Cour

se:Pol
it
ica
lPa
rti
esa
ndPr
ess
ureGr
oupsi
nPa
kis
tan(
545)
Le
vel
:M.
Sc. Se
mes
ter
:Aut
umn,
2022

ASSI
GNMENTNo.1

Q.
1 pol
it
ica
lpa
rtyi
stheba
sicc
ompone
ntofde
moc
rac
ywi
thr
efe
renc
etot
hisdi
scu
sst
he
obj
ect
ive
soff
orma
tionofpol
it
ica
lpa
rti
es.Expl
aint
hef
unc
tionsofpol
it
ica
lpa
rti
esa
nd
a
lsod
isc
usst
hede
moc
rac
ywi
thi
npol
it
ica
lpa
rty
.

Apol
it
ica
lpa
rtyi
sde
fine
dasa
nor
gani
sedgr
oupofpe
opl
ewi
tha
tle
astr
oughl
ysi
mil
arp
oli
ti
cal
a
imsa
ndopi
nions
,tha
tse
ekst
oinf
lue
ncepubl
icpol
icybyge
tt
ingi
tsc
andi
dat
ese
lec
tedt
opubl
ic
of
fi
ce.

Pa
rti
est
endt
obede
epl
yanddur
abl
yent
renc
hedi
nspe
cif
ics
ubs
truc
tur
esofs
oci
etyi
na
s
ust
aina
blea
ndwe
llf
unc
tioni
ngde
moc
rac
y.The
yca
nli
nkt
hegove
rnme
nta
lins
ti
tut
ionst
othe
e
leme
ntsoft
hec
ivi
lsoc
iet
yinaf
reea
ndf
airs
oci
etya
nda
rer
ega
rde
dasne
ces
sar
yfort
he
f
unc
tioni
nga
nymode
rnde
moc
rat
icpol
it
ic
als
yst
em.

Pol
it
ica
lpa
rti
espe
rfor
mke
yta
sksi
nade
moc
rat
ics
oci
ety,s
ucha
s

Sol
ici
ti
nga
nda
rti
cul
ati
ngpubl
icpol
icypr
ior
it
iesa
ndc
ivi
cne
edsa
ndpr
obl
emsa
side
nti
fi
edby
me
mbe
rsa
nds
uppor
ter
s.s
oci
ali
si
nga
nde
duc
ati
ngvot
ersa
ndc
iti
zensi
nthef
unc
tioni
ngoft
he
pol
it
ica
lande
lec
tor
als
yst
ema
ndt
hege
ner
ati
onofge
ner
alpol
it
ica
lva
lue
s
ba
lanc
ingoppos
ingde
mandsa
ndc
onve
rti
ngt
hemi
ntoge
ner
alpol
ici
es
Ac
tiva
tinga
ndmobi
li
si
ngc
iti
zensi
ntopa
rti
cipa
tingi
npol
it
ica
lde
cis
ionsa
ndt
rans
for
mingt
hei
r
opi
nionsi
ntovi
abl
epol
ic
yopt
ions
Cha
nne
ll
ingpubl
icopi
nionf
romc
iti
zenst
ogove
rnme
nt
Re
crui
ti
nga
ndt
rai
ningc
andi
dat
esf
orpubl
icof
fi
ce

Pol
it
ica
lpa
rti
esa
reof
tende
scr
ibe
dasi
nst
it
uti
ona
liz
edme
dia
tor
sbe
twe
enc
ivi
lsoc
iet
yandt
hos
e
whode
cidea
ndi
mpl
eme
ntde
cis
ion
s.Ass
uch, t
heye
nabl
ethe
irme
mbe
rs’a
nds
uppor
ter
s’
de
mandst
obea
ddr
ess
edi
npa
rli
ame
nta
ndi
ngove
rnme
nt.Eve
nthoughpa
rti
esf
ulf
ilma
nyvi
tal
r
ole
sandpe
rfor
mse
ver
alf
unc
tionsi
nade
moc
rat
ics
oci
ety,t
henomi
nat
iona
ndpr
ese
nta
tionof
c
andi
dat
esi
nthee
lec
tor
alc
ampa
igni
sthemos
tvi
si
blef
unc
tiont
othee
lec
tor
ate
.

Tope
rfor
mthea
boveme
nti
one
dta
sksa
ndf
unc
tions
,pol
it
ica
lpa
rti
esa
ndc
iti
zensne
eds
ome
r
ight
sandobl
iga
ti
onsgua
rant
eedorr
ule
dbyc
ons
ti
tut
ionorl
aw.The
sei
ncl
ude

Fr
eedomofor
gani
sat
ion
Fr
eedomt
ost
andf
ore
lec
tion
Fr
eedomofs
pee
cha
nda
sse
mbl
y
Pr
ovi
si
onofaf
aira
ndpe
ace
fulc
ompe
tit
iona
mongpa
rti
esa
ndc
andi
dat
es
Me
cha
nis
mst
oens
urepl
ura
lit
y
I
ncl
usi
oni
nthee
lec
tor
alpr
oce
ssa
ndc
ont
act
swi
the
lec
tor
albodi
es
Al
eve
lpl
ayi
ngf
iel
dandf
ree
domf
romdi
scr
imi
nat
ion
Me
diaa
cce
ssa
ndf
airr
epor
ti
nggua
rant
ees
Tr
ans
par
enta
nda
ccount
abl
epol
it
ica
lfi
nanc
e

Thei
nte
rna
lfunc
tioni
ngofi
ndi
vidua
lpol
it
ica
lpa
rti
esi
stos
omee
xte
ntde
ter
mine
dbyf
orc
est
hat
a
ree
xte
rna
ltopol
it
ica
lpa
rti
es,s
ucha
sthee
lec
tor
als
yst
em,pol
it
ica
lcul
tur
e,a
ndl
ega
l
r
egul
ati
ons
.Howe
ver
,int
erna
lpr
oce
sse
sofpol
it
ic
alpa
rti
es,s
ucha
sthepe
rsona
lit
yofl
eade
rs
a
nds
taf
f,t
hei
deol
ogi
calf
ounda
tions
,pa
rtyhi
st
ory,a
ndi
nte
rna
lpol
it
ica
lcul
tur
ear
econs
ide
red
t
obee
venmor
einf
lue
nti
alont
hei
nte
rna
lfunc
ti
oni
ng.I
fapol
it
ica
lpa
rtywoul
dli
ket
he
de
moc
rat
icpr
inc
ipl
esofe
lec
tor
alpol
it
icst
obea
ppl
iedwi
thi
nthepa
rty,t
heyma
ycons
ide
r
pr
act
ice
sli
kei
nte
rna
linf
orma
tiona
ndc
ons
ult
ati
onpr
oce
sse
s,i
nte
rna
l(f
orma
lori
nfor
mal
)rul
es
a
nds
truc
tur
esf
ort
heor
gani
sat
iona
ndde
cis
ion-
maki
ngwi
thi
nthepa
rty,a
ndt
rans
par
enc
yint
he
pa
rty’
sfun
cti
oni
nga
tal
lle
vel
s.Pa
rtyme
mbe
rsma
yal
sot
akeonmor
efor
malr
ole
sinde
cis
ion-
ma
kingl
ikepa
rti
cipa
tingi
nint
erna
lel
ect
ionsf
orl
eade
rshi
ppos
it
ionsori
nse
lec
tingt
hepa
rty’
s
c
andi
dat
e(s
)int
heupc
omi
nge
lec
tions
.Ma
nypa
rti
esa
lsowor
kac
tive
lyt
oenha
ncet
her
oleof
t
radi
ti
ona
ll
yunde
r-r
epr
ese
nte
dgr
oup
sint
hei
rpa
rti
es.

Pol
it
ica
lpa
rti
espe
rfor
mani
mpor
tantt
aski
ngove
rnme
nt.The
ybr
ingpe
opl
etoge
the
rtoa
chi
eve
c
ont
roloft
hegove
rnme
nt,
deve
loppol
ici
esf
avor
abl
etot
hei
rint
ere
stsort
hegr
oupst
hats
uppor
t
t
hem,a
ndor
gani
zea
ndpe
rsua
devot
erst
oel
ectt
hei
rca
ndi
dat
est
oof
fi
ce.Al
thoughve
rymuc
h
i
nvol
vedi
ntheope
rat
ionofgove
rnme
nta
tal
lle
vel
s,pol
it
ica
lpa
rti
esa
renott
hegove
rnme
nt
i
ts
elf
,andt
heCons
ti
tut
ionma
kesnome
nti
onoft
hem.
 

Theba
sicpur
pos
eofpol
it
ica
lpa
rti
esi
stonomi
nat
eca
ndi
dat
esf
orpubl
icof
fi
cea
ndt
oge
tas
ma
nyoft
heme
lec
teda
spos
sibl
e.Onc
eel
ect
ed,t
hes
eof
fi
cia
lst
ryt
oac
hie
vet
hegoa
lsoft
hei
r
pa
rtyt
hroughl
egi
sl
ati
ona
ndpr
ogr
ami
nit
iat
ive
s.Al
thoughma
nype
opl
edonott
hinkofi
tthi
s
wa
y,r
egi
st
eri
nga
saDe
moc
ratorRe
publ
ica
nma
kest
hemme
mbe
rsofapol
it
ica
lpa
rty.Po
lit
ica
l
pa
rti
eswa
nta
sma
nype
opl
einvol
veda
spos
sibl
e.Mos
tme
mbe
rst
akeaf
air
lypa
ssi
ver
ole
,
s
impl
yvot
ingf
ort
hei
rpa
rty'
sca
ndi
dat
esa
tel
ect
iont
ime
.Somebe
comemor
eac
ti
vea
ndwor
kas
of
fi
ci
alsi
nthepa
rtyorvol
unt
eert
ope
rsua
depe
opl
etovot
e.Themos
tambi
ti
ousme
mbe
rsma
y
de
cidet
orunf
orof
fi
cet
hems
elve
s. 

Re
pre
sent
inggr
oupsofi
nte
res
ts

Thepe
opl
ere
pre
sent
edbye
lec
tedof
fi
cia
lsa
rec
all
ed 
cons
ti
tue
nts
. 
Whe
the
rRe
publ
ic
anor
De
moc
rat
,cons
ti
tue
ntsma
ket
hei
rconc
ernsknownt
othe
irr
epr
ese
nta
tive
s.I
ntur
n,e
lec
ted
of
fi
cia
lsmus
tnotonl
yre
fle
ctt
hec
onc
ernsoft
hei
rownpol
it
ica
lpa
rtybutmus
tal
sot
ryt
oat
tr
act
s
uppor
tfr
ompe
opl
eint
hei
rdi
st
ri
ctsors
tat
eswhobe
longt
otheot
herpa
rty.The
yca
nat
tr
actt
his
s
uppor
tbys
uppor
ti
ng 
bipa
rti
san 
is
sue
s(ma
tte
rsofc
onc
ernt
hatc
ros
spa
rtyl
ine
s)
a
nd 
nonpa
rti
san 
is
sue
s(ma
tte
rst
hatha
venot
hingt
odowi
thpa
rtya
lle
gia
nce
). 

Pol
it
ica
lpa
rti
esr
epr
ese
ntg
roupsa
swe
lla
sindi
vidua
ls.The
sei
nte
res
tgr
oupsha
ves
pec
ial
c
onc
erns
.The
yma
yre
pre
sentt
hei
nte
res
tsoff
armwo
rke
rs,ur
banAf
ri
canAme
ric
ans
,sma
ll
bus
ine
ssope
rat
ors
,pa
rti
cul
ari
ndus
tri
es,ort
eac
her
s— a
nys
imi
lari
ndi
vidua
lswhoc
oope
rat
eto
e
xpr
essas
pec
ifi
cage
nda
. 

Si
mpl
if
yingc
hoi
ces

Thet
woma
inpol
it
ica
lpa
rti
esi
ntheUni
tedSt
ate
sappe
alt
oasma
nydi
ff
ere
ntgr
oupsa
spos
sibl
e.
The
ydos
obys
tat
ingt
hei
rgoa
lsi
nage
ner
alwa
ysot
hatvot
ersa
rea
tt
rac
tedt
oabr
oad
phi
los
ophywi
thoutne
ces
sar
il
yfoc
usi
ngone
ver
yspe
cif
ici
ssue
.Re
publ
ica
nsa
reknownf
ort
hei
r
s
uppor
tofbus
ine
ss,c
ons
erva
tivepos
it
ionsons
oci
ali
ssue
s,a
ndc
onc
erna
boutt
hes
izeof
gove
rnme
nt;De
moc
rat
str
adi
ti
ona
llyha
ves
uppor
tedl
abora
ndmi
nor
it
iesa
ndbe
lie
vet
hat
gove
rnme
ntc
ans
olvema
nyoft
hena
tion'
spr
obl
ems
.Thea
lte
rna
tivet
ous
ingt
hege
ner
al
phi
los
ophi
esoft
hepol
it
ic
alpa
rti
est
osor
toutc
andi
dat
esi
stovot
efori
ndi
vidua
lsba
sedonj
ust
t
hei
rownone
-ort
wo-
iss
uepr
ogr
ams
. 

Ma
kingpol
icy

Pol
it
ica
lpa
rti
esa
renotpol
ic
yma
kingor
gani
zat
ionsi
nthe
mse
lve
s.The
yce
rta
inl
yta
kepos
it
ions
oni
mpor
tantpol
icyque
sti
ons
,es
pec
ial
lyt
opr
ovi
dea
lte
rna
tive
stot
hepos
it
ionofwhi
che
ver
pa
rtyi
sinpowe
r.Whe
ninpowe
r,ap
art
yat
te
mpt
stoputi
tsphi
los
ophyi
ntopr
act
icet
hrough
l
egi
sl
ati
on.I
fac
andi
dat
ewi
nsof
fi
cebyal
argema
jor
it
y,i
tma
yme
ant
hatt
hevot
ersha
vegi
ven
hi
morhe
ra 
manda
te 
toc
arr
youtt
hepr
ogr
amout
li
nedi
nthec
ampa
ign.Be
caus
ePr
esi
dentBi
ll
Cl
int
onf
ail
edt
owi
nama
jor
it
yoft
hepopul
arvot
einbot
h1992a
nd1996,f
ewc
ons
ide
redhi
s
vi
ctor
iesama
nda
tef
ora
nys
pec
ifi
cpol
icyori
deol
ogy
.

Q.
2 El
abor
atet
hee
leme
ntsofpr
ess
uregr
oups
.De
scr
ibei
nde
tai
lthet
ype
sofdi
ff
ere
ntpr
ess
ure
gr
oupsi
nPa
kis
tana
nda
lsoe
xpl
aint
hei
rrol
einde
vel
opme
ntsofpubl
icopi
nion.

 Apr
ess
uregr
oupi
sagr
oupofpe
opl
ewhoa
reor
gani
seda
cti
vel
yforpr
omot
inga
nd
de
fendi
ngt
hei
rcommoni
nte
res
t.I
tisc
all
eds
o,a
sita
tte
mpt
stobr
ingac
hangei
npub
lic
pol
ic
ybye
xer
ti
ngpr
ess
ureont
hegove
rnme
nt.I
tac
tsa
sal
iai
sonbe
twe
ent
hegove
rnme
nt
 a
ndi
tsme
mbe
rs.

 Thepr
ess
uregr
oupsa
rea
lsoc
all
edi
nte
res
tgr
oup
sorve
ste
dgr
oups
.The
yar
edi
ff
ere
nt
f
romt
hepol
it
ica
lpa
rti
es,a
sthe
yne
ithe
rcont
este
lec
tionsnort
ryt
oca
ptur
epol
it
ica
lpowe
r.
The
yar
econc
erne
dwi
ths
pec
ifi
cpr
ogr
amme
sandi
ssue
sandt
hei
rac
tivi
ti
esa
rec
onf
ine
d
t
othepr
ote
cti
ona
ndpr
omot
ionoft
hei
nte
res
tsoft
hei
rme
mbe
rsbyi
nfl
uenc
ingt
he
gove
rnme
nt.

 Thepr
ess
uregr
oupsi
nfl
uenc
ethepol
icy-
maki
nga
ndpol
icyi
mpl
eme
nta
tioni
nthe
gove
rnme
ntt
hroughl
ega
landl
egi
ti
mat
eme
thodsl
ikel
obbyi
ng,c
orr
esponde
nce
,publ
ici
ty,
pr
opa
gandi
si
ng,pe
tit
ioni
ng,publ
icde
bat
ing,ma
int
aini
ngc
ont
act
swi
tht
hei
rle
gis
lat
ors
a
nds
ofor
th.

Te
chni
que
sUs
edByPr
ess
ureGr
oups

Pr
ess
uregr
oupsr
esor
ttot
hre
edi
ff
ere
ntt
echni
que
sins
ecur
ingt
hei
rpur
pos
es.

 El
ect
ione
eri
ng:
 Pl
aci
ngi
npubl
icof
fi
cepe
rsonswhoa
ref
avour
abl
ydi
spos
edt
owa
rdst
he
i
nte
res
tst
hec
onc
erne
dpr
ess
uregr
oups
eekst
opr
omot
e.

 Lobbyi
ng:
 Pe
rsua
dingpubl
icof
fi
cer
s,whe
the
rth
eya
rei
nit
ial
lyf
avour
abl
ydi
spos
ed
t
owa
rdt
hemornot
,toa
dopta
nde
nfor
cet
hepol
ic
iest
hatt
heyt
hinkwi
llpr
ovemos
t
be
nef
ici
alt
othe
iri
nte
res
ts.

 Pr
opa
gandi
zing:
 I
nfl
uenc
ingpubl
icopi
niona
ndt
her
ebyga
ini
nga
nindi
rec
tinf
lue
nceove
r
gove
rnme
nt,s
inc
ethegove
rnme
nti
nade
moc
rac
yiss
ubs
tant
ial
lya
ffe
cte
dbypubl
ic
opi
nion.

Cha
rac
ter
ist
icsofPr
ess
ureGr
oups

 Ba
sedonCe
rta
inI
nte
res
ts:
 Ea
chpr
ess
uregr
oupo
rga
nis
esi
ts
elfke
epi
ngi
nvi
ewc
ert
ain
i
nte
res
tsa
ndt
hust
ri
est
oadoptt
hes
truc
tur
eofpowe
rint
hepol
it
ica
lsys
tems
.

 Us
eofMode
rna
swe
lla
sTr
adi
ti
ona
lMe
ans
: 
The
yadoptt
echni
que
sli
kef
ina
nci
ngof
pol
it
ica
lpa
rti
es,s
pons
ori
ngt
hei
rcl
osec
andi
dat
esa
tthet
imeofe
lec
tionsa
ndke
epi
ngt
he
bur
eauc
rac
yal
sos
ati
sfi
ed.The
irt
radi
ti
ona
lme
ansi
ncl
udee
xpl
oit
ati
onofc
ast
e,c
ree
dand
 r
eli
giousf
eel
ingst
opr
omot
ethe
iri
nte
res
ts.

 Re
sul
ti
ngOutofI
ncr
eas
ingPr
ess
urea
ndDe
mandsonRe
sour
ces
: 
Sca
rci
tyofr
esour
ces
,
c
lai
msa
ndc
ount
erc
lai
msont
her
esour
cesf
romdi
ff
ere
nta
ndc
ompe
tings
ect
ionsoft
he
s
oci
et
yle
adst
other
iseofpr
ess
uregr
oups
.

 I
nade
qua
cie
sofPol
it
ica
lPa
rti
es:
 Pr
ess
uregr
oupsa
repr
ima
ril
yac
ons
eque
nceof
i
nade
qua
cie
soft
hepol
it
ica
lpa
rti
es.

 Re
pre
sentCha
ngi
ngCons
cious
nes
s: 
Fori
nst
anc
ethei
ncr
eas
eint
hef
oodpr
oduc
tionor
i
ndus
tri
algoodsdoe
sbr
ingac
hangei
nthewa
yindi
vidua
lsa
ndgr
oupsl
ooka
tthewor
ld.
Thes
tagna
tioni
npr
oduc
tionl
eadst
ofa
tal
is
mbuti
ncr
eas
einpr
oduc
tionl
eadst
ode
mands
,
pr
ote
stsa
ndf
orma
tionofne
wpr
ess
uregr
oups
.

Type
sofPr
ess
ureGr
oups

 I
nst
it
uti
ona
lInt
ere
stGr
oups
: 
The
segr
oupsa
ref
orma
llyor
gani
sedwhi
chc
ons
istof
pr
ofe
ssi
ona
llye
mpl
oye
dpe
rsons
.The
yar
eapa
rtofgove
rnme
ntma
chi
ner
yandt
ryt
o
e
xer
tthe
iri
nfl
uenc
e.The
segr
oupsi
ncl
udepol
it
ic
alpa
rti
es,l
egi
sl
atur
es,a
rmi
es,
bur
eauc
rac
ies
,et
c.Whe
neve
rsuc
hana
ssoc
iat
ionr
ais
espr
ote
sti
tdoe
ssobyc
ons
ti
tut
iona
l
me
ansa
ndi
nac
cor
danc
ewi
tht
her
ule
sandr
egul
ati
ons
.

o Exa
mpl
e:I
ASAs
soc
iat
ion,I
PSAs
soc
iat
ion,St
atec
ivi
lse
rvi
cesa
ssoc
iat
ion,e
tc.

 As
soc
iat
iona
lInt
ere
stGr
oups:
 The
sea
reor
gani
seds
pec
ial
is
edgr
oupsf
orme
dfori
nte
res
t
a
rti
cul
at
ion,butt
opur
suel
imi
tedgoa
ls.The
sei
ncl
udet
radeuni
ons
,or
gani
sat
ionsof
bus
ine
ssme
nandi
ndus
tri
al
is
tsa
ndc
ivi
cgr
oups
.

o Somee
xampl
esofAs
soc
iat
iona
lInt
ere
stGr
oupsi
nIndi
aar
eBe
nga
lCha
mbe
rof
Comme
rcea
ndI
ndus
try,I
ndi
anCha
mbe
rofComme
rce
,Tr
adeUni
onss
ucha
s
AI
TUC(
AllI
ndi
aTr
adeUni
onCongr
ess
),Te
ache
rsAs
soc
iat
ions
,St
ude
nts
As
soc
iat
ionss
ucha
sNa
tiona
lSt
ude
ntsUni
onofI
ndi
a(NSUI
)et
c.

 Anomi
cInt
ere
stGr
oups
: 
Bya
nomi
cpr
ess
uregr
oupsweme
anmor
eorl
essas
pont
ane
ous
 br
eakt
hroughi
ntot
hep
oli
ti
cals
yst
emf
romt
hes
oci
etys
ucha
sri
ots
,de
mons
tra
ti
ons
,
a
ssa
ssi
nat
ionsa
ndt
hel
ike
.

 Non-
Ass
oci
ati
ona
lInt
ere
stGr
oups
: 
The
sea
ret
heki
nshi
pandl
ine
agegr
oupsa
nde
thni
c,
r
egi
ona
l,s
tat
usa
ndc
las
sgr
oupst
hata
rti
cul
atei
nte
res
tsont
heba
sisofi
ndi
vidua
ls,f
ami
ly
a
ndr
eli
gioushe
ads
.The
segr
oupsha
vei
nfor
mals
truc
tur
e.The
sei
ncl
udec
ast
egr
oups
,
l
angua
gegr
oups
,et
c.

Q.
3 Di
scus
sinde
tai
lthei
nte
rac
tiona
ndi
nte
rre
lat
ionpr
oce
ssbe
twe
ent
hepol
it
ica
lpa
rti
esa
nd
pr
ess
uregr
oupsdur
ing1956-
1977.

Onemi
ghtt
hinkt
hatc
ast
ingavot
emi
ghtma
ket
hemar
espons
ibl
eci
ti
zen.Howe
ver
,thi
sisonl
y
pa
rtl
ytr
uebe
caus
ehe
alt
hyde
moc
rac
iesr
elyonvot
erswhor
egul
arl
yque
sti
ont
hei
rgove
rnme
nt
a
nde
xpr
essvi
ewsoni
tspol
ici
esorb
ecomei
nvol
vedi
npr
ess
uregr
oupsorpol
it
ica
lpa
rti
es.

Pr
ess
uregr
oupsa
ndpol
it
ica
lpa
rti
esa
rec
o-de
pende
ntf
ora
chi
evi
ngt
hei
rgoa
ls.Pr
ess
uregr
oups
c
ons
ide
rthepa
rti
est
obea
nimpor
tantme
thodofga
ini
nga
cce
sst
othos
einpowe
randpol
it
ic
al
pa
rti
esne
edt
hes
uppor
tofgr
oupsofp
eopl
ewhos
har
eoneormor
eint
ere
stsa
ndi
nfl
uenc
eea
ch
ot
hert
oge
tel
ect
eda
ndma
int
aint
hems
elve
sinpowe
r.Thena
tur
eoft
hef
ede
rals
yst
emf
ost
ersa
c
hai
nofac
ont
inuousr
ela
tions
hipbe
twe
ent
het
wobodi
es

Pr
ess
ureGr
oups
 

I
nyourda
ilyl
if
e,youmi
ghtha
vec
omea
cros
sne
wsl
ike“
RSS’
sst
at
eme
ntonTa
bli
ghiJ
ama
at”
or“
FICCI
’sc
allf
orgove
rnme
nts
uppor
tint
heAvi
ati
oni
ndus
try”
.Ma
ybe
,youwoul
dha
ve
wonde
redl
ikemea
boutwha
tthe
sea
ssoc
iat
ionsa
ctua
llya
re,wha
tar
ethe
ytr
yingt
odo,whyt
he
me
diai
scove
ringt
hem,e
tc.
!So,t
hes
eas
soc
iat
ionswhi
chha
veagr
oupofpe
opl
ewi
tha
c
ommoni
nte
res
ttha
ttr
ytos
ecur
eth
eiri
nte
res
tsbyi
nfl
uenc
ingt
hef
ormul
at
iona
ndwor
kingof
publ
icpol
ici
esc
anbeunde
rst
ooda
sexa
mpl
esofPr
ess
ureGr
oups
.Pr
ess
ureGr
oupsa
lwa
ysha
ve
pe
opl
ewi
tht
hes
amei
deol
ogy.Pr
ess
ureGr
oupsa
rea
lsoknowna
sInt
ere
stGr
oups
Thet
erm‘
Pre
ssur
eGr
oups
’or
igi
nat
edi
ntheUSA whi
chme
ansagr
oupofpe
opl
ewhoa
re
or
gani
seda
cti
vel
yforpr
omot
inga
ndde
fendi
ngt
hei
rowni
nte
res
t.The
ira
cti
vis
minf
lue
nce
s
publ
icpol
icy.I
nIndi
a,t
hepr
ess
uregr
oupsha
vebe
ena
cti
vee
vendur
ingt
hec
oloni
alpe
rio
d.The
Al
lIndi
aTr
adeUni
onCongr
esswa
sthef
ir
stpr
ess
uregr
oupofI
ndi
a.

Rol
e

Ther
oleoft
hepr
ess
uregr
oupsi
sve
ryi
mpor
tantf
ort
hea
dmi
nis
tra
tive
,le
gis
lat
ive
,exe
cut
ive
,
bur
eauc
rat
ic,a
ndpol
it
ic
als
yst
em.The
yar
eli
keal
ivi
ngpubl
icbe
hindt
hepa
rti
es.The
irr
olei
s
i
ndi
rec
tye
tef
fec
tive
.Theva
riousr
ole
sofpr
ess
uregr
oupsa
rea
sfol
lows
:

1.The
ytr
ytoi
ntr
oduc
ethe
irc
andi
dat
esi
ntot
hel
egi
sl
atur
e.The
yhe
lppol
it
ica
lpa
rti
es
t
owi
nane
lec
tio
nbypr
epa
ringma
nif
est
osa
ndmobi
li
zingvot
ers
.

2.Pr
ess
ureGr
oupst
ryt
ofi
llh
ighe
xec
uti
vepos
tswi
thme
nwhoc
anf
ulf
il
lthe
iri
nte
res
t
i
.e
.se
lec
tionofc
abi
neta
nds
ele
cti
onofPM i
nac
oal
it
iongove
rnme
nt,e
tc.whi
ch
a
ffe
ctst
hepol
icyi
mpl
eme
nta
tionpr
oce
ss.

3.Bur
eauc
rat
sar
epol
it
ica
llyne
utr
ala
ndhe
nce
,thepr
ess
uregr
oupst
ryt
obe
ndt
hemi
n
t
hei
rma
nne
rbyput
ti
nggoodr
ema
rksont
hem.Bur
eauc
rat
sha
veal
ongt
enu
reof
s
ervi
cea
ndt
her
efor
e,t
heyobl
iget
othe
m.

4.Pr
ess
uregr
oupspl
aya
savi
tall
inkbe
twe
ent
hegove
rnme
nta
ndt
hegove
rne
d.The
y
ke
epgove
rnme
ntsmor
einc
li
nedt
owa
rdst
hei
rint
ere
st.

5.Pr
ess
uregr
oupshe
lpi
nexpr
ess
ingt
hevi
ewsa
ndne
edsoft
hemi
nor
it
ycommuni
ti
es
whoot
her
wis
ema
yre
mai
nunhe
ard.

6.Pr
ess
uregr
oupspr
ovi
dee
xpe
rti
set
othegove
rnme
ntwi
thva
riousi
nfor
mat
ionwhi
ch
mi
ghtbea
ppl
ica
blet
ois
sue
ssuc
hasi
ndi
genousr
econc
ili
ati
on.

7.Pr
ess
uregr
oupspr
omot
eoppor
tuni
ti
esf
orpol
it
ica
lpa
rti
cipa
tionwi
thoutj
oini
nga
pol
it
ica
lpa
rty.
Adva
nta
ges

 Pr
omot
ionofa
uthe
nti
cfr
eedomofe
xpr
ess
ion-
Byj
oini
nga
nint
ere
stgr
oupa
sani
ndi
vidua
l,youc
ana
ddyouri
dea
stot
hec
oll
ect
ivee
xpr
ess
ion
ofe
ver
yonewhos
har
est
hes
ameo
pini
on.I
tisl
ikej
oini
ngawor
ker
suni
on.Thi
sadv
ant
age
gi
vesyoua
noppor
tuni
tyt
oma
kec
hange
stha
twi
lli
mpa
ctyourl
if
eins
omewa
y.

 Expl
ora
tionofne
wpe
rspe
cti
ves
-
I
nte
res
tgr
oupsgi
vea
llofu
sthec
hanc
etol
ooka
tne
wthought
sandpe
rspe
cti
veswhi
chma
kesi
t
e
asi
erf
orust
ose
ebe
yondoure
choc
hambe
rs.Whe
nle
gis
lat
iongoe
sthr
ought
hepr
epa
rat
ion
pr
oce
ss,t
hedr
aft
ersl
ooka
tthei
mpa
ctona
nys
pec
ifi
candi
dent
if
iabl
egr
oup.The
n,t
her
eist
he
c
ons
ide
rat
ionofwha
twi
llha
ppe
nwi
tht
hepopul
ati
ona
sawhol
e.Whe
nyoua
reapa
rtoft
his
pr
oce
ss,youge
ttos
eewha
tot
her
sth
inka
boutt
hes
espe
cif
ics
ubj
ect
s.

 Ba
lanc
ingt
hei
mpa
ctofgove
rna
nce
-
Byc
omi
ngt
oge
the
rtos
pea
kwi
thac
oll
ect
ivevoi
ce,youge
tthec
hanc
etohol
dthepowe
rfulf
ew
i
nthepos
it
ionsofa
uthor
it
ytobea
ccount
abl
efort
hei
rac
tions
.Thei
nte
res
tgr
oupss
ervea
s
yst
emofc
hec
ksa
ndba
lanc
es.Youge
tthec
hanc
etol
imi
tthe
irgove
rna
ncebys
pea
kingt
othe
m
a
bouti
ssue
sande
venvot
ethe
mouto
fof
fi
cei
fthe
yar
en’
tsa
tis
fac
tor
yenough.

 Us
abl
epl
atf
ormst
hatf
aci
li
tat
echa
nge
-
J
oini
ngagr
oupc
anma
keyoubet
hec
hanget
hatyouwa
ntt
ose
e.Youa
longwi
tht
hel
ike
-
mi
nde
dpe
opl
ear
oundyouc
anc
rea
teoppor
tuni
ti
est
opute
noughpr
ess
urei
nthede
cis
ion-
ma
ker
sins
oci
etyt
odos
ome
thi
ngi
nyouri
nte
res
t.Pol
ici
es,r
ule
s,r
egul
ati
onsc
anbemou
lde
dif
agr
oupofvoi
cess
pea
kabouti
tbe
cau
sei
tispr
ett
ycha
lle
ngi
ngt
oignor
eagr
oupofvoi
ceswi
th
t
hes
amevoi
cer
athe
rtha
nas
ingl
epe
rsonwhoi
str
yingha
rdt
obehe
ard.

 Empha
sisonf
air
nes
satt
hel
oca
lle
vel
-
Fa
irne
ssc
anbes
eena
sadi
ff
icul
tco
nce
ptt
oba
lanc
eanon-
groundr
eal
it
y.The
rea
rec
hroni
c
pr
obl
emsofpove
rty,i
ll
nes
s,f
oods
car
cit
y,c
orr
upt
iona
ndma
nymor
ewhi
cha
ffe
ctpe
opl
e
s
eri
ous
ly.Thi
sde
pri
vest
hemofha
vin
gac
hanc
eata
llt
heoppor
tuni
ti
esf
air
ly.Byt
het
imet
hey
c
andos
ome
thi
nga
bouti
t,t
hei
rcha
nce
sar
elonggone
.

I
nte
res
tgr
oupswor
ktowa
rde
qua
liz
ingi
ncomeoppor
tuni
ti
esi
nsoc
iet
y.The
ysuppor
tea
ch
me
mbe
rtoc
rea
teapl
atf
ormwhe
ree
ver
yonec
ans
tar
twor
kingt
owa
rdsas
imi
largoa
l.

 Cr
eat
esoppor
tuni
ti
esf
orbe
comi
ngc
ommuni
tyl
eade
rs-
I
nte
res
tgr
oupspr
omot
ele
ade
rshi
pinac
ommuni
tybyi
nfl
uenc
ingpe
opl
etobe
comepa
rtofa
n
or
gani
zedmove
mentt
hatc
anc
ommuni
cat
ethene
edf
ors
pec
ifi
ccha
nge
sre
qui
red.I
nmode
rn
t
ime
s,youdon’
tha
vet
oge
toutofyourhomea
ndc
ont
ri
but
etoi
t.Sha
ringi
nfor
mat
ionons
oci
al
me
diaa
ndma
kingaf
ewph
onec
all
sca
nal
sodot
hewor
k.

 Ac
ces
stomor
einf
orma
tio
n-
Whe
nyouj
oina
nint
ere
stg
roup,t
henyouha
vea
cce
sst
othe
irr
esour
ceswhi
chmi
ghtl
eadyout
o
ge
tac
hanc
etos
pea
kwi
thyoure
lec
tedof
fi
cia
lsdi
rec
tl
yins
tea
dofs
endi
ngt
hemal
ett
er.
 

 Lobbyi
ngf
orne
wle
gis
lat
iona
nyt
ime
I
nte
res
tgr
oupspl
aya
nimpor
tantr
olei
nspr
eadi
ngi
nfor
mat
ion.Wi
tha
llt
heda
ta,t
heyma
ke
e
ffor
tst
otur
niti
ntous
abl
ela
ws,r
ule
s,orr
egul
ati
ons
.Eve
ryi
nte
res
tgr
oupt
ri
est
oinf
lue
nce
e
lec
tedof
fi
cia
lst
omovet
owa
rdde
sir
edl
egi
sl
ati
vec
hange
s. 

Di
sadva
nta
ges

 Loude
stvoi
cesus
ual
lywi
n-
Onet
hinga
bouti
nte
res
tgr
oupsi
stha
tsi
zedoe
sn’
tma
tte
r.Theone
swhoa
remor
eac
tiveu
sua
ll
y
ge
ner
atemor
eat
tent
iona
ndge
ttopl
ayapa
rti
nmod
ernpol
it
ics
.Onec
ans
ayt
hatmone
yspe
aks
l
oudl
yint
hisa
rena
,sot
her
ema
ybea
dva
nta
gest
othos
ewhoa
rewe
alt
hy.

Bot
hsi
desi
nIndi
anpol
it
ic
ste
ndt
obl
amee
achot
herf
ort
hei
ll
sofs
oci
et
y.Anygr
oupc
an
a
ssi
mil
ateas
mal
lnumbe
rofpe
opl
eands
oundl
iket
hema
jor
it
ywhi
chc
anc
omeunde
rthe
ba
nne
rofdi
sadva
nta
ge.
  Ane
asywa
yofs
tal
kinga
lll
egi
sl
ati
vepr
oce
sse
s-
Ther
eas
onwhyt
hisdi
sadva
nta
gei
ssuc
hapr
obl
emi
stha
tea
chgr
oupt
ri
est
ose
ekwha
tisi
n
t
hei
rbe
sti
nte
res
twi
thoutc
ons
ide
ringot
her
s.The
rei
snode
sir
etof
indac
ompr
omi
se.

 Of
fens
ivevi
ews
-
The
rei
sade
moc
rat
icr
ightt
ofr
eedomofs
pee
cha
nde
xpr
ess
ion.Somepr
ess
uregr
oupss
ti
llha
ve
uns
ecul
ara
ndof
fens
ivevi
ewswhi
chs
ti
rupc
ommun
alt
ens
ions
.The
segr
oupswhe
the
rsma
llor
l
arge i
n numbe
r,t
end t
o ge
ta di
spr
opor
ti
ona
tea
mountofa
tt
ent
ion f
rom t
he me
dia
.
E.
g. 
RSS,
 Ba
jra
ngDa
l,e
tc.

 Oppos
it
ion-
The
rec
anbedi
rec
toppos
it
ionbe
twe
enpr
ess
uregr
oupswhi
chc
anpr
oba
blyl
eadt
osomes
eri
ous
c
ivi
ldi
srupt
ions
.Ane
xampl
eca
nbet
ake
nfr
omt
hei
nci
dentofc
las
hesbe
twe
en 
ABVP 
and 
JNU
St
ude
ntsUni
on.

 Di
sobe
die
nce
-
Pr
ess
ureg
roupsc
ans
ome
ti
mesbe
comea
ggr
ess
ivea
ndge
tinvol
vedi
nmi
li
tanc
ytoge
tthe
ir
de
mandshe
ard.The
yca
npul
loutp
ubl
ici
tys
tunt
sandpr
ote
stsf
ora
tte
nti
onwhi
chc
and
isr
upt
publ
icl
if
eandpr
ope
rty.

E.
g. 
JKLF 
and 
ULFA 

 Gove
rni
ngs
yst
emsc
anc
han
ge-
Whe
nani
nte
res
tgr
oupgr
owsl
argee
nough,t
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hei
rac
tivi
ti
esc
ana
lte
rthewa
yana
tion
gove
rnsi
ts
elf
.Thi
sdi
sadva
nta
gei
spr
obl
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ticbe
caus
eitf
orc
ese
ver
yoneout
si
det
hatc
ore
gr
oupt
oei
the
rconf
ormt
othe“
newnor
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ons
eque
nce
sofbe
ingont
heo
uts
ide
.
TheBJ
Ppa
rtyba
cke
dbyt
heRSSi
nIndi
aha
sgott
hec
hanc
etor
unt
hegove
rnme
nt.The
ir
i
sl
amophobi
candr
adi
cals
ent
ime
ntswhi
cha
ref
oundi
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rentwi
ngRSSi
shur
ti
ngt
he
s
ecul
ari
sma
ndi
nte
gri
tyoft
hisna
tion.Thi
sisa
nind
ica
tiona
stohowqui
ckl
ythe
yca
nbe
come
a
dve
rse
.
  Uns
tabl
e-
Pr
ess
uregr
oupsl
acks
tabi
li
tya
ndc
ommi
tme
nt.Thi
smi
ghtr
esul
tint
hei
rloya
lti
esc
hangi
ng
a
ccor
dingt
ocha
ngi
ngpol
it
ica
lsi
tua
tions
.

 Non-
legi
ti
mat
epowe
r-
Le
ade
rsofpr
ess
ure
-gr
oupsa
renote
lec
tedl
ikec
onve
nti
ona
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it
ici
ans
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oret
heyc
an’
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ldpubl
icl
yac
count
abl
e.Thei
nfl
uenc
ethe
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rti
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rat
ica
ll
yle
git
ima
te.Ve
ryf
ew
pr
ess
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oupswor
kont
heba
sisofi
nte
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lde
moc
rac
y.The
reha
sbe
enat
rendf
orpr
ess
ure
gr
oupst
obedomi
nat
edbyas
mal
lnumbe
rofs
eni
orpr
ofe
ssi
ona
ls.

Q.
4Ide
nti
fyt
he e
leme
ntsofpubl
ic opi
nion.El
abor
atet
he r
ole ofpubl
ic opi
nion i
n
de
vel
opme
ntsofde
moc
rac
y.

Thet
erm"
publ
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nion"wa
sde
rive
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omt
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enc
h opi
nionpubl
ique
,whi
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rstus
ed
i
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Mic
heldeMont
aigne
 i
nth
ese
conde
dit
ionofhi
s 
Ess
ays
 (
ch.XXI
I).

TheFr
enc
hte
rma
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arsi
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uli
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se 
by 
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n-J
acque
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Rous
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u.

Pr
ecur
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asei
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lude
 Wi
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ner
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(
appe
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.

Hi
st
ory

Thee
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genc
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orc
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it
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h
c
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die
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 or
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mac
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oci
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Lat
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ll
ia
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kes
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le
dpubl
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ofs
ucc
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isePa
sca
l 
thoughti
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ld"
.

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nhi
str
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e, 
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c,
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ohnLoc
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eel
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ci
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udge
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era
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ikea
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lopi
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ourt
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rpubl
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ssa
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tur
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ll
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mpl
e 
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f
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ati
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erve
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it
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phe
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orma
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fee
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ubs

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pol
li
ngc
annotme
asur
ethepubl
ic.Ane
duc
ate
dindi
vidua
l'
spa
rti
cipa
tioni
smor
eimpor
tantt
han
t
hatofadr
unk.The"
mas
s"i
nwhi
chpe
opl
einde
pend
ent
lyma
kede
cis
ionsa
bout
,fore
xampl
e,
whi
chbr
andoft
oot
hpa
stet
obuy,i
saf
ormofc
oll
ect
ivebe
havi
ordi
ff
ere
ntf
romt
hepubl
ic.

Publ
icopi
nionpl
aysa
nimpor
tantr
olei
nthepol
it
ica
lsphe
re.Cut
ti
nga
cros
sal
las
pec
tsof
r
ela
tions
hipbe
twe
engove
rnme
nta
ndp
ubl
icopi
niona
res
tudi
esofvot
ingbe
havi
or.The
seh
ave
r
egi
st
ere
dthedi
st
ri
but
ionofopi
nionsonawi
deva
rie
tyofi
ssue
s,ha
vee
xpl
ore
dthei
mpa
ctof
s
pec
iali
nte
res
tgr
oupsone
lec
tionou
tcome
sandha
vec
ont
ri
but
edt
oourknowl
edgea
boutt
he
e
ffe
ctsofgove
rnme
ntpr
opa
gandaa
ndpol
icy.

Cont
empor
ary,qua
nti
ta
tivea
ppr
oac
hest
othes
tudyofpubl
icopi
nionma
ybedi
vide
dint
ofour
c
ate
gor
ies
:

1.Qua
nti
ta
tiveme
asur
eme
ntofopi
niondi
st
ri
but
ions
.

2.I
nve
sti
gat
ionoft
hei
nte
rna
lre
lat
ions
hipsa
mongt
hei
ndi
vidua
lopi
nionst
hatma
keup
publ
icopi
nionona
nis
sue
.

3.De
scr
ipt
ionora
nal
ysi
soft
hepubl
icr
oleofpubl
icopi
nion.

4.St
udybot
hoft
hec
ommuni
cat
ionme
diat
hatdi
sse
mina
tet
hei
dea
sonwhi
chopi
nio
nsa
re
ba
seda
ndoft
heus
est
hatpr
opa
gandi
st
sandot
herma
nipul
ator
sma
keoft
hes
eme
dia
.
Ther
api
dspr
eadofpubl
icopi
nionme
asur
eme
nta
roundt
hewor
ldi
sre
fle
cti
onoft
henumb
erof
us
est
owhi
chi
tca
nbeput
.Publ
icopi
nionc
anbea
ccur
ate
lyobt
aine
dthr
ough 
sur
veys
amp
ling.
Bot
hpr
iva
tef
ir
msa
ndgove
rnme
ntsu
se 
sur
veys
 t
oinf
ormpubl
icpol
ic
iesa
ndpubl
icr
ela
ti
ons
.

For
mat
ion

Nume
roust
heor
iesa
nds
ubs
tant
iale
vide
ncee
xis
tst
oexpl
aint
hef
orma
tiona
nddyna
mic
sof
i
ndi
vidua
ls'
opi
nions
.Muc
hoft
hisr
ese
arc
hdr
awsonps
ychol
ogi
calr
ese
arc
hon 
at
ti
tude
s.
I
n c
ommuni
cat
ionss
tudi
es 
and 
pol
it
ica
lsc
ienc
e, 
mas
sme
dia
 ar
eof
tens
eena
sinf
lue
nti
alf
orc
es
onpubl
icopi
nion.Addi
ti
ona
ll
y, 
pol
it
ic
als
oci
ali
zat
ion 
and 
beha
vior
alge
net
ics
 some
ti
mes
e
xpl
ai
npubl
icopi
nion.

Ma
ssme
diae
ffe
cts

Thef
orma
tionofpubl
icopi
nions
tar
tswi
th 
age
ndas
ett
ing 
byma
jorme
diaout
let
sthr
oughoutt
he
wor
ld.Thi
sage
ndas
ett
ingdi
cta
teswha
tisne
wswor
thya
ndhowa
ndwhe
nitwi
llber
epor
ted.
Theme
diaa
gendai
sse
tbyava
rie
tyofdi
ff
ere
nte
nvi
ronme
nta
landne
wswor
kfa
ctor
stha
t
de
ter
mine
swhi
chs
tor
ieswi
llbene
wswor
thy.

Anot
herke
ycompone
nti
nthef
orma
tionofpubl
icopi
nioni
s 
fr
ami
ng.Fr
ami
ngi
swhe
nas
tor
y
orpi
eceofne
wsi
spor
tr
aye
dinapa
rti
cul
arwa
yandi
sme
antt
oswa
ythec
ons
ume
rsa
tti
tudeone
wa
yort
heot
her
.Mos
tpol
it
ica
lis
sue
sar
ehe
avi
lyf
rame
dinor
dert
ope
rsua
devot
erst
ovo
tef
or
apa
rti
cul
arc
andi
dat
e.Fore
xampl
e,i
fCa
ndi
dat
eXonc
evot
edonabi
llt
hatr
ais
edi
ncomet
axe
s
ont
hemi
ddl
ecl
ass
,af
rami
nghe
adl
inewoul
dre
ad"
Candi
dat
eXDoe
sn'
tCa
reAboutt
heMi
ddl
e
Cl
ass
".Thi
sput
sCa
ndi
dat
eXi
nane
gat
ivef
ramet
othene
wsr
eade
r.

Soc
ialde
sir
abi
li
ty 
isa
not
herke
ycompone
ntt
othef
orma
tionofpubl
icopi
nion.Soc
ial
de
sir
abi
li
tyi
sthei
deat
hatpe
opl
einge
ner
alwi
llf
ormt
hei
ropi
nionsba
sedonwha
tthe
ybe
lie
ve
i
sthepr
eva
lentopi
nionoft
hes
oci
algr
oupt
heyi
dent
if
ywi
th.Ba
sedonme
diaa
gendas
ett
ing
a
ndme
diaf
rami
ng,mos
tof
tenapa
rti
cul
aropi
nionge
tsr
epe
ate
dthr
oughoutva
riousne
ws
me
diumsa
nd 
soc
ialne
twor
king 
si
tes
,unt
ili
tcr
eat
esaf
als
evi
si
onwhe
ret
hepe
rce
ive
dtr
uthc
an
a
ctua
llybeve
ryf
ara
wayf
romt
hea
ctu
alt
rut
h.Whe
nas
kedf
ort
hei
ropi
niononas
ubj
ecta
bout
whi
cht
heya
reuni
nfor
med,pe
opl
eof
tenpr
ovi
de 
pse
udo-
opi
nions
 t
heybe
lie
vewi
llpl
eas
ethe
que
sti
one
r.

Publ
icopi
nionc
anbei
nfl
uenc
edby 
publ
icr
ela
tions
 andt
he 
pol
it
ic
alme
dia
.Addi
ti
ona
lly,
 ma
ss
me
dia
 ut
il
ize
sawi
deva
rie
tyof
 adve
rti
si
ng 
te
chni
que
stoge
tthe
irme
ssa
geouta
ndc
hanget
he
mi
ndsofp
eopl
e.Si
ncet
he1950s
, 
te
levi
si
on 
hasbe
ent
hema
in 
medi
um 
formol
dingpubl
ic
opi
nion.
 Si
ncet
hel
ate2000s
,theI
nte
rne
tha
sbe
comeapl
atf
ormf
orf
ormi
ngpubl
icopi
nio
n.
Sur
veysha
ves
howe
dtha
tmor
epe
opl
ege
tthe
irne
wsf
rom 
soc
ialme
dia
 andne
wswe
bsi
tesa
s
oppos
edt
opr
intne
wspa
per
s.
 Thea
cce
ssi
bil
it
yofs
oci
alme
diaa
llowspubl
icopi
niont
obe
f
orme
dbyabr
oade
rra
ngeof
 s
oci
almove
ment
s 
andn
ewss
our
ces
. 
GunnEnl
i 
ide
nti
fi
est
he
I
nte
rne
t'
sef
fec
tonpubl
ico
pini
ona
sbe
ing“
cha
rac
ter
ise
dbya
nint
ens
ifi
edpe
rsona
lis
ati
onof
pol
it
ica
ladvoc
acya
ndi
ncr
eas
eda
nti
-el
it
is
m,popul
ari
sat
iona
ndpopul
is
m”.
 Publ
icopi
nionha
s
be
comemo
reva
rie
dasar
esul
tofonl
inene
wss
our
cesbe
ingi
nfl
uenc
edby 
pol
it
ica
l
c
ommuni
cat
ion 
anda
gendas
ett
ing.

Rol
eofi
nfl
uent
ial
s

The
reha
vebe
enava
rie
tyo
fac
ade
mics
tudi
esi
nve
sti
gat
ingwhe
the
rornotpubl
icopi
nioni
s
i
nfl
uenc
edby"
inf
lue
nti
als
",orpe
rsonst
hatha
veas
igni
fi
cante
ffe
ctoni
nfl
uenc
ingopi
nionof
t
hege
ner
alpubl
icr
ega
rdi
nga
nyr
ele
vanti
ssue
s.Ma
nye
arl
yst
udi
es 
havemode
ledt
het
ran
sfe
rof
i
nfor
mat
ionf
rom 
mas
sme
dia
 sour
cest
othege
ner
alpubl
ica
sa"
two-
ste
p"pr
oce
ss.I
nthi
s
pr
oce
ss,i
nfor
mat
ionf
romma
ssme
diaa
ndot
herf
ar-
rea
chi
ngs
our
cesofi
nfor
mat
ioni
nfl
uenc
es
i
nfl
uent
ia
ls,a
ndi
nfl
uent
ial
sthe
ninf
lue
ncet
hege
ner
alpubl
ica
soppos
edt
othema
ssme
dia
di
rec
tlyi
nfl
uenc
ingt
hepub
lic
.

Whi
let
he"
two-
ste
p"pr
oce
ssr
ega
rdi
ngpubl
icopi
nioni
nfl
uenc
eha
smot
iva
tedf
urt
herr
ese
arc
h
ont
her
oleofi
nfl
uent
ia
lpe
rsons
,amo
rer
ece
nts
tudybyWa
ttsa
ndDodds(
2007)
 s
ugge
stst
hat
whi
lei
nfl
uent
ial
spl
ays
omer
olei
nin
flue
nci
ngpubl
icopi
nion,"
non-
inf
lue
nti
al"pe
rsonst
hat
ma
keupt
hege
ner
alpubl
ica
rea
lsoj
usta
sli
kel
y(i
fnotmor
eli
kel
y)t
oinf
lue
nceopi
nion
pr
ovi
dedt
hatt
hege
ner
alpubl
ici
scompos
edofpe
rsonst
hata
ree
asi
lyi
nfl
uenc
ed.Thi
sis
r
efe
rre
dtoi
nthe
irwor
kast
he"
Inf
lue
nti
alHypot
hes
is"
.Thea
uthor
sdi
scus
ssuc
hre
sul
tsb
y
us
ingamode
ltoqua
nti
fyt
henumbe
rofpe
opl
einf
lue
nce
dbybot
hthege
ner
alpubl
ica
nd
i
nfl
uent
ial
s.Themode
lca
nbee
asi
lyc
ust
omi
zedt
ore
pre
sentava
rie
tyofwa
yst
hati
nfl
uen
cer
s
i
nte
rac
twi
the
achot
hera
swe
lla
stheg
ene
ralpubl
ic.I
nthe
irs
tudy,s
uchamode
ldi
ver
gesf
rom
t
hepr
iorpa
radi
gmoft
he"
two-
ste
p"pr
oce
ss.TheWa
tt
sandDoddsmode
lint
roduc
esamode
lof
i
nfl
uenc
eempha
siz
ingl
ate
ralc
hanne
lsofi
nfl
uenc
ebe
twe
ent
hei
nfl
uenc
ersa
ndge
ner
alpu
bli
c
c
ate
gor
ies
.Thus
,thi
sle
adst
oamor
ecompl
exf
lowofi
nfl
uenc
eamongs
tthet
hre
epa
rti
es
i
nvol
vedi
ninf
lue
nci
ngpubl
icopi
nion(
i.
e.me
dia
,inf
lue
nce
rsa
ndge
ner
alpubl
ic)
.

Q.
5 Wha
twe
ret
hec
aus
esoff
orma
tionofPa
kis
tanNa
tiona
lAl
li
anc
eaga
ins
ttheBhut
to
gove
rnme
nt?

The
 Pa
kis
tanNa
tiona
lAl
li
anc
e,wa
sa 
popul
is
t 
andc
ons
oli
dat
edr
ight
-wi
ng 
pol
it
ica
lal
li
anc
e,
c
ons
ist
ingof
 ni
nepol
it
ica
lpa
rti
es 
oft
hec
ount
ry.For
medi
n1977,t
hec
ount
ry'
sle
adi
ngr
ight
-
wi
ngpa
rti
esa
gre
edupont
orunapol
it
ic
alc
ampa
igna
sas
ingl
ebl
oca
gai
nstt
he 
le
ft
or
ient
ed 
PPP 
int
he 
1977ge
ner
ale
lec
tions
.

De
spi
tee
achpa
rti
ess
tandi
ngwi
thadi
ff
ere
nti
deol
ogy,PNAwa
snot
edf
ori
tsl
argephys
ica
l
mome
ntuma
ndi
tsr
ight
-wi
ngor
ient
ati
on,or
igi
nal
lya
ime
dtooppos
ePr
imeMi
nis
ter
 Zul
fi
kar
Al
iBhut
to 
andt
he 
PPP.
 De
spi
tei
ts
 r
ight
-wi
ngpopul
is
t 
age
nda
,thea
lli
anc
epe
rfor
medpoo
rlyi
n
t
he 
1977ge
ner
ale
lec
tion 
andl
eve
lle
dac
cus
ati
onsof
 r
iggi
ng 
thee
lec
tions
.Af
termont
hs
of
 s
pont
ane
ousvi
ole
nt 
pol
it
ica
lac
tivi
sm,t
he 
mar
ti
all
aw 
camei
nef
fec
tunde
r c
hie
fofa
rmy
s
taf
f 
Gene
ral
 Zi
a-ul
-Ha
q whoma
dec
allf
ora
 pol
it
ica
lre
tri
but
ion.By1978,t
hea
lli
anc
eme
tit
s
e
ndwhe
npa
rti
esdi
ver
gedi
nea
chofi
tsa
genda
.Thel
eft
-wi
ngpa
rti
esl
ate
rwoul
dfor
mthe
 MRD
a
lli
anc
e unde
rPPPt
ooppos
ePr
esi
dentZi
a-ul
-Ha
qint
he1980sa
ndt
her
ight
-wi
ngf
ormi
ng
t
he 
IDAa
lli
anc
e unde
r PML.

The
 PPP 
camei
n powe
rpol
it
ic
s a
fte
rthe
 l
oss
 of
 Ea
st-
Paki
st
an 
in1971.Af
terupl
if
ti
ngt
he
ma
rti
all
awi
n1972a
ndpr
omul
gat
ingt
he 
cons
ti
tut
ion 
in1973,t
hePPPma
des
lowe
ffor
tst
o
a
dva
ncet
he"
Isl
ama
ndde
moc
rac
y"i
nthec
ount
ry,buti
nte
nsi
fi
edt
he 
soc
ial
is
m wi
tha
ve
nge
anc
e. 
Fir
sta
ndf
ore
mos
t,t
he 
nat
iona
lis
ati
onpr
ogr
am 
wasc
arr
iedoutt
oce
ntr
ali
sedt
he
l
arge
-sc
alei
ndus
tri
es,pr
iva
te-
sec
tora
ndc
omme
rci
alc
orpor
ati
ont
ose
tupt
hes
trong 
st
at
e
s
ect
or.
 Re
sent
menta
ndhe
avydi
sappr
ova
lca
mef
romt
hee
lit
e 
cor
por
ates
ect
or 
andPPP
i
nte
nsi
fi
edi
tspubl
icpr
ogr
amsa
tthes
oci
alc
irc
les
. 
Alt
hought
hege
ner
ale
lec
tionswe
ret
obe
he
ldonha
lfof1977,Bhut
toma
deamovea
ndc
all
edf
orhol
dingt
hege
ner
ale
lec
tionson7
J
anua
ry1977.

Ea
rlyc
all
sfort
hee
lec
tionswa
sani
deat
onott
ogi
vent
imet
otheoppos
it
iont
oma
kede
cis
ions
a
nda
rra
nge
ment
sfort
hef
ort
hcomi
nge
lec
tions
. 
Imme
dia
tel
yaf
tert
hea
nnounc
eme
nt,Bhu
tto
s
tar
tedhi
sel
ect
ionc
ampa
igna
ndbe
gana
llot
ti
ngpa
rtyt
icke
tst
opa
rty'
sca
ndi
dat
es.
 Se
nsi
ngt
he
di
ff
icul
tyoff
aci
ngPPPa
lone
,thec
ons
erva
tivema
ssbe
gant
ocons
oli
dat
ewhe
n J
eI 
cont
act
ing
t
he 
Paki
st
anMus
li
mLe
ague
 (PML)a
nd 
TeI
. 
Theot
hers
mal
lni
nepa
rti
est
ooj
oine
dthea
lli
anc
e
a
ndi
nit
ial
lyc
all
edf
ore
ndi
ngt
he 
erao
fst
agf
lat
ion 
int
hec
ount
rya
ndi
tsma
nif
est
owa
stobr
ing
ba
ckt
he1970pr
ice
s.

Ri
ght
-wi
ngpopul
is
mandvi
ole
nce

Att
hispl
atf
orm,t
hemode
rnEur
ope
ans
tyl
e-i
nfl
uenc
edf
orc
esf
orme
dana
lli
anc
ewi
tht
ota
lly
oppos
it
eof
 ha
rd-
li
neI
sla
mis
tfor
ces
. 
Thea
lli
anc
ede
cide
dtoc
ont
estt
hee
lec
tionsunde
ron
e
e
lec
tions
ymbol"
plough"a
ndagr
eenf
lagwi
thni
nes
tar
sasi
tse
nsi
gn.

Cont
est
ingt
he1977e
lec
tionsj
oint
lyt
hePNAl
aunc
hedana
tiona
lca
mpa
igna
gai
nstt
he
gove
rnme
nta
fte
rthec
ont
rove
rsi
ala
nda
ll
ege
dlyr
igge
dre
sul
tss
howi
ngt
hePe
opl
esPa
rtya
san
ove
rwhe
lmi
ngvi
ctor
yint
hege
ner
ale
lec
tions
. 
Thea
git
ati
onc
aughtt
hePe
opl
esPa
rtya
ndi
ts
pol
it
ica
lsc
ient
is
ts,bys
urpr
is
eanda
fte
rse
ver
almont
hsofs
tre
etf
ight
inga
ndde
mons
tra
tions
.
Unde
radvi
sedbyhi
sadvi
ser
s,Bhut
toope
nedne
got
iat
ionswi
tht
het
henPNAl
eade
rshi
pbut
whe
the
rornoti
twoul
dha
vebe
ens
igne
dbya
llPNApa
rti
esorbyBhut
tor
ema
insope
nto
s
pec
ula
tion.I
nas
ingl
eunus
uala
nti
-Bhut
tobl
oc,t
hea
lli
anc
ese
eme
dtobee
ffe
cti
vewhe
n
t
appi
ngawa
vet
ore
moveBhut
tof
romgove
rnme
nt.

Me
anwhi
le,Bhut
to'
str
ust
edc
onf
ide
nta
ndal
if
elongc
ompa
niondr
. 
Muba
shi
rHa
ssa
n t
ri
edt
o
ha
ndl
ethes
it
uat
iononbe
hal
fofBhut
tobybr
ingi
ngt
hea
lli
anc
eonat
abl
etor
eac
hana
gre
eme
nt
ofc
o-e
xis
tenc
eandavi
talpol
it
ica
lsol
uti
on.
 Onot
herha
nd,Ha
ssa
nadvi
sedBhut
tot
onott
ore
ly
e
ithe
rone
sta
bli
shme
ntorus
ethef
orc
etoc
urbt
hea
lli
anc
e.Ana
gre
eme
ntwa
seve
ntua
ll
y
r
eac
hedi
nJune1977a
ndBhut
towa
stos
igni
ton5J
uly.
 Howe
ver
,de
spi
tet
hee
nthus
ias
moft
he
ne
got
iat
ingt
eam,ot
herPNAl
eade
rsha
dre
ser
vat
ionsa
boutt
hea
gre
eme
nt.
 I
nre
spons
e,Zu
lfi
qar
Al
iBhut
toa
lsot
ri
edt
ocr
usht
hepowe
roft
hisa
lli
anc
e,wi
tht
hehe
lpofhi
sage
nci
ess
uch
a
s FSF 
and
 Ra
nge
rs 
andf
ort
hisr
eas
onwa
sal
soc
ons
ide
redf
ort
hec
aus
eofBhut
to'
sha
ngi
ngon
4Apr
il197
9. 
Inac
oups
tage
dbyGe
ner
alZi
a,Bhut
towa
sre
move
dfr
omof
fi
cewi
thma
jor
it
yof
hi
scol
lea
gue
s.
Aut
hor
it
ari
ani
sma
ndPNAs
pli
t

Thec
ons
erva
tive
sandI
sla
mis
tfr
ont
swe
ntt
oGe
ner
al 
Zia
-ul
-Ha
q, 
Chi
efofAr
mySt
aff
 and
Admi
ral
 Moha
mma
dSha
rif
f,
 Cha
irma
n oft
he 
Joi
ntChi
efsofSt
affCommi
tt
ee,a
ndc
onvi
nce
d
t
hemt
ore
moveBhut
toa
ndnoot
hera
gre
eme
nti
sre
ache
dwi
thBhut
toa
ndhi
scol
lea
gue
s
r
ema
ine
dst
ubbor
n.Thea
bse
nceofaf
orma
lagr
eeme
ntbe
twe
ent
hegove
rnme
nta
ndt
hePNA
wa
sus
eda
sane
xcus
ebyt
he 
Paki
st
anDe
fenc
eFor
ces
 unde
rit
scha
irma
nAdmi
ralMoha
mma
d
Sha
rif
fwhi
chl
edt
ost
ageaCoupd'
ét
at(
see
 Ope
rat
ionFa
irPl
ay)byGe
ner
al 
Zia
ulHa
que
 t
o
br
eakt
hei
mpa
sse
.Thos
ejus
ti
fyi
ngt
hec
oup,a
rguet
hatnoa
gre
eme
ntha
dbe
enr
eac
hedbe
twe
en
t
het
wos
ide
s.

Cont
rove
rsyr
ega
rdi
ngf
ore
igns
uppor
t
Ma
ina
rti
cle
: 
Paki
st
an-
Uni
tedSt
ate
sre
lat
ions

On5J
uly1977,t
he 
PPP 
acc
use
dtheUni
tedSt
ate
sofpl
ott
ingt
hec
oupa
ndma
int
aine
dtha
tthe
c
oupha
dta
citc
ons
entf
romt
heUni
tedSt
ate
s. 
Afe
wbe
for
ethema
rti
all
aw,Bhut
toha
d
i
ndi
cat
edt
hatf
ewf
ore
ignpowe
rsha
dbe
ene
ngi
nee
rin
ghi
sdownf
all
,thoughhedi
dnotna
me
whi
chf
ore
ignpowe
rs.
 Se
ver
alPa
kis
tanis
chol
arsa
ndr
ese
arc
her
sha
vegi
venc
rede
ncet
o
Bhut
to'
scl
aim.
 Theve
rac
ityoft
hes
ecl
aimsa
redi
ff
icul
ttove
rif
ysi
ncet
heUni
tedSt
ate
sha
s
s
trongl
yre
jec
teda
nyc
lai
msoft
hei
rin
vol
veme
nti
ndownf
allofBhut
to.
 Though,
f
orme
r Ame
ric
anAt
tor
neyGe
ner
al 
Rams
eyCl
ark 
didque
sti
one
dthe"
knowl
edge
,he
ncet
het
aci
t
a
ppr
ova
l"o
fthec
oups
tage
daga
ins
tthePPP.

Fur
the
r me
dia
 i
nve
sti
gat
iver
ese
arc
hshowe
dtha
toneofPNA'
sle
adi
ngpol
it
ici
an,
 Ai
r
Ma
rsha
l 
(r
eti
red)
 As
gha
rKha
n whowa
spe
rha
psc
los
ert
othes
ecr
et 
est
abl
is
hme
nt,ha
dre
cei
ved
mi
ll
ionsof
 Rupe
es 
fr
omt
hee
sta
bli
shme
nta
ccountt
ofi
ghta
gai
nstt
he 
PPP.
 Re
por
tedl
y,i
twa
s
As
gha
rKh
anwhoul
ti
mat
elyc
all
edf
ormi
li
tar
yta
keove
randha
ngi
ngofBhut
to.Af
ter
i
mpos
it
ionofma
rti
all
aw,t
her
eti
reda
irma
rsha
lwi
thdr
ewhi
mse
lff
romt
hef
rontl
ineoft
he
PNAa
ndt
ookaba
cks
eat
.

I
n1998,
 Be
naz
irBhut
to 
publ
ic
lya
nnounc
edhe
rbe
lie
ftha
the
rfa
the
rwa
s"s
entt
othega
llo
wsa
t
t
hei
nst
anc
eoft
hes
upe
rpowe
r(mos
tbe
lie
vei
ttobeUSA)f
orpur
sui
ngt
henuc
lea
r
c
apa
bil
it
y, 
thoughs
hedi
dnotdi
scl
ose
dthena
meoft
hef
ore
ignpowe
r.