ESTRUCTURAS AERONAUTICAS

Introducción

Ing. Fabio Merchán, CMSc, Esp.

DISEÑO !
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SISTEMA RETRÁCTIL PARA CÁMARA FLIR
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CARAVAN
 SIST. PROWLER
ARC-802
CONFIGURAC
ION
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CONFIGURACIÓN ORIGINAL
 • The primary factors to consider in aircraft structures are
strength, weight, and reliability.

All materials used to construct an

aircraft must be reliable.

http://www.zenithair.com/zodiac/gif/6fox2.jpg

Reliability minimizes the possibility of

dangerous and unexpected failures.
 Concepto de diseño estructural

• Dentro de un diseño de una aeronave cuales son las principales

restricciones que se pueden definir?.
– Peso estructural.
– Cargas de diseño.
– Configuración estructural.
– Materiales.
– Tipos de uniones.
– Costos de manufactura.

• Cuál es el principal papel del ingeniero estructurista?

– Seleccionar forma y dimensiones de los componentes estructurales.
– Seleccionar materiales.
– Seleccionar tipos y sistemas de unión.
– Garantizar que la estructura resista las cargas a las cuales esta sometida sin
comprometer la integridad estructural de la misma.
• Cuál es el proceso que se debe seguir en el diseño estructural de
una aeronave?
• De acuerdo al proceso general de diseño en la industria aeroespacial,
explique qué posibles grupos de diseño pueden estar implicado y su
interacción para la construcción de una ala.
• Explique la diferencia entre análisis y experimentación, cuales son
las ventajas y desventajas de cada uno.

– El ingeniero puede predecir alguna falla de su diseño sin la necesidad de

construir algún prototipo y probarlo.

• Cuáles son los principales prerrequisitos que debe predeterminar

dentro de un diseño el ingeniero estructurista?

– Forma geométrica de la estructura.

– Entrada de calor.
– Cargas mecánicas.
– Deformaciones en la estructura.

• En un diseño estructural que son la cargas internas y las

deformaciones, porque son de utilidad?

– Producidas por la aplicación de cargas aerodinámicas.

– Verificación de que no se presenten desplazamientos excesivos en la estructura.
• Cuáles son los tres tipos de aproximaciones inherentes
en cualquier análisis estructural?

– Aproximaciones teóricas.
– Aproximación estadística.
– Aproximación computacional.
 A/C
Aircraft structural
members are
designed to carry a
Forces Structural load or to resist
stresses stress.

Conditions

Flying Statics

Maneuver
Force of gravity produces weight

Landing gear
Causes acceleration or deceleration
increases the forces and stresses on the
wings and fuselage.
Absorbs the forces
 Cargas
Cargas Internas
Externas

Esfuerzos

Deformacion
es
 Bending action creates a tension
Bending force on the fuselage stress on the lower skin of the
fuselage and a compression stress on
Airflow the top skin.
Figure: © Southwestern Illinois College
 RECUENTO HISTORICO Y
MATERIALES
• Primeros aviones: Madera de bambú y
superficies en “fabric” (1910).
• Estructuras tipo “TRUSS”.
• Estructuras livianas y de difícil acabado
aerodinámico por la técnica de construcción.
• Nuevos registros de velocidad y exigencias de
carga generan cambio materiales por madera
prensada “PLYWOOD” (1920).
J22
http://plymaster.com.au/pics/CD%20grade%20Plywood%20[Desktop%20Resolution].jpg
 • Irish linen and cotton.
Covering airframes. Sag
aircraft structure.
• Builders began coating the
fabrics with oils and
varnishes.
• Extreme flammability.
• Lack of durability, limited
service life.
• Coated fabric proved
http://cherokeesailplanes.blogspot.com/2010_03_01_archive.html
unsuccessful.
 An edge which has been cut by machine or special pinking shears

Materials and techniques are in the

manufacturer’s service manual.

Aircraft originally manufactured

with cotton fabric can only be re-
covered with cotton fabric unless
the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) approves an
exception.

Approved supplemental type

certificate (STC).

Field approval
• Do the work in accordance with
an approved supplemental type
certificate (STC).

• Specify that it is for the

particular a/c model in
question

Detail exactly what alternate

materials must be used and what
procedure(s) must be followed.
 STC

Alteraciones o modificaciones principales a un

producto aeronáutico.

Cambios es peso y balance

Estructura

Limitaciones de operación
Resistencia estructural

Aeronavegabilidad del producto

Componentes o sistemas

Cambian las condiciones del Certificado Tipo

 Alteración mayor o menor

Mayor Menor

Se tienen
No requiere
suficientes datos
aprobación de
aprobados
campo

SI NO

No requiere de
Requiere una
un aprobación
aprobación de
de campo
campo
• A Field Approval is the granting, by an
FAA airworthiness inspector, of FAA
“approval” for a major repair or major
alteration. The approval is given only after
conducting a physical inspection and/or
after reviewing data.
 OVERVIEW OF THE STEPS

• Do your homework.
• Create a standard data (SDP) package as
described in the ac.
• Submit the SDP to the local FSDO (Flight
Standards district office) .
• Interact with the ASI (aviation safety
inspector).
• Receive a final response.
 WHAT WILL THE ASI DO

• Evaluate the data.

• And if necessary
– Request additional data
– Forward to another ASI.
– Request engineering help (ACO) FAA Aircraft
Certification Office.
• Or Approve the data, or Deny the
request—in writing
DATO TÉCNICO ACEPTABLE: Se refiere a toda la documentación técnica requerida
para definir y sustentar la alteración de aviónica, la cual deberá incluir información del
diseño y cálculos de ingeniería, orden de ingeniería, planos, diseño de pruebas,
especificaciones técnicas, análisis de peso y balance, limitaciones operacionales,
características de vuelo, propuesta de suplementos a los manuales, dimensiones,
materiales y procesos que son necesarios.

CI-5102-082-011
Documentación técnica Información de diseño y
para definir y sustentar cálculos de Ingeniería
alteración o reparación

Orden de Ingeniería

Especificaciones
técnicas Diseño de pruebas

Planos

Características de vuelo

Análisis de peso y balance

Limitaciones
Propuesta de suplementos a los manuales, operacionales
dimensiones, materiales y procesos.
 Directivas de aeronavegabilidad
(AD’s)

Hojas de datos técnicos del certificado Manuales de Mantenimiento o

tipo (TCDS) instrucciones del fabricante aprobadas
por la Autoridad Aeronáutica del
Estado de Certificación del Producto.

Datos del certificado tipo Porciones del SRM aprobadas por la

suplementario. (STC) previniendo que Autoridad Aeronáutica del Estado de
este aplica específicamente al Certificación del Producto. Manual de
elemento que esta siendo reparaciones estructurales (SRM),
reparado/alterado. Tal documento solamente como una fuente de datos
puede ser considerado en su totalidad técnicos aprobados para una
o en parte como incluido dentro de los reparación mayor cuando es un
datos de diseño asociados con el STC documento aprobado por una autoridad
aeronáutica.
 Que diferencias hay entre reparaciones y
alteraciones mayores???
Reparación
mayor
Alteración
mayor
Es cuando retorna la Es un cambio del
aeronave o diseño tipo original de
componente a su la aeronave o
diseño Tipo original. componente.
 “Alteraciones mayores”

• Es una modificación registrada en las especificaciones

de la a/c?.
• Afecta o no la aeronavegabilidad de la a/c? En que
aspectos.
• Se puede hacer por medio de operaciones elementales
de manto?
• Como se da el manejo de alteraciones mayores en
Colombia?
• Que tipo de alteraciones y reparaciones mayores son
permitidas según el RAC
BELL TEXTRON HELICOPTER Inc Kit Huey II

Componentes para la conversión

 Cambio de rotor de cola y palas a modelo Bell

212.
 Cambio de rotor principal y palas a modelo
Bell 212,
 Kit para conversión de la transmisión principal
a modelo Bell 212,
 Cambio de mástil, platillo oscilante y controles
a modelo Bell 212,
 Cambio de cono de cola con todos
componentes a modelo Bell 212,
 Cambio de cajas de engranaje de 42 y 90
grados a modelo Bell 212,
 Cambio de ejes impulsores y colgantes de rotor
de cola a modelo Bell 212,
WHAT ARE THE REASONS FOR DENIAL

• Minor alteration—no 337 needed.

• Major change—STC needed.
• Data is already approved—no further approval is
needed
• Alteration contrary to safety.
• Continued failure to provide an adequate SDP—
FAA terminates the project.
 WHAT IS IN THE SDP

1. Field Approval Checklist.

2. Copies of supporting data including
any previously approved data.
3. FAA Form 337 not signed in block 6
or 7.
 DATA

• Chapter 2 of the AC provides all you need to

know about substantiating data.
• Approved data.
• Acceptable data.
• DER (Designated Engineering Representative)
approval of data.
• DER limitations.
 THE FIELD APPROVAL PROCESS

• Research.
• Obtain field approval.
• Perform the alteration.
 RESEARCH

• Thoroughly understand what is involved in

the alteration and how the aircraft and its
other systems will be affected by the work
you plan to do.
• Thoroughly understand how the approved
operation(s) of the aircraft be affected
 RESEARCH
• REGULATIONS INVOLVED
– Part 21, 23, 25, etc. (Airworthiness
Rules).
– Part 91, 121, 135 (Operating Rules).
– Review FAA Order 8310.6 Airworthiness
Compliance Check Sheets (reprinted).
– FAA Technical Advisory Circulars.
 RESEARCH
• AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS

– Previous Alterations
– A/C Manufacturer’s Data
– Service Bulletins
– STC’s already approved
– Other Field Approvals
– Flight Manual Supplements
 RESEARCH
• Equipment manufacturer’s technical
data

– Installation manuals
– STC’s
– Other data

23.301 loads
Strength requirements are
specified in terms of limit
loads (the maximum loads
to be expected in service)
and ultimate loads (limit
loads multiplied by
prescribed factors of safety)
FAR 23
23.305 Strength and
deformation
The structure must be able
The air, ground, and water to support limit loads without
loads must be placed in detrimental, permanent
equilibrium with inertia deformation. At any load up
forces, considering each to limit loads, the
item of mass in the airplane deformation may not
interfere with safe operation.
 FAR 23 Flight loads

23.321 General 23.333 Flight envelope

23.331 Symmetrical
Flight load factors flight conditions
represent the ratio of the
aerodynamic force Combination of airspeed
component and load factor

The wing loads and linear

inertia loads The airplane is assumed
corresponding to any of The incremental to be subjected to
the symmetrical flight horizontal tail loads due symmetrical vertical
conditions to maneuvering and gusts in level flight
gusts
 GROUND LOADS

External loads and inertia forces that

act upon an airplane structure

23.509 Towing loads.

23.507 Jacking loads.

23.481 Tail down landing 23.479 Level landing

conditions conditions

23.485 Side load conditions. 23.483 One-wheel

landing conditions.

23.493 Braked roll conditions

• PLYWOOD is replaced for aluminum
laminates.

• Duraluminum is discovered in Germany

(1909 – Alfred Wilm – Durener Mettalwerke).

• Wood limitations due to production crisis

1914-1918 and the change in the elastic
properties due to environment.
• Due to the new characteristics of
performance and new complex
structures the use of wood is just.

• Wing load more high and concentration

stress on critic points of the structures
like WING BOX and MLG TRUNNIONS,
where the wood wasn´t good adapted.
 ESTRUCTURAS AERONAUTICAS

OBJETIVO

• Resistir y transmitir las cargas,

proporcionar formas
aerodinámicas y proteger
pasajeros/carga/sistemas del
avión de las condiciones
ambientales encontradas
durante el vuelo.
• Primary structure: Structural elements that in
case of damage or failure could lead to failure of
the entire craft.

– Primary structure is that structure which carries flight,

ground, or pressurization loads, and whose failure
would reduce the structural integrity of the airplane.

• Secondary structure Structural elements that are

not part of the primary structure. Structural
elements mainly to provide enhanced
aerodynamics.
 TIPOS DE ESTRUCTURAS

• Estructura de piel esforzada (Stressed skin

structure).
• La gran parte de los esfuerzos son soportados
por la piel exterior.
• Poca cantidad de miembros estructurales
internos.
• Buena capacidad para dar formas
aerodinámicas.
• Alta probabilidad de grietas por efectos de
ondulamiento o “buckling”.
 TIPOS DE ESTRUCTURAS

 Semimonocasco:
 Conjunto de formadores,
larguerillos, y mamparos
unidos entre si a los
cuales se adhiere la piel.
 Monocasco: Conjunto de
formadores y mamparos
unidos a la piel quién
soporta las cargas de
operación.
• Although very strong, monocoque construction is
not highly tolerant to deformation of the surface.

• The biggest problem in monocoque construction is

maintaining enough strength while keeping the
weight within limits.

The formers and bulkheads

provide shape for the
fuselage.

The skin carries the primary

stresses.

No bracing members are

present.
• Conclusion
– Unstiffened shells. must be
relatively thick to resist bending,
compressive, and torsional loads.
 Substructure to which the airplane’s skin
The semimonocoque fuselage is is attached.
constructed primarily of aluminum
alloy, although steel and titanium are
found in high-temperature areas.

Skin reinforced by longitudinal

members.

Reinforces the stressed skin by

Stringers are more numerous and lightweight
taking some of the bending stress
than longerons.
from the fuselage.
• Conclusion
– Constructions with stiffening members that
may also be required to diffuse concentrated
loads into the cover.
– More efficient type of construction that permits
much thinner covering shell.
 Vertical displacement

unstiffened

stiffened

“Structural Mechanics (lecturer Vakulenko S.V.)”

 Bending stress

unstiffened

stiffened

“Structural Mechanics (lecturer Vakulenko S.V.)”

 TIPOS DE ESTRUCTURAS

• Truss type: Formada por largueros

soldados entre si que forman “well-
braced framework”.

• Miembros verticales y horizontales

(struts) dan forma rectangular o
cuadrada.

• Se instalan “struts” adicionales para

soportar esfuerzos. Larguerillos,
mamparos y formadores se añaden
para dar forma al fuselaje e instalar la
piel.
 TERMINOLOGIA ESTRUCTURAS
Son vigas
circulares en
J o C.
• Frame (Formador)
Es un miembro
circunferencial usado en
la construcción semi-
monocasco que soporta
los larguerillos y la piel.

Los formadores están diseñados para soportar cargas

laterales y los momentos de flexión adicional a las cargas
axiales.
TERMINOLOGIA ESTRUCTURAS

Give cross-sectional shape to
the fuselage, and they add
ridigity and strength to the
stucture.
Formers are the lightest.
The are used primarily for
fillings or skin attachments
between the larger members.

Heavier than formers,

they are equipped
with doors or other Frame assemblies are used to
mens of access. separate one section of the
fuselage from another.

BULKHEADS
 Structure terminology
• Longerons (Largueros) Primary bending loads are
taken by the longerons,
which usually extend across
• The strong, heavy several points of support.
longerons hold the
bulkheads and formers.

• The bulkheads and

formers hold the stringers.

• Rigid fuselage framework.

Generally the 20 to 40 stringers are replaced by 4 to 6 longerons. Longerons as the

stringers resists the bending load of the fuselage.
 Función de largueros/larguerillos
Stringers and longerons prevent tension and compression stresses from
bending the fuselage.

Designed

Support the axial forces

.
nevertheless

Support lateral forces Flexion moment

Axial
Load
They have the same job and application than the stringers,
but longerons are stiffer beams, mainly machined and they
are in less number over the circular periphery of the
fuselage circle.
 TERMINOLOGIA ESTRUCTURAS

• Stringers (Larguerillos)

They are longitudinal beams in

C, L or T form located in the
circular periphery of the
fuselage and equally circular
spaced over the fuselage
diameter.

The fuselage skin thickness varies with the load carried and
the stresses sustained at particular location.
TIPOS DE “STRINGERS”
TIPOS DE “STRINGERS”

They are riveted attached to skins

and frames. To skins to increase
stiffness, to frames to increase
buckling resistance.

The main job is to retain the bending loads

applied to the fuselage.
 TERMINOLOGIA ESTRUCTURAS

• Beams (Vigas)
Es un miembro primario
de un formador o un ala
usado para soportar
grandes cargas incluyendo
momentos de flexión.
En las alas es a menudo
llamado como “spar”.
 TIPOS DE “BEAMS”

.
 Función de las vigas

Las vigas estan • Las cargas laterales se

diseñadas para refieren a los esfuerzos
soportar cargas cortantes (Shear
laterales y los Stresses).
momentos de flexión • Los momentos de
que usualmente son flexión causan
esfuerzos de
mayores comparados
compresión y tensión
con sus respectivas
cargas axiales
 Truss
Es un miembro estructural en el
cual otros miembros se cruzan
para formar uno o más triángulos
interconectados
 Función estructuras “truss”
Están diseñados para soportar cargas axiales (tensión
y compresión) aplicadas en sus extremos
unicamente.

.
 TERMINOLOGIA ESTRUCTURAS
Las vigas que deben
soportar grandes cargas
axiales, particularmente
cargas de compresión, en
conjunto con cargas
laterales y momentos de
flexión son llamadas vigas
de columna o
beam-columns.
Nose section Center section Aft or rear section

Centre section needs to be large and strong. Why?

 Windows and doors
Cut-outs

It’s a engineering structural

When we design an problem
aircraft it’s very important
and necessary

The loads must be routed around

The fuselage needs to be strengthened around
the cut-outs.
them.

Spread evenly into surrounding skin and structure.

 Wings

• The wing is the aircraft structural part that generate the

require lift force that permits the aircraft to fly.
• Use the wing to transport fuel, engines, pylons and
external fuel tanks.
lift load

vibration loads
Wings structure must
resist several kind of drag load
different loads applied
to it:

engine thrust load

main landing gear loads
In its simplest form, the wing is a
framework made up of spars and
ribs and covered with metal.
SPAR

All the load carried by the wing

is taken up by the spars.

Designed to have great

bending strength.

RIBS

Transmit the air load from the

wing covering to the spars.
• Spar: The main center beam of the wing, designed to carry the
structural loads and transfer them by attachment to the fuselage, or
body, of the aircraft.

• Root: The wing root is the portion of the wing that attaches to the
fuselage, or body of the aircraft.

• Skin: The outer surface of the wing. Originally made of fabric,

modern aircraft use aluminum or composite materials due to their
lightweight and rust-resistant properties.

• Ribs & Stringers: These make up the inner skeleton of the wing,
providing rigidity and strength. While strength is necessary, it is also
important that the wing can flex slightly while it flies. This flexibility
allows it to absorb the stress caused by turbulence and hard
landings.
Zodiac wing.
Zodiac wing assembly.
Zodiac wing skin.
http://www.zenithair.com/bldr/images/6wing/hds%20top%20skin.jpg

http://www.zenithair.com/bldr/images/6wing/hd%20wing%20skeleton.jpg

Air loads increase as a the square of

the speed increase.
For instance at 500 knots the air loads
are five times.
http://www.zenithair.com/bldr/images/6wing/hds-bottom-skin.jpg
• The front spar is located at about 15 % chord.
• The rear spar at 55 to 60%.

Wing strong.
Typical spar sections
Very high speed aircraft.

May resist the

bending forces
imposed on it.
• Monospar wing

http://www.langleyflyingschool.com/Pages/CPGS%203%20Airframes,%20Engines%20and%20Systems,%20Part%201.html
 Wing skin
The two main spars are still
the main strength members, stressed-skin design
but a large contribution to the
strength is made by the skin.

Skin share some of the load.

 Web of a spar may be a plate or a
truss.

Fail-safe spar web design

Member of a complex structure fail

Other part of the structure

assumes the load of the
Light weight materials with vertical stiffeners failed member and permits
employed for strength. continued operation.
Camino de carga simple Distribución de carga a
través de solo un miembro

Camino de carga múltiple

Estructuras redundantes

Cargas se distribuyen de
manera segura en los
elementos.
• According to the AC 23-13A, define Fail-
safe:

– Fail-safe is the attribute of the structure that

permits it to retain its required residual
strength for a period of unrepaired use after
the failure or partial failure of a principal
structural element.
The structural load must be transferred by two loading paths,
if one of the loading paths fails the other must be capable to
safely transfer all the load with no structural failure.

Aeroteaching blog handbook

 What is a Principal Structural Element?

• A principal structural element (PSE) is an element that

contributes significantly to carrying flight, ground, or
cabin pressurization loads, and whose integrity is
essential in maintaining the overall structural integrity of
the airplane.
Fixed surface, Integrally stiffened
stabilator, or trimmable plates
stabilizer attachment Primary fittings
fittings.
Wing

horizontal
vertical fin
Principal splices
stabilizer

Spar caps
PSEs
forward
canard
wing

winglets/tip
fins

Skin or reinforcement
around cutouts or
discontinuities
Skin-stringer combinations
 Circumferential
frames and
adjacent skin

Pressure
Cockpit window
bulkheads

Pressurized
Skin and any
cabin
single frame or
stiffener Window frames
element around
a cutout

Door frames,
Skin around a
skins, and
cutout
latches;
 flights
Safe-Life
number of
landings
events

flight hours

Low probability that the strength

will degrade below its design
ultimate value due to fatigue
cracking.
The center wing is made by
The center wing is integrated with the
a structure assembly called
the wing box.
fuselage structure.

Main structural resistance of the wing to all type of loads applied to it.

All this elements are generally

made of machined high strength
aluminium alloys or titanium
alloys because of the high
strength requirements.

The center wing interior is mainly

used as fuel tank compartment
and main landing gear
compartment.
Wing box is made up of:
Skin
Spars (spar cap + web)
Stringers
Ribs
What kinds of
loads resist the Loads of engines, main landing
wing box? gear loads, external tanks, drag, lift
and inertial loads.

REMENBER

The outer wing is bolted to the root rib of the center

wing in order to transfer all the loads to the structure.
• Wing tip
– Non critical structures.
– Reduce drag and increase lift.

Box beam or torsion box construction

Stressed skin
Main spars Wet wing

Lighter construction (composites)

 Resumen elementos de rigidez
estructuras aeronáuticas
Estructuras tipo truss
• Rigidez estructural obtenida por miembros estructurales
orientados a 45° (barras tubos o cables y láminas).

Illustration of truss structure concept: diagonal function with wire-bracing (a-c), with rods (d), and with sheet (e-h).
(TU Delft, n.d., 5-4.jpg. Own Work.)
 EFECTOS EN LA ESTRUCTURA

1. Igual función, diferente estructura.

– DHC-6 (Twin Otter) configuración simple dos
vigas y costillas.
– Avión militar, múltiples vigas y pocas costillas y
larguerillos.

2. Las costillas dan forma al perfil, actúa con la piel

resistiendo cargas de presión aerodinámicas.

3. Distribuyen cargas concentradas y re-distribuyen

esfuerzos alrededor de discontinuidades.

4. Incrementan la resistencia a la deformación por

“doblamiento” o “buckling stress”.
 EFECTOS EN LA ESTRUCTURA
5. Las costillas cambian de tamaño según forma del ala
(rectangular, elíptica, tappered, etc), su posición y las cargas
soportadas.

6. Puntos intermedios, soportan reacciones superficies de

control.

7. Los paneles de piel forman una superficie impermeable para

soportar la distribución de presión aerodinámica, y las cargas
son transmitidas a costillas y larguerillos.
EFECTOS EN LA ESTRUCTURA
8. Estructura de celda, la resistencia al corte y torsión
es proporcionada por esfuerzos de corte
desarrollados en la piel y el alma de las vigas.

9. Cargas axiales y flexión son soportadas por la

acción combinada de la piel y los larguerillos.

10. Larguerillos unidos a la piel y estos a su vez a las

costillas le dan rigidez al conjunto.
EFECTOS EN LA ESTRUCTURA

11. Fuselajes, miembros con funciones similares,

origen y cargas soportadas diferentes.
12. Reacciones de superficies, cargas puntuales
(MLG), carga paga implican fuerzas de inercia.
13. Cargas de presurización radiales y repetitivas.
14. Estructuras ideales, secciones redondas o con sub-
secciones similares.
15. Aviones no presurizados tienen formas cercanas al
cuadrado o rectángulo.
EFECTOS EN LA ESTRUCTURA
16. Fuselaje, construcción simple en celda tubular de
delgada piel, formadores transversales, larguerillos
y otros miembros estructurales que se extienden a
través del fuselaje en secciones específicas
llamados mamparos o “Bulckheads”.

17. Formadores, soportan cargas concentradas del piso

o provenientes del ala, puntos de sujeción de
superficies. Más robustos que otros ligeramente
cargados y de formas que proporcionen rigidez y
transmisión de cargas a otro formadores y la piel.
18. Efecto de la geometría del elemento de rigidez.

Effect of stiffener geometry on deformation induced by panel compression. (Alderliesten, 2011, 5-8.jpg. Own
Work.)

19. Típicamente en estructuras de aeronaves el espaciamiento entre

larguerillos es alrededor de 100 – 200 mm y el espaciamiento entre
costillas es de aproximadamente 300 mm (leer artículo 11).
20. Intersecciones entre larguerillos y costillas.

Larguerillo ininterrumpido

Larguerillo interrumpido

(TU Delft, n.d., 5-32.jpg. Own Work.)

 According to the next statement specify the
structural member
21. Reacts the applied torsion and shear forces transmits aerodynamic forces to the
longitudinal and transverse supporting members
• acts with the longitudinal members in resisting the applied bending and axial loads
• acts with the transverse members in reacting the hoop, or circumferential, load when the
structure is pressurized.

22. Structural integration of the wing and fuselage.

Keep the wing in its aerodynamic profile.

23. Resist bending and axial loads.

Form the wing box for stable torsion resistance.

24. Resist bending and axial loads along with the skin.
Divide the skin into small panels and thereby increase its buckling and failing stresses
Act with the skin in resisting axial loads caused by pressurization.
25. Some of the key parts that use lugs include engines pylon support
fittings, wing fuselage attachments, and landing gear links are the
typical applications of this type. (Sumanth M H, Ayyappa T)
 • Remember aircraft categories.

http://www.ecfr.gov
 Flight control surfaces

Change the attitude of the aircraft during flight.

Primary Secondary Auxiliary

Wing flaps, spoilers,

Ailerons, elevators, Trim tabs, spring tabs. speed brakes, and
and rudders slats.

Let the pilot trim out an

Longitudinal Lateral control unbalanced condition without
control axis axis (longitudinal exerting pressure on the Additional
(lateral stability) stability) primary controls. control of the
aircraft
Vertical control axis Aid the pilot in moving a
(directional stability) larger control surface, such as
the ailerons and elevators
Higher CLmax allows the aircraft to
have a smaller wing area that
results in a lighter wing

Temporarily vary (increase) the

wing camber.

High lift device is deflected

downward

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EhMNpyOhSvU
 Ejes de movimiento del Avión

• Pitch
• Roll
• Yaw
Safety Factor
 Introduction

 The load conditions of an aircraft are those

forces which acts both in flight and ground.

 Since it is impossible to determine all loads to

which the aircraft is subjected during its useful
life, only is necessary analysis the most
critical loads for each component.
 General considerations

 Each aircraft is built for safely performing a

specific mission.

 To ensure safety, structural integrity and

reliability of the aircraft with optimality of
design, there are government agencies that
establish specifications and particular
requirements according to the loads to which
they are subjected.
 General considerations
Limit loads used by civilian agencies or the applied
loads used by military agencies, are the maximum
loads that is expected will be submitted the aircraft
during its useful life.

The ultimate load or design load is the load limit

multiplied by the factor of safety.
General considerations
 General considerations

Factors that have influence over the safety factor are:

• Simplifications rewarded during analysis.

• Variations on the material properties and the quality

control standards.

• Emergency actions according the maneuvering

make by the pilot, the result: high loads different to
the design.
STRUCTURAL LOADS

§23.2230 Limit and ultimate loads.

The applicant must determine—
(a) The limit loads, which are equal to the
structural design loads unless otherwise
specified elsewhere in this part; and
(b) The ultimate loads, which are equal to the
limit loads multiplied by a 1.5 factor of safety
unless otherwise specified elsewhere in this
part.

http://www.ecfr.gov
 STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE
FAR 23.305 Strength and deformation.

a. The structure must be able to support limit loads without detrimental,

permanent deformation. At any load up to limit loads, the deformation may
not interfere with safe operation.

b. The structure must be able to support ultimate loads without failure for at
least three seconds. However when proof of strength is shown by dynamic
tests simulating actual load conditions, the three second limit does not
apply.

§23.2235 Structural strength.

The structure must support:
(a) Limit loads without—
(1) Interference with the safe operation of the airplane; and
(2) Detrimental permanent deformation.
(b) Ultimate loads.
 Consideraciones generales
Tabla 1. Factores de seguridad y circunstancias en las cuales son
usados
Conocimiento
Conocimiento Conocimiento Conocimiento Fac tor de
de los
de las cargas del ambiente del material seguridad
esfuerzos
Determinación Determinación Condiciones
1 Bien conocido 1.25 - 1.5
exacta exacta controlables
Determinados Determinados
Rasonablement
2 con alta con alta Bien conocido 1.5 - 2.0
e constante
exactitud exactitud
3 Determinables Determinables Ordinario Promedio 2.0 - 2.5
Menos probado
4 Promedio Promedio Promedio 2.5 - 3.0
o frágil
5 Promedio Promedio Promedio Sin probar 3.0 - 4.0
6 Incierto Incierto Incierto Mejor conocido 3.0 - 4.0
Nota: Para cargas repetidas, FS es aplicado para asegurar resistencia. Para cargas de impacto se usan los items
3-6, pero incluyen un factor de impacto. Para materiales frágiles cuando se usa la resistencia última, se usan
los items 1-6 duplicado. Si FS más altos parecen deseables, refine su análisis y sus pruebas.
• Limit Load = maximum load in normal
operation
• Proof Load = Limit Load x Safety Factor
(1.0 1.25), aircraft should not have
detrimental distortion.
• Ultimate Load = 1.5 x Limit Load
– Aircraft should not fail until ultimate load
is applied.
§23.2265 Special factors of safety.
(a) The applicant must determine a special factor of safety for each critical design
value for each part, article, or assembly for which that critical design value is
uncertain, and for each part, article, or assembly that is—
(1) Likely to deteriorate in service before normal replacement; or
(2) Subject to appreciable variability because of uncertainties in manufacturing
processes or inspection methods.
(b) The applicant must determine a special factor of safety using quality controls and
specifications that account for each—
(1) Type of application;
(2) Inspection method;
(3) Structural test requirement;
(4) Sampling percentage; and
(5) Process and material control.
(c) The applicant must multiply the highest pertinent special factor of safety in the
design for each part of the structure by each limit and ultimate load, or ultimate load
only, if there is no corresponding limit load, such as occurs with emergency condition
loading.