. Control variables play an active role in quantítatíve
studies. These variables are a specíal type of independent variable
 •
'•
The Purpose Statement 95

••
that are measured in a study beca use they potentially iníluence the
dependent variable. Researchers use statistical procedures (e.g.,
analysis of covariance) to control for these variables. They may be

•
demographic or personal variables that need to be "controlled" · so
that the true influence of the índependent variable on the depen-

•• dent can be determined. Another type of variable, a confounding (or

spurious) variable, is not actually measured or observed in a study. It
exísts; · but íts influence cannot be directly detected in a study.

• Researchers comment on thc ínfluence of confounding variables,

•• after the study has been completed, beca use these · variables may
have operated to explaín the relationship between the índependent
variable and dependent variable, but they were not or could not be

•• i,
easíly assessed .

The desígn of a quantitative purpose staternent, therefore, begíns wíth

••
''
'
1 identifying the proposed variables for a study (índependent, intervening,
dependent, control), drawing a visual model to clearly identify this
sequence, and locating and specífyíng how the variables will be mea-

••
.,.

sured or observed. Finally, the intent of using thc variables quantita-

tively will be either to relate variables (as one typically finds in a survey)
orto compare samples or groups in terms of an outcome (as commonly

•• found in experiments) .
This knowledge helps in the design of the quantitative purpose state-
ment. The major components of a good quantítatíve purposc statement

••
.

include a brief paragraph that contains the following:

• Words to sígnal the majar intent of the study, such as "purpose,"

•• "ínterit," or "obiectíve." Start with "The purpose ( or objective or

íntent) of this study is (was) (will be) .... "

••
.
• Identíñcatíon of the theory, model, or conceptual framework to test
in the proposal or study. At this point one <loes not need to describe
ít in detail; in Chapter 7 I suggest a separare "Theoretical

• Perspectíve" section for this purpose. Mentíonlng it in thc purpose

statement provides emphasís on the importance of the theory and

• forcshadows its use in the study.

•
••
• Identification of the independent and dependent variables, as well
as any mediating or control variables used in the study.

• Words that connect the independent and dependent variables to

•• indicate that they are being related. Use "the relationship between"
two or more variables ora "comparison of'" two or more groups .
96 Research Design

Most quantitative studies fall into one of these two options for
connecting variables in the purpose statement. A combination of
comparing and relating might also exist, for example. a two-Iactor
expcriment in which the researcher has two or more treatment
groups as well as a continuous variable as an independent variable
in the study. Although one typically finds studies about comparing
two or more groups in experiments, ít is also possible to compare
groups in a survey study.
.. ....

@ A position or ordering of the variables from left to right in thepur-

pose statement, beginning with .the independent variable, fóllowed
by the dependent variable. Place intervening variables between the
índependent and dcpendent variables. Researchers also place the
control variables between the índependent and dependent variables.
Alternatively, control variables míght be placed immediately íollow-
íng the dependent variable, in a phrase such as "controllíng for .... "
In experíments, the independent variable will always be the "rnaníp-
ulated" variable.

e Mentíon the specífíc type of strategy of inquiry used in the study. By

incorporating this ínformatíon, the researcher will anticipate the
methods díscussíon and enable a reader to associate the relatíonshíp
of variables to the inquiry approach.

o Referen ce to the participants (or the unit of analysis) in the study

and mention of the research site for the study

e A general definition for each key variable in the study, preferably

using estab1ished definitions. In quantitative research, investigators
use set and accepted definitions for variables. The definitions
included here are intended to provide a general defínltlon of vari-
ables to help the reader best understand the purpose statement.
They do not replace specífíc, operational deflnítíons (details about
how variables will be measured) found later in a "Deñnítíon of
Terms" section in proposals (see Chapter 8).

Based on these points, a quantitative purpose statcment "scrípt" can

include these ideas:

The purpose of thís (experiment? survey?) study

is (was? will be?) to test the theory of that
_____ (compares? relates?) the (índe-
pendcnt variable) to (dependent variable),
 The Purpose Statement 97

controlling for (control variables) for

(participants) at _ ( the
research site). The independent variable(s) will
be generally defined as (provide a general ·
· · definition). The dependent variable(s) will be gencrally defined as
(provide a general definition), and the !.,

control and intervening varíableís), _ IU

(identify the control and intervening variables) will be statistically '". ,

controlled in the study
'"
The examples to follow íllustrate many of the elements in the "script." .t'
¡,[
11'
The ñrst two studies are surveys; t:hc Iast one is an experiment.
lf
'I
11
Example 5.5 A Purpose Statement in a Published
1:
Survey Study
Kalof (2000) conducted a 2-year longitudinal study of 54 college
women about their attitudes and experíences with sexual cocrcion.
These women responded to two ídentícal mail surveys administered
2 years apart. The author combined the purpose statement, introduced
in the opening section, with the research questíons.

This study is an attempt to elaborate on and clarify the línk

between women 's sex role attitudes and experiences with sexual il

victimization. 1 used two yeors of data from 54 college women to

answer these questions: (l) Do women's attitudes influence vulner-
ability to sexual coercion over a two-year perlad? (2) Are attitudes
changed after experiences with sexual victimization? (3) Does
.,, prior victimization reduce or lncrease the rlsk of later víctimization?
(Kalof, 2000¡ p. 48)
·---·--·..~·-··---·----·-----~------·--------

Although Kalof <loes not mention a theory that she seeks to test, she
identifies both her independent variable (sex role attitudes) and the depen-
dent variable (sexual víctímízatíon). She positioned these variables from
índependent to dependent. She also discussed "línklng" rather than "relat-
íng" the variables to establísh a connection between them. This passage
also identifies the participants (women) and the research site (a college
setting). Later, in the method sectíon, she mentíoned that the study was
a mailed survey. Although she <loes notdefine the major variables, she
provides specifíc measures of the variables in the research questions.
98 Reséarch Design

------··------·----- --- -----·· ·-------------·~--

Example 5.6 A Purpose Statement in a Oíssertatíon
Survey Study
DeGraw (1984) completed a doctoral dissertation in the field of educa-
tion on the topic of educators working in adult correctional institutions.
Under a section titled "Statement of the Problem," he advanced the
purpose of the study.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship. betweónr /

personal characteristics and the job motívatíon of certlñed
educators who taught in selected state adult correcttonol ,fnstltu-
tions in the United States. Personal characteristics were divided
into background information about the respondent (i.e., institu-
tional information, education level, prior training, etc.) and infor-
mation about the respondents' thoughts of changing jobs. The
examination of background information was important to this
study because !t was hoped it would be possible to !dentify chor-
acteristics and factors contributing to significant differences in
mobility and motivation. The second part of the study asked the
respondents to identify those motivational factors of concern to
them. Job motivation was defined by six general factors identified
in the educational work components study (EWCS) questionnaire
(Miskel & Heller, 1973). These six factors are: potential for personal
challenge and development; competitiveness; desirability and
reward of success; tolerance for work pressures; conservotlve
security; and willingness to seek reward in splte of uncertainty vs.
avoidance. (DeGraw, 1984, pp. 4, 5)
---------~---·--·----------·--·--·-------·---

This statement included severa} components of a good purpose state-

ment. It was presented in a sepárate section, it used the word "relatíon-
shíp," terms were defined, and the populatíon was mentioned. Further,
from the order of the variables in the statement, one can clearly ídentííy
the independent variable and the dependent variable.

Example 5.7 A Purpose Statement in an

Experimental Study
Booth-Kewley, Edwards, and Rosenfeld (1992) undertook a study com-
paríng the social desirability of responding to a computer version of an
attitude and personalíty questionnaire to the desirability of complcting
'a pencíl-and-paper version. They repJicated a study completed on college
 The Purpose Statement 99

• ·,

•• ~ students that used an inventory, called "Balanced Inventory of Desirable

'(: · Responding" (BIDR).composcd of two scalcs. impression management
.'¡
;·,
(IM) and self-deception (SD). In the final paragraph of the introduction,

••
·-
e- they advance the purpose of the study.
'

i
t' 0N)e desi_gned the present study to compare the responsesof Navy

•
recruitson the IM and SD scales, collected under three conditions-
with paper-and-pencil, on a computer with backtracking allowed,
t and on a computer with no backtracking allowed. Approximately

•• half of the recruits answered the questionnaire anonymous!y and

the other half · identified themselves. (Booth-Kewley et al., 1992,
p. 563)

•
t
This statement also reílected many properties of a good purpose
statement. Thc statement was separated from other ideas in the intro-

•
duction as a separa te paragraph, it mentioned that a comparison would
be made, and it identified the participants in the experiment (i.e.. the

• unit of analysis). In terms of the order of the variables, the authors

••
advanced them with the dependent variable Iírst, contrary to my sug-
gestion (stíll, the groups are clearly ídentíñed). Although the theory-
base is not mentíoned, the paragraphs precedíng the purpose statemen t

•
reviewed the findings of prior theory. The authors also do not tell us
about the strategy of inquiry, but other passages, especially those
related to procedures, discuss the study asan experíment.
t
•
~ A MIXED METHODS PURPOSE STATEMENT

•
t
.
A mixed methods proposal or study needs to convcy both quantitative
'

and qualitative purpose statements. These statements need to be identi-

~ fied early in the study in an introduction, and they provide a major sign-
t post for the reader to understand the quantitative and qualitatíve parts
of a study. Severa} guidelines might direct the organízatíon and presen-
t tation of the mixed methods purpose statement:
...
l • Begin with signaling words, such as "The purpose of" or "The
intent of." _-

'•,,
.
e Indicare the type of mixed methods desígn, such as sequential, con-
current, or transformational.
t
j The Purpose Statement 99

'• students that used an invcntory, called "Balanced Inventory of Desírable

· Responding" (BIDR), composed of two scales. ímpression management

•
.

(IM) and self-deception (SD). In thc final paragraph of the introduction,

••
}
•.' they advance the purpose of the study.
'\"'

1
} 0N)e desíqned the present study to compare the responsesof Navy

•
recruits on the IM and SD se oles, collected under three conditions-
(
wlth paper-and-pencll, on a computer with backtracking allowed,

'•
and on a computer with no backtracking allowed. Approximately
half of the recruits answered the questionnaire anonymously and
the other half · ldenttñed themselves. (Booth-Kewley et ol.. 1992,
1 p. 563)

•• ------···..··--------

.
•.:.-
Thís statement also reflected many properties of a good purpose
statement, Thc statement was separated from other ideas in the íntro-

•
ductíon as a separa te paragraph, it mentioned that a comparison would
be made, and it identified the participants in the experiment (í.e., the

• unit of analysis). In terms of the arder of the variables, the authors

•
advanced them with the dependent variable ñrst, contrary to my sug-
gestion (still, the groups are clearly identified). Although the theory-

•• base is not mentioned, thc paragraphs preceding the purpose statement

revíewed the findings of prior theory. The authors also do not tell us
about the strategy of inquiry, but other passages, especíally those

•• related to procedures, discuss the study asan experimcnt.

•
.

A MIXED METHODS PURPOSE STATEMENT

• .

••
.
A mixed methods proposal or study needs to convey both quantitative
and qualitative purpose statements. These statements need to be ídentí-
fied early in the study in an Introductíon, and they províde a major sign-

• post for the reader to understand the quantítative and qualítatíve parts

••
of a study. Several guidelines might direct the organization and presen-
tation of the míxed methods purpose statement:

ti,
• O Begin with signaling words, such as "The purpose of" or "The
intent of."

.i.,
.

e Indicate the type of mixed methods desígn, such as sequentíal, con-

current, or transformatíonal.
100 Research Design

• Díscuss a rationale for combíning both quantitative and qualitative

data in the proposed study. This rationale could be

to better understand a researeh problem by converging ( or tri-

angulating) both broad numeric trends from quantitative
research and the detail of qualitative research;

to explore participant views with the intent of using these views to

develop and testan instrument wíth a sample Irom a populatíon:
,·.
to obtain statistical, quantitativeresults from a sample and then
follow up with a few individuals to probe or explore thoseresults
in more depth;

to best convey the needs of a marginalízed group or individuals.

• Includc the characteristics of a good qualitative purpose statement,

· such as focusing on a single phenomenon, using action words and
nondirectional language, mentioning the strategy of ínquíry, and
identifying the participants and the research site

• lnclude the characteristics of a good quantitative purpose state-

ment, such as identifying a theory and the variables, relating vari-
ables or comparing groups in terms of variables. placing these
variables in order from independent to dependent, mentíoníng the
strategy of ínquíry and specifying the participants and research site
for the research

• Consíder adding information about the specífíc types of both qualí-

tative and quantitative data collection

Based on these elements, three mixed methods purpose statement

"scripts" are as follows. The first two are sequentíal studíes, and the
1
third is a concurrent study 1

\i
The purpose of this two-phase, sequential míxed methods study i
i
will be to explore participant views with the intent of using this
information to develop and test an instrument with a sample from
a population. The first phase will be a qualitative exploration of a
_____ (central phenomenon) bycolíectmg _
(data) írom (participants) at (research
site). 'I'hemes from this qualítatíve datawill then be developed into
an instrument so that (theory, research questíons, or
hypotheses) can be tested that (relate, compare)
'
¡, The Purpose Statement 101

•
•.
(índependent variable) with _
(dependent variable) for (sample of population) at
---~ (research site).

• The purpose of this two-phase, sequential míxed methods study

• will be to obtain statístícal. quantítative results from a sample and

•
then follow up with a few índividuals to probe or explore those
results in more depth. In the first phase. quantitative research

"•
questions or hypotheses will address the relationship
or comparison of (independent) and ---~-
( dependent) variables with (participants) at

• ______ (the research site). In the second phase, qualita-

•
tíve interviews or observations will be used to probe significant
_______ (quantitative results) by exploring aspects of

• the , (central phenomenon) with _

•• (a few participants) at (research síte) .

The purpose of this concurrent mixed methods study is to better

• understand a research problem by converging both quantitative

••
(broad numeric trends) and qualitative (detaíled views) data. In
the study, ( quantitative instruments) will be u sed to
measure the relationship between (independent

••
variable) and (dependent variable). At the same
time, the (central phenomenon) will be explored
using (qualitative interviews or observations)

••
with (participants) at (the
research síte) .

• Example 5.8 A Mixed Methods Purpose Statement,

•• Convergent Strategy of lnquiry

Hossler and Vesper (1993) studied student and parent attitudes toward

•
parental savings for the postsecondary education of their children. In
this 3-year study, they identified the factors most strongly assocíated

•• with parental savings and collected both quantitative and qualitative

data. Their purpose statement was as follows. ·

• In an effort to shed light on parental saving, this article examines

••
parental saving behaviors. Using student and porerrt.doto from a
longitudinal study employing rnultiple survevs over a three-veor

., period, logistic regresslon was used to identify the factors rnost

strongly associated with parental savings for postsecondary
 l 02 Research Design

education. In addition, lnslghts gained from the interviews of a

small subsample of students and parents who were interviewed
five times during the three-year period are used to further examine
parental savings.(Hossler& Vesper, 1993, p. 141)
----~---~-----·~-·---------------·-,·-~··--·-

This section was contained under the heading "Purpose," an<l it índí-
cated that both quantitative data (í.e., surveys) and qualitative data (í.e.,
interviews) were included in the study. Both forros of data were collected
during the 3-year period, and the authors might have ídentíñed their
study as a triangulation or convergence design. Although the ratíonale
for the study is not includcd in thís passage, it is articulated la ter, in the
methods discussion about "Surveys and Intervíews." Here we find that
"the interviews were also used to explore variables under investigation
in greater detaíl and triangulate findings using quantitative and quall-
tative data" (Hossler & Vesper, 19 9 3, p. 146).

Example 5. 9 A Mixed Methods Purpose Statement,

Sequential Strategy of Jnquiry
Ansorge, Creswell, Swidler, and Gutmann (2001) studied the use of
wircless iBook laptop computers in three teacher education methods
courses. These laptop computers enabled students to work at their desks
and use a laptop to log directly onto Web sites recommended by the
instructors. The purpose statement was as follows.

The purpose of this sequential, mixed methods study was to first

explore and generate themes about student use of IBook laptops
in three teacher educotíon classes using field observations and
face-to-face interviews. Then, based on these themes, the second
phase was to develop an instrument and to survey students about
the laptop use on several dimensions. The rationale for using both
qualitative and quantitative data was that a useful. survey of
student experience could best be developed only after a prelimi-
nary exploration of student use.

In this example, the statement begins with the sígnal words "the
purpose of." It then mentions the type of mixed methods design and con-
tains the basic elenients of both an ínítíal qualitative phase and a
follow-up quantitative phase. It includes inforrnation about both the qual-
itatíve data and the quantitative data collection and ends with a rationale
for the incorporation of the two forms of data in a sequential design.
ii ..
 The Purpose Stotement l 03

This chapter emphasizes the importance of a purpose statement in a

scholarly study. This statement advances the central idea in a study, and
as such it is the most important statement in a research proposal or study.
In writing a qualitative purpose statcment, a researcher needs to ídentífy
a single central phenomenon and to pose a tentative definition for ít,
Also, the rescarchcr employs actíon words such as "díscover," "develop,"
or "understand." In the process, nondirectional language is used, and
the ínquírermentíons the strategy of inquiry, the participants, and the
research site for the study. In a quantitative purpose statement, the
researcher mentíons the theory being tested as well as the variables and
their relatíonshíp or comparison. It is important to position the indepen-
dent variable first and the dependent variable second. The researcher
mentions the strategy of ínquiry as well as the participants and the
research site for thc investigation. In sorne purpose statements, the
researcher also defines the key variables used in the study. In a mixed
methods study, the type of strategy is mentíoned as well as a rationale for
the type of strategy, such as whether the data are collected concurrently
or sequentially. Further, many elements of both good qualitative and
quantitative purpose statements are included in the statement.

------- -----------·----·---~

1. Using the "scrípt'' for a qualitative purpose statement,

write the statement by completing the blanks. Make thís
statement short: write no more than approximately
three-quarters of a typed page.
2. Usíng the "scrípt" for a quantitative purpose statement,
write the statement. Also make this statement short, no
longer than three-quarters of a typed page.
3. Usíng the "scrípt" for a mixed methods purpose state-
ment, write a purpose statement. Be sure to include the
rationale for mixing quantitative and qualitative data,
and íncorporatc the elements of both a good qualitative
anda good quantitative purpose statement.
 .. '"•,,·,~·. ') . t., ','."·.· ... :-..:,:' ,!k :,, ' ... '· •... "

l 04 Research Design

ADDITIONAL READINGS
CrcsweJI, J. W. (2002). Educational research: Planninq, conduct-
ing, and evaluatinq quantitative and qualitative research, Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Pearson.

In thís methods text, I devote a section of one chapter to the topic

of writing a purpose statement. The t:ext includes a "scrípt" for
both quantitative and qualitative purpose statements. Por identify-
ing types of quantitative variables, the discussion provi,cJ~s a
conceptual framework called the "Iarníly" of variables. Thé · book
provídes severa! examples of both quantitative and qualítatíve
purpose statements from the literature of education.

Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (1999). Desi9nin9 qualitatise

, researcñ (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Catherine Marshall and Gretchen Rossman call attention to the
major intent of the study, the "purpose of the study." This section
. is generally embedded in the discussion of the topic, and it is
mentioned in a sentence or two. It tells the reader what the results
of the research are likely to accomplish. The authors characterize
purposes as exploratory, explanatory, descriptlve, and emanicípa-
tory. They also mention that the purpose statement includes the
unit of analysis (e.g., indívíduals, dyads, or groups).

Wilkinson, A. M. (1991). The scientist's handbook for writing

papers and dissertatio11s.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Antoinette Wilkinson calls the purpose staternent the "ímmedíate
obiectíve" of the research study. She states that the purpose of the
"objective" is to answer the research question. Further, the "objec-
tíve" of the study needs to be presented in the introduction to a
study, although ít rnay be implicitly statcd as the subject of the
research, the paper, or the method. lf stated explicitly, the "objec-
tive" is found at the end of the argument in thc introduction; it
might also be found near the beginning or in the middle, depend-
ing on the structure of the introduction.
 ••
•• ~ CHAPTER SIX
•• ·----- ------·---~-

•• Research Questions
•• and Hypotheses
••
•• I nvestigators place slgnposts in their research to carry the reader
through a plan ior a study. The first signpost is the purpose state-
. rnent, which establishesthe central direction for the study. From the

••
broad, general purpose statement the researcher norrows the focus
to specific questions to be answered or predictions (i.e., hypotheses)
to be tested. This chapter · addresses the second signpost-the
research questions, or hypotheses-in a proposal. The discussion

•• begins by advancing several principies involved in designing quollto-

tive research questions; quantitative research questions, objectives,
and hypotheses; and finally, mixed methods research questions .

•
•• QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS

•• In a qualítatívestudy; inquirers state research questions, not objectives

(í.e., specífíc goals for the research) or hypotheses (í.e., predictions that
involve variables and statistical tests). These research questions assume

•• two forms: a central question and associated subquestions .

The central question is a statement of the question being examined
in the study in its most general form. The inquirer poses this question,

•• consistent with the emerging methodology of qualitative research, as a

general issue so as to not limit the ínquiry, One might ask "What is the
broadest · question that can be asked in the study?" Beginning

•• researchers traíned in quantiiative research míght struggle with this

approach because they are accustomed to the reverse logre: identifying

••
specific questions or hypotheses. The following are guídelínes for writing
broad, qualitative research questíons:

• 105
l 06 Research Design

e I recommend that a researcher ask one or two central questíons

followed by no more than five to seven subquestions. Several sub-
questions follow each general central question, and the subques-:
tions narrow the focus of the study but leave open the questioning.
This approach is well within the limits set by Miles and Huberman
(1994), who recommend that researchers write no more than a
dozen research questíons in ali. 'I'hese questions, in turn, becomc
topics specifically explored in interviews, observations, and docu-
ments and archival material. Por example, they might be used as
key questions the researcher will ask himself or herselí in the
observational procedure or during an open-ended interview.

e Relate the central question to the specific qualitatíve strategy of

ínquíry For cxample, the specíflcity of the questions in ethnography
at this stage of the design differs from that in other qualitative strate-
gies. In ethnographic research, Spradley (1980) advanced a taxón-
omy of ethnographic questions that included mini-tour, experience,
natíve-language, contrast, and verification questíons, Similarly, in
critical ethnography, the research questions may build on a body of
existing literature. Thcsc questions become "working guidelines"
rather than "truths" to be proven (Thomas, 1993, p. 35). Alterna-
tively, in phenomenology, the questions might be broadly stated
without specífíc reference to the exístíng Jiterature ora typology of
questíons. An example is "What is it like for a mother to live with a
teenagechild who is dying of cancer?" (Nieswiadomy, 1993, p. 151).
In grounded theory, the questions may be related to procedures in the
data analysis such as open coding ("What are the categories to
emerge from interactions between caregivers and patients?") or axial
codíng ("How <loes caregiving relate to actions by nurses?").

e Begín the research questions with the words "what" or "how" to

convey an open and emerging desígn. "Why" suggests cause and
effect, an approach consistent with quantítative research.

O Focus on a single phenomenon or concept.

• Use exploratory verbs that convey the Janguage of emerging design

of research. Thcse verbs tell the reader that the study will

Discover ( e.g., grounded theory)

Seek to understand (e.g., ethnography)
Explore a process (e.g., case study)
1
p Research Questions and Hypotheses l 07

•
••
- Describe the experiences (e.g., phenomenology)
- Report the stories (e.g., narratíve research)

••
• Use nondirectional language. Delete words that suggest or ínfer a
quantitative study, words with a directional orientation such · as
"affect," "influence," "ímpact," "determine," "cause," and "relate."

•• • Expect the research questions to evolve and to change during the

study in a manner consistent with the assumptions of an emergíng

•
design. Often in qualitative studies, the questions are under contin-
ua! r~view and reformulation (as in a grounded theory study). This

•• approach may be problematic for índívíduals accustomed to quanii-

tative desígns, in which the research questions remain fixed
throughout the study.

•• e Use open-ended questions without reference to the literature or

theory unless otherwise indicated by a qualitative strategy of inquiry.

• • If the information is not redundant with the purpose statement,

•
specify the participants and the research síte for the study.

•
The following are examples of qualitative research questions drawing
on severa! types of strategies.

•
• Example 6.1 A Qualítative Central Questíon

•• From an Ethnography
Finders ( 19 9 6) used ethnographic procedures to document the reading

••
of teen magazines by míddle-class Euro-American seventh-grade girls .
By examining the reading of teen zines (magazínes), the researcher
could explore how the gírls perceive and construct their social roles and

••
relatíonshíps as they cnter junior high school. She asked one guídíng
central question in her study:

••
How do early adolescent females read literature that falls outside
the realm of flction? (Finders, 1996, p. 72)

•• This central question begins with "how": it uses an open-ended verb,

"read": it focuses on a single concept.the "líterature" or teen magazines;

•• and it mentíons the particípants, adolescent females, in the study. Notice

how the author crafted a concíse, single question that needed to be
answered in the study .

•
l 08 Research Design
·-·--·--·-----··-·-·------·-----------·---~····----------------------, ...... " ~----------·-···---------·-
Example 6.2 Central Questións From a Case Study
Padula and Miller (1999) conducted a multíple case study that
descríbed the experiences of women who went back to school. after a
time away, in a psychology doctoral program at a major Midwestcrn
research university. The intent was to document the women's experi-
ences, with those experiences íntended as aíds for feminists and feminist
researchers. The authors asked three central questíons that guided t_~e
inquiry. r ,;

·'

(a) How do women in a psychology doctoral program describe

their decision to return to school? (b) How do women in a psy-
chology doctoral program describe their reentry experiences?
And (e) How does returning to graduate school change these
women's lives? (Padula & Miller, 1999, p. 328)

These three central questions ali begin with the words "how," they
include open-ended verbs such as "describe," and they focus on three
arcas of the doctoral experience-returning to school, reentering, and
changing. They also mention the participants as women in a single
doctoral program at. a Mídwestern research university.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

In quantítatíve studies, investigators use rescarch questions and

hypotheses to shape and specilícally focus the purposc of the study.
Research guestions are interrogative statements or questions that the
ínvestígator seeks to answer. They are used frequently in social science
rcsearch and especially in survey studies. Hypotheses, on the other
hand, are predictions the researcher holds about the relationship
among variables. They are numeríc estímates of population values
based on data collected írom samples. Testing of hypotheses employs
statistical procedures in which the investigator draws inferences about
the population from a study sample. Hypotheses typically are used in
experiments ín which investigators compare groups. Advísers often
recommend their use in a formal research project, such as a dissertatíon
 Research Questions and Hypotheses l 09

"• or thests, as a rneans of stating the dírectíon a study will take. Objectives,

••
on the other hand, indicate the goals or objectives for a study. They are

..
used infrequently in social scíence rcsearch. As such, the focus here will
be on research questions and hypotheses .
Guidelines for writing good quantítative research questions and
hypotheses include the following.

•• O The use of variables in research questions or hypotheses is typically

limited to three basíc approaches. The researcher may compare

•• groups on an independcnt variable to see its impact on a dependent

variable. Alternativély, the investigator may relate one or more índe-
pendent variables to a dependent variable. Third, the researcher

•• may describe responses to the independent, mediating, or dcpendent

..•
variables .

• 'I'he most rigorous form of quantitative research follows from a test

of a theory (see Chapter 7) and the specification of research ques-
tions or hypotheses that are included in the theory .

• • The independent and dependcnt variables must be measured sepa-

•• rately. This procedure reíníorcesthe cause and effect logic of quan-

..•
títatíve research .

• To eliminate redundancy, write only research questions or hypo-

theses, not both, unless the hypotheses build on the research
questions (as discussed below). Choose thc form based on traditíon.

••
recommendations from an adviser or faculty committee, or whether
past research indicates a prediction about outcomes.
• If hypotheses are used, there are two forms: null and alternative. A

• nuil hypothesís represents the traditional approach to writing

••
hypotheses. It makes a predíction that in the general population, no
relationship or no difference exists between groups on a variable.
The wording is "There is no difference (or relatíonshíp)" between

•..
the groups. The following example illustrates a null hypothesis .

..• Example 6.3 A Null Hypothesis

An investigator might examine three types of reinforcement for children

••
with autism: verbal cues, a reward, and no reinforcement. Then the
ínvestígator collects behavioral measures assessing social interaction of
the children with their síblings. A null hypothesis might read:

• j
llO Research Design

There is no signiticont difference between the effects of verbal

cues, rewards, and no reinforcement in terms of social interaction
for children with autism and their siblings.
·-·~--···-·---·---·--··--·----·········.-, -~-,,- , ______ - ~----------- --···-~·~---·--- -·-··-·--

~ The second form of hypothcsís. popular in journal articles, is the

altemative hypothesis. The ínvestigator makes a predictlon about the
expected outcome for the populatíon of the study. This predíctíon
often comes from prior literature and studies on the tapie that suggest
a potential outcome that the researcher may expect. For example, the
researcher may predíct that "Seores will be higher for Croup A than
for Group B" on the dependent variable or that: "Group A will change
more than Group B" on the outcome. These examples illustrate a
directional hypothesis, becausc an expected prediction (e.g., higher,
change more) is made. Another type of alternative hypothesis is
nondirectional-a predictíon is made, but the exact form of díflerences
(e.g., higher, lower, more, or less) is not specífied because the
researcher does not know what can be predicted from past líterature.
'I'hus, the investigator might write, "There is a dífference" bctween
the two groups. The following illustrates a dírectíonal hypothesis.

-------··--···- ---··-.. -~-------··-----------------~--~--·-·---

Example 6.4 Directional Hypotheses

Mascarenhas (1989) studied the diíferences betwecn type of ownership
(state-owned, publicly traded, and prívate) of ñrrns in the offshore
dríllíng índustry Specífically, thc study explored such diff crences as
domestíc market domínance, internatíonal presence, and customer
orientation. The study was a "controlled field study" using quasi-
experimental procedures.

Hypothesis l: Publicly traded firms will have hlgher growth rotes

than privately held firms.
Hypothesis 2: Publicly traded enterprises will have a larger
international scope than state-owned and privately held firms.
Hypothesis 3: State-owned firms will hove a greater share of the
domestic market thon publicly traded or privately held firms.
Hypothesis 4: Publicly troded firms will hove broader product
Unes than state-owned and privately held firms.
Hypothesis 5: State-owned firms are more likely to hove stote-
owned enterprises as customers overseas.
 Research Questions and Hypotheses 111

•• Hypothesis 6: State-owned tirms will hove a higher customer-

base stability than privately held fírms.

•• Hypothesis 7: In less visible contexts, publícly traded firms wlU

employ more advanced technology than state-owned and

•
privately held firms. (Mascarenhas, 1989, pp. 585-588)

••
•
Example 6.5 Nondirectíonaf and Directional Hypotheses

••
Sometimes directíonal hypotheses are created to examine the relatíon-
ship among variables rather than to compare groups. For example,
Moore (2000) studied the meaning of gender identity for religious and

•..
secular Jcwish and Arab women in Israelí society. In a national proba-
bílity sample of Jewish and Arab women, the author identified three
hypotheses for study. The first hypothesis is nondirectional and the last

•• two are directional.

..• H1: Gender identity of religious and secular Arab and Jewish
women are related to different sociopolitical social orders that
reflect the different value systems they embrace .
H2: Religious women with salient gender identity are less socio-

•• politically active than secular women with salient gender

....
identities .
H3: The relationships among gender identity, religlosíty, and
social actions are weaker among Arab women than among
Jewish women .

•
---------·----·· ... -·-·---·-·------- ---

•• • Unless the study íntentíonally ernploys demographíc variables as

predictors, use nondemographic variables (í.e., measuring altitudes

••
or behaviors) rather than personal demographics as índependent
variables. Because quantitative studies attempt to verify a theory,
demographic variables (e.g., age, íncome level, educational lcvel,

••
and so forth) typically enter these models as intervening or control
· variables instead of major independent variables .

••
O Use the same pattern of word order in the questions or hypotheses
to enable a reader to easily ídentífy the majar variables. This calls .
for repeating key phrases and positíoníng the variables beginning

•
with the independent and concluding with the dependent variables
(as also discussed in Chapter 5 on good purpose statements). An
112 Research Design

example of word order with independent variables stated first in the

phrase follows ..
/

----------·------··---·--~--- ............... ,- ......... _, .. . ~_ ~.---

...............

Example 6.6 Standard Use of Longuage in Hypotheses

l . There is no relationship between utilization of ancillary sup-
port services and academic persistence for non-traditional
women college students.

2. There is no relationship between family support systems

and academic persistence for non-traditlonal óged
college women.

3. There is no relationship between ancillary support sorvlces

and family support systems for non-traditional college
women.
--------------·----

A Model for Descriptive Questions and Hypotheses

Consider a model for writing questions or hypothcses based on writ-
ing descriptive questions that are followed by ínfcrential questions or
hypotheses. These questions or hypotheses include both independent
and dependent variables. In thís model, the writer specífíes descriptive
questions for each independent and dependent variable (and important
control or intervening variables) in the study. Inferential questions
(or hypotheses) that relate variables or compare groups follow these
descriptive questions. A final set of questíons, then, may add ínferential
questions or hypotheses in which variables are controlled.

Example 6. 7 Descrlptive and fnferential Questions

To illustrate this approach, assume that a researcher wants to examine
the relationship of critical thinking skills ( an independent variable mea-
sured on an instrument) to studentachíevement (a dependent variable
measured by grades) in science classes for eighth-grade students in a
Iarge metropolitan school district. Further, this rescarcher controls for
the intervening effects of prior grades in scíence classes and parents'
educational attainment. Following the model proposed above, the
research questions might be written as follows: .
•
• Research Questions and Hypotheses 113

•
•
Descriptive Questions

1. How do the students rote on critica! thinking skills? (A

t
•
descriptive question tocused on the independent variable)
2. What are the students achievement levels (or grades) in
science classes? (A descriptive question focused on the
1
dependent variable)
t 3. What are the student's prior grades in science classes?(A
descriptive question focused on the control variable of.
t

•
prior grades)
4. What. is the educational attainment of the parents of the

'
eighth-graders?(A descriptive question focused on another
control variable, educational attainment of parents)
11)

1 lnferential Questions

•• 5. Does critica! thinking abili1y relate to student achieve-

ment? (An inferential question relating the independent

•
and the dependent variables)
6. Does crítlcoí thinking obility relate to student achievement,
controlling for the effects of prior grades in sclence and the
t
educational attainment of the eighth-graders' parents?
t

•
(An inferential question relating the independent and the
dependent variables, controlling for the eff ects of the two
controlled variables)

'•
t
• This example íllustrates how to organize all the research questions
into descriptive and ínferential questions. In another example, · a
researcher may want to compare groups, and the language may change
1 to reflect this comparíson in the inferential questions. In other studíes,
many more independent and dependent variables may be present in the
t model beíng.tested, anda longer list of descriptive and inferentíal ques-
1 tions would result, I would recommend this descliptive-inferential model.
This example also illustrates the use of variables to describe as well as
t

••
relate. It specifies the índependent variables in the first position in the
questions, the dependent in the second, and the control variables in the
third position. It employs demographics as controls rather than central
variables in the questíons, and a reader needs to assurne that the ques-
tions flow from a theoretical model.
1 1
: l . --
 ···.·.·.--:~., · ·<·.·· .. ·.,;!:,,·1::'"(:•··.·.•.···

114 Research Design

MIXED METHODS RESEARCH

QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Mixed methods research presents challenges in writing research ques-

tions (or hypotheses) because so little of the literature has addressed this
design step (Creswell, 1999). Authors prefer to make purpose state-
mcnts rather than specify their research questions. Thus, there is a dís-
tinct lack of models on whích to base guídelines for writing research
questions into mixed methods studies. By examining a number ó'tthese ¡1·,

studies, however, it is possible to ídentííy sorne characterístícs that rníght

guide the design of the questions.

• Mixed methods studies need to have both qualitative and quantita-

tive research questíons (or hypotheses) included in the studíes to
narrow and focus the purpose statements.

e These questions and hypotheses need to incorpora te the elements of

good questions and hypotheses already addressed in the quantita-
tive and qualitative approaches.

• In a two-phase, sequential project in which the second phase elabo-

rates on the first phase, it is difficult to specify the second-phase
questions in a proposal or plan. After the study is completed, the
researcher can state the questions of both phases in the final report.
In a síngle-phase project, it is possible to identify the qualitative and
quantitative research questions in the proposaJ because one set of
questíons is not contíngent on the other set of questions.

o Sorne attention should be given to the order of the research ques-

_tions and hypotheses. In a two-phase project, the order would
consist of the fírst-phase questions followed by the second-phase
questions so that readers see them in the order in which they will be
addressed in the proposed study. In a single-phase strategy of
inquíry; the questions might be ordered accordíng to the method
that is given the most weight in the design.

• A variation often seen in sequential míxed methods studies is

to introduce the questions at the beginning of each phase. For
exarnple, assume that the study begins with a quantitative phase.
The investigator míght introduce hypotheses. Later in thc study,
•
• Research Questions and Hypotheses l 15

•
f
when the qualitative phase is addressed, the qualitative rescarch
questíons appear.

•t Example 6.8 Hypotheses and Reseorch Questíons

In a Míxed Methods Study

• Houtz (1 ~95) providcs an examplc of a two-phase study with the

•
research hypotheses and questions stated in sectíons íntroducing each
phase. Her study investígated the dífferences between míddle-school

•• (nontraditional) and junior high (traditional) instructlonal strategíes

for seventh- and eíghth-grade students and their attitudes toward
science and their sciencc achicvement. In thís two-phase study, the first
phase involved assessíng pre- and posttest attitudes and achievcment
t
using scales and examination seores. Houtz then followed the quantita-
t tíve results with qualitative interviews with science teachers, the school
t principal. and consultants. This second phase helped to explaín differ-

•t
ences and similarities in the two instructional approaches obtained in
the first phase.
With a Iírst-phase quantitative study, Houtz mentioncd the hypo-
theses guiding her research:
t
lt Jt was hypothesized that there would be no significant difference
between students in the middle school and those in the junior high
t
••
in ottllude toward science as a school subject. lt was also hypo-
thesized that there would be no significant difference between
students in the middle school and those in the junior high in
achievement in science. (Houtz. 1995, p. 630)
t
These hypotheses appeared at the beginníng of the study as an introduc-
t tion to the quantitative phase of the study Prior to the qualitative phase,
t Houtz raised questions to explore the quantitative results. Focusíng in on
the achievement test results, Houtz interviewed science teachers, the
t
••
principal. and the uníversíty consultants and askcd three questions:

What differences currently exlst between the middle school

instructional strategy and the junior high instructlonal strategy ot
f) this school in transition? How has this transition period ímpacted
science attitude and achievement of your students? How do
t
•t
teachers f~el about this change process? (Houtz, 1995, p. 649)

~..
- ....
116 Research Design

Examining thts mixed methods study shows that the author included
both quantítative and qualitatíve questíons, speciíícd thcm at the begín-
ning of each phase of her study, and used good elements for writing .1

both quantitatíve hypotheses and qualitative rescarch questions.

Research questions and hypotheses narrow the purpose statement and

become major signposts for readers of research. Qualitative researchers
ask at least one central question and several subquestions. They begin
the questions with words such as "how" or "what" ancl use exploratory
verbs, such as "explore" or "describe." They pose broad, general ques-
tions to allow the participants to explain their ideas. They also focus
initially on one central phenomenon of intcrest. The questions may
mention the participants and thc site for the research.
Quantitativc researchers write either research questíons or hypo-
theses. These questíons or hypothcses include variables that are described,
related, categorizcd into groups for comparison, and measured separately
for the independent and dependent variables. In many quantitative pro-
posals, writers use research questions; however, a more formal st.atement
of research employs hypotheses. Thesc hypotheses are predict.ions about
the outcomes of the results, and tbcy may be written as alternative
hypotheses specifying the exact results to be expected (more or less, higher
or lower of something). They also may be stated in the null form, índicat-
ing no difference orno relationship between groups on a dependent vari-
able. Typically in questions and hypotheses, the researcher writes the
independent variable(s) fírst, followed by the dependent variable(s). One
model for ordering ali the questions in a quantítatíve proposal is to begin
with descriptivc questions, followed by the inferential questions that relate
variables or compare groups.
Míxed methods research questíons should address both the qualítatíve
and the quantitative components in a study. In a proposal, it is difficult to
be specífíc about the second-phase questions when these questions will
build or elaborate on the Iírst-phase questíons. Typically, if both qualita-
tive and quantitative questíons are introduced in a study, their order of
sequence in the study suggests their priority in the study. Also, the weight
given to the qualitative and quantitative phases will díctate the order of
thequestions. Finally, one model found in mixed methods studies ínvolves
writing the research questíons asan íntroductíon to each phase in the
study rather than prescntlng them ali at the beginning of thestudy
 Research Questions and Hypotheses 11 7

Wriwtj txerdse:
·¡(; 1 Por a qualitative study, write one or two central questions
followed by five to seven subquestions.
~}j
lf 2. Por a quantitative study, write two sets of questions. The
J\.,': first set should be descriptive questions about the inde- /
'·
·t pendent and dependent variables in the study. The second
~:
'('·
set should pose questions that relate ( or compare) the
v-
--f.
;
independent variable(s) with the dependent variable(s).
Thís follows the model presented in this chapter for
., combining descriptive and inferential questions .
1

3. Write research questions for a two-phase, sequential

mixed methods project. Include the elements of good ques-
tions in both the qualítativé and quantitative questions.
4. Return to the working draft of your title. Retitle your
study to reílect a qualitative or quantitatíve approach to /
/
/
the study. To write a qualitative title, consider the sugges- I
tions in Chapter 2 and be sure to include the central phe-
nomenon. Use a literary style such as a question. To
write a. quantitative title, include the major independent
and dependent variables and separate them with the
conjunction "and." Order the variables from indepen-
dent to dependent so that they are consistent with the
purpose statement and research questíons/hypotheses.

ADDITIONAL. READINGS
Creswell, J. W. (1999). Mixed-method research: Introductíon /
and application. In G. J. Cizek (Ed.), Handbool< of educational .
policy (pp. ·455-472). San Diego: Academic Press. /
In thís chapter, J discuss the níne steps in con~~
methods study. These are as follows:

1. determine if a mixed methods study is needed to study the

problem;

·-· .... , -··· ··-·- - .. _ .

118 Research Design

2. consider whether a míxed metho<ls study is Ieasible: --~"'"'····--

3. write both qualitative aud quantitalivc research quesyfonsf --- ,-----·-- ·-·· · ¡

4. review and decide onu1e types of data colleelion; ( /' --

5. assess the relatíve weight and írnplementatíon stratégy /or cach
method; \ )
/ ...\

6. prcsent a visual model; ///, )

7. determine how thc data will be ,;:.ed;/_.,, .)
8. assess the criteria for evalu,híg the study; and
9. develop a plan for the study J
. ( . !
In writing the research questíons, I recommend develogi6g both qualí-
tatíve and quantítatíve questíonsxand stating within.the questions the
type of qualitatíve strategy of ínquíry beíngusedr:"
Morse, J. M. (I 994). Dcsigning funded qualítatíve research. In
N. K. Dcnzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Ha11dbook oJ qualitative
researcii (pp. 220-235). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sagc.
Janice Morse, a nursing researcher, identíñes and describes the
major design issues involved in the planning of a qualítatíve pro-
ject. She compares severa} strategies of ínquíry and maps the type
of research questíons used in each strategy. For phenomcnology
and ethnography, the research calls for meaning and descriptive
questions. For grounded theory, the questions need to address
"process'' qucstions, whereas in ethnomethodology and discourse
analysís, the questions relate to verbal interactíon and dialogue.
She lndicates that the wording of the research questíon deter-
mines the focus and scope of the study.

Tuckman, B. W. (1999). Conductiny educational research (5th

ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publíshers,
Bruce Tuckman provídes an entire chapter on constructíng
hypotheses. He identifies the origín of hypotheses in deductíve
theoretical positions and in inductive observations. He further
defines and illustrates both alternatíve and null hypotheses and
takes the reader through the hypothesís testing procedure.