Z-Transform and Analog-to-Digital Conversion

Dr. Ismael Soto, PhD

Universidad de Santiago de Chile

June 28, 2020

Santiago, Chile

I. Soto
c (U. de Santiago de Chile) Signals and Systems 2017 1 / 29
Index

1 Z-Transform
2 Measure of Information
3 Noiseless Coding
4 Quantization
Scalar Quantization
Pulse-Code Modulation
5 Binary Signal Transmission
6 Matched Filter
7 Spectral Analysis Using Windows
8 Signal Waveforms with Four Amplitude Levels
9 Multidimensional Signals

I. Soto
c (U. de Santiago de Chile) Signals and Systems 2017 1 / 29
 Conversión analógica a digital y Transformada Z (Ampliado)

Analog-to-Digital Conversion and Z-Transform (Extended)

I. Soto Ⓧc(U. de Santiago de Chile) Signals and Systems 20173/30

Transformada Z
La transformada Z

La transformada z constituye una herramienta fundamental en el

tratamiento de señales discretas. El papel que juega la transformada z
en sistemas discretos en el tiempo es bastante similar al de la
transformada de Laplace en sistemas continuos en el tiempo.

 T (t )
X (t ) X * (t )
Modulador

Muestreador

*
Recordemos que X (t ) se expresa como :

X * (t )   x ( kT ) (t  kT )
k 0
 Ahora se define la transformada z tomando la transformada de
Laplace de la expresión anterior. Tenemos :


X * ( s )  L X * (t ) 

X * ( s )   x(kT )e kTs
k 0

Luego, haciendo z = eTs , nos queda :


1
X * ( s )  X * ( ln z )   x(kT ) z k
T k 0

es decir :

X * ( s )  X ( z )   x(kT ) z k
k 0
Transformada Z

*
A X(z) se le denomina transformada de z de X (t ) y la notación
* *
para la transformada de z de X (t ) es Z X (t ) .  
Como X(z) depende únicamente de los valores de X(t) en t=kT
(k = 0,1,2,...), la transformada inversa de z de X(z) da información
sobre X(t) únicamente en los instantes de muestreo.

Veamos algunos ejemplos de cálculo :

1. Obtener la transformada z de la señal X(t), donde :
X(t) = u(t)

z
Z (u (t ))   u (kT ) z  k  1  z 1  z  2  ... 
k 0 z 1
Transformada Z

1. X(t) = e-at  t0


Z (e at )   e akT z k 
k 0

 aT z
1 e 1
z  e 2 aT z 2  ... 
z  e aT

2. X(t) = sin t  t0

z
Como Z (e  at ) 
z  e  aT
 e jt  e  jt 
Z sin t   Z  
 2j 
1  z z 
   
2 j  z  e j T z  e  j  T 
Entonces,
z sin T
Z sent  
z 2  2 z cosT  1
Transformada Z

NOTA : En la transformada de z sólo se consideran los valores de la

señal en los instantes de muestreo. Por lo tanto, la transformada de z de
X(t) y de X*(t) dan el mismo resultado.

A continuación se presenta una tabla de transformada de z y sus

propiedades.
Transformada Z


(t
Impulso 1 ) Z  (k )     (k ) z  k  z 0  1
k 0
unitario

T
Z u (k )    z  k
k 0
u(kT
Escalón 1 )  serie geometrica de razón z -1

unitario 1 z
Z u (k )   1

T 1 z z 1
T
 

Exponencial e- Z e  akT    e  akT z  k   (e  aT z 1 )  k

1 akT k 0 k 0
decreciente 1 z
Z e  akT   -aT 1

T 1 e z z  e-aT
Funciones racionales de z
Transformada Z
Transformada Z

Z  af1 (k )  bf 2 (k )   aF1 ( z )  bF2 ( z )

Linealida
d
  
Z  af1 (k )  bf 2 (k )    (af1 (k )  bf 2 (k )) z  k  a  f1 (k ) z  k  b  f 2 (k ) z  k 
k 0 k 0 k 0

 aF1 ( z )  bF2 ( z )
Tarea:
Retardos Demostrar
Z  f (k  d )   z  d F ( z )
 d 1

Z  f (k  d )   z d  F ( z )   f (k ) z  k 
 k 0 
Transformada Z

Valor lim f (k )  lim F ( z )

inicial k 0 z 

lim F ( z )  lim f (0)  f (1) z 1  f (2) z 2  ...  f (0)

z  z 
Transformada Z

lim f (k )  lim (1  z 1 ) F ( z ) Supuesta

Valor k  z 1
estable
final
  
(1  z 1 ) F ( z )   f (k ) z  k   f (k  1) z  k    f (k )  f (k  1)  z  k 
k 0 k 0 k 0

  f (0)  f (1)  f (1)  f (0)  f (2)  f (1)  f (3)  f (2)  ..... z  k 

   f (1)  f ()  z  k si z  1  f()

1
 F ( z) z
k 1
Transformada f (k )  dz Donde el
Z inversa 2 j camino
cerrado
encierra las
singularidades
de F(z)
 Transformada Z
Propiedades de F(z)

∞
Convolució ෍𝑓(𝑖ሻ𝑔(𝑘 − 𝑖ሻ
n 𝑖=0

 
Transforma Z   f (i ) g (k  i )   F ( z )G ( z )
da z de la  i 0 
Convolució
n
Transformada Z
Transformada Z
Transformada Z
 Transformada Z

Soluciones de ecuaciones diferencias

mediante el empleo de la transformada de z.

1. x(k+2)+3x(k+1)+2x(k)=0 x(0)=0
x(1)=1
Tomando las transformadas de z de ambos miembros de esta
ecuación diferencial discreta, se obtiene : Demostrar de donde
z2x(z)–z2x(0)–zx(1)+3zx(z)–3zx(0)+2x(z) = 0 proviene este
desarrollo
reemplazando valores iniciales y simplificando, se tiene:
z
X ( z) 
z  3z  2
2

z z
 
z 1 z  2
 Transformada Z

Notando que:
z
Z (a k ) 
za
Se tiene


Z  1 
k
 z
z 1 y 
Z  2  
k
 z
z2

Se obtiene finalmente: X (k )  (1) k  (2) k (k=0,1,2,...)

 Transformada Z

2. Hallar la respuesta x(k) del siguiente sistema :

x(k+2)–3x(k+1)+2x(k)= u(k) x(k)=0  k0
u(0)=1
u(k)=0  k0
Reemplazando k = -1 en la ecuación de diferencias, se obtiene:
x(1)=0
Ahora, tomando transformada z de la ecuación de diferencia y
considerando los valores iniciales x(0)= x(1)=0, se obtiene:
(z2-3z+2)X(z)=U(z)
Se hace notar que la transformada de z de la función exitadora
u(k) es :

U (k )   u (k ) z k  1
k 0

Por lo tanto,
1 1 1
X ( z)   
z 2  3z  2 z  1 z  2
 Transformada Z
Usando la relación
zx(k  1)  zX ( z)  zx(0)
Con x(0)=0, se obtiene :
zx(k  1)  zX ( z) DE DONDE
z z SE EXTRAE
  ESTO?
z 1 z  2

Como  
Z 1k 
z
z 1
y  
Z 2k 
z
z2
Entonces x(k  1)  1  2 k k=0,1,2,...

Finalmente, x(k )  1  2 k 1 k=1,2,...

VER CAPITULO 3.5

PROAKIS
 Transformada Z
Transformada z Inversa

Existen tres métodos para obtener la transformada z inversa :

1. Desarrollo en una serie infinita de potencias.
2. Desarrollo en fracciones parciales.
3. Integral de inversión.
Aunque intuitivamente ya hemos visto cómo encontrar la
transformada inversa a través de tablas, estos métodos establecen una
formalización para el tema. Para nuestros objetivos, sólo nos basta
con los dos primeros métodos.

1. X ( z )   x(kT ) z  k
k 0

 x(0)  x(T ) z 1  x(2T ) z 2  ...  x(kT ) z  k  ...

 Transformada Z
Se pueden determinar los valores de x(kT) por inspección.
Aunque el método presentado da los valores x(0), x(T), x(2T), ... en
forma secuencial, habitualmente es difícil obtener una expresión
general a partir de un juego de valores de x(kT).

Analicemos un ejemplo para clarificar lo expuesto.

Hallar x(kT) para k=0,1,2,3… cuando X(z) está dada por :
10z
X ( z) 
( z  1)( z  2)
se puede escribir
10z 1
X ( z) 
1  3z 1  2 z 2
Tras efectuar la división
X ( z )  10z 1  30z 2  70z 3  150z 4 ...
 Transformada Z
Esta serie infinita converge, por lo tanto, por inspección, se obtiene:
x(0)=0, x(T)=10, x(2T)=30, x(3T)=70, x(4T) =150
2. El segundo método está basado en la técnica del desarrollo en
fracciones parciales
Hallar x(kT) si X(z) está dada por:
10z
X ( z) 
( z  1)( z  2)
Primero se desarrolla X(z)/z en fracciones simples
X ( z) 10  10 10
  
z ( z  1)( z  2) z  1 z  2
Entonces, se obtiene :
 10z 10z
X ( z)  
z 1 z  2
De las tablas se encuentra :
 z   z 
Z 1   1 Z 1   2k
 z  2 
y
 z  1
 d h  0.167
  h   u  G ( s )  
q dt s   s  1.252
 G (s)    
H ( z )  (1  z 1 ) Z    (1  z 1 ) Z  
Ejemplo: deposito  s   s(s   ) 
h
z  1       
  Z 
z     s( s   ) 
F u
z  1     (1  eT ) z T
    (1  e )
     
T = 0.5 T
z    ( z  e )( z  1)    ( z  eT )
0.062q 1 0.062 0.062 z 1
y (k )  u (k )  
1  0.535q 1 z  0.535 1  0.535 z 1

Polo = Autovalor = 0.535

  G (s) 
H ( z )  (1  z 1 ) Z  
 s 
 (k ) 
2.123q 1  1.792q 2   
1  1.6q 1  0.6q 2
V (k )  (1  z 1 ) Z  2 
 s (s   ) 
   1  1 
V(k) 2

Ejemplo: Motor  (1  z 1 )  2  
Z   
  s s s  
T=0.
z  1    z  Tz z 
1      
ZOH z  2   z  1 ( z  1)
2
z  e  T

R L
V  ( T  1  e T ) z  (1  (1   T )e T )
Am  2 
pl I  ( z  1)( z  e T )
2.123 z  1.792
 2
 z  1.6 z  0.6

Encod
er(k)
Polos: 1 , 0.6
 Conversión analógica a digital y Transformada Z (Ampliado)

Analog-to-Digital Conversion and Z-Transform (Extended)

I. Soto Ⓧc(U. de Santiago de Chile) Signals and Systems 20173/30

Z-Transform and Analog-to-Digital Conversion

Z-Transform

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Measure of Information

Def. The output of an information source, can be modeled as a random process.

The information content, or entropy, is defined as:
X
H(X ) = − p(x)logp(x) (1)
x∈χ

Where χ denotes the source alphabet and p(x) is the probability of the letter x.

For the binary alphabet with probabilities p and 1 − p, the entropy is denoted by
Hb (p) and is given by:

Hb (p) = −plog (p) − (1 − p)log (1 − p) (2)

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 Figure 1: Plot of the binary entropy function

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Noiseless Coding

Def. Noiseless coding is the general term for all schemes that reduce the number
of bits required for the representation of a source output for perfect recovery.

Def. Huffman Coding

In the huffman coding, we assign longer codewords to the less probable source
outputs and shorter to the more probables one.

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Example:

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 Figure 2: Huffman code tree

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Solution:

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Quantization

Class: Quantization schemes can be classified as scalar quantization and vector

quantization.

Def.Scalar Quantization
In scalar quantization the range of the random variable X is dividen into N
nonoverlaping region <i , for 1 ≤ i ≤ N, called quantization intervals. Then all
values of the random variable that fall within region <i are quantized to the i-th
quantization level, wich is denoted by x̂i . This mean:

x ∈ <i ↔ Q(x) = x̂i (3)

Def. A quantization of this type introduces a mean-squeare error of (x − x̂i )2 given

by:
N Z
X
D= (x − x̂i )2 fX (x)dx (4)
i=1 <i

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Quantization

Def. The signal-to-quantization-noise ratio (SQNR) is defined as:

E [X 2 ]
SQNR|dB = 10log10 (5)
D

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Quantization

Def. In vector quantization we use region parttitions.

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 Figure 3: Vector quantization in two dimensions

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Figure 4: Vector quantization simulation for a Gaussian source with k=2 at rates
R=0.5,1,1.5,2,2.5, and 3
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Def.Pulse-Code Modulation

In pulse-code modulation an analog signal is first sampled at a rate higher than the
Nyquist rate, and then the samples are quantized.

Class.The quantization levels can be equal or unequal. In the first case we are
dealing with a uniform PCM, the second case is a nonuniform PCM.

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Def.Uniform PCM

In uniform PCM the interval [−xmax , xmax ] of length 2xmax is divided into N equal
subintervals, each of length ∆ = 2xNmax .
The distortion is given by:

∆2
D=
12
2
xmax
= (6)
3N 2
x2
= maxv
3x4

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Def.If the power of the analog signal is denoted by X¯2 , the SQNR is given by:

X¯2
SQNR = 3N 2 2
xmax
X¯2 (7)
= 3x4v 2
xmax
¯
= 3x4v Xˇ2

Where X̌ denotes the normalized input defined by:

X
X̌ = (8)
xmax
The SQNR in decibels is given by:
¯
SQNR|dB ≈ 4.8 + 6v + Xˇ|2dB (9)

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Prop. After quantization, the quantized levels are encoded using v bits for each
quantized level. The encodding scheme that is usually employed is natural binary
coding (NBC).

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 Figure 5: Uniform PCM for a sinusoidal signal using 8 and 16 levels

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Nonuniform PCM
Many physical signals, have the characteristic that small signal amplitudes occur
more frequently than large signal amplitudes.
Def. A nonuniform quantizer characteristic is usually obtained by passing the
signal through a nonlinear device that compresses the signal amplitudes, followed
by a uniform PCM quantizer. The overall effect is equivalent to a PCM system
with nonouniform spacing between levels.

Example: The µ − law compressor:

Its input-output magnitude is given by:

log (1 + µ |x|)
y = g (x) = sgn(x) (10)
log (1 + µ)

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 Figure 6: The µ − law compressor

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Binary Signal Transmission
Def. The channel through which the signal is transmitted is assumed to corrupt
the signal by the addition of noise, denoted as n(t), which is a sample function of
a white Gaussian process with power spectrum No/2 watts/hertz.
Def. AWGN
Additive white Gaussian noise
Def. Signal Correlator
The signal correlator cross-correlates the received signal r (t) with the two ossible
transmitted signals s0 (t) and si (t).

Figure 7: Cross-correlation of the received signal r (t) with the two transmitted signals

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Matched Filter
Def. The matched filter provides an alternative to the signal correlator for
demodulating the received signal r (t).

Prop. The matched filter output at the sampling instant t = Tb is identical to the
output of the signal correlator.

Figure 8: Optimum receiver for antipodal signals. (a) Matched filter demodulator.(b)
Correlator demodulator

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Spectral Analysis Using Windows
Example of Spectral Analysis Using Windows (1/3)

Figure 9: Nearby two-signal DFT program (1/2)

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Example of Spectral Analysis Using Windows (2/3)

Figure 10: Nearby two-signal DFT program (2/2)

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Example of Spectral Analysis Using Windows (3/3)

Figure 11: The top plot shows the two peaks of neighboring tones when they both have
the same amplitude. The bottom plot shows the case where the higher frequency signal
has ten times the amplitude of the lower frequency signal.

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Pulse Amplitude Modulation

Def. PAM
Set of waveforms signals denominated pulse amplitude modulated (PAM) .

Figure 12: Multiamplitude signal waveforms

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 Figure 13: Probability of symbol error for four-level PAM

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Multidimensional Signals
Def. Where the set of signal waveforms can be represented geometrically as points
in N-dimensional space

Prop. The construction of Multidimensional Orthogonal Signals a set of M = z k

waveforms Si (t), for i = 0, 1, ..., M − 1, which have the properties of (a) mutual
orthogonality and (b) equal energy.
RT
si (t)sk (t)dt = E δik for i, k = 0, 1, ..., M − 1
0
(11)
E is the energy of each signal waveform and δik is called the Kronecker delta.

Figure 14: An example of four orthogonal, equal-energy signal waveforms

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End....

Presentation completed.
Questions?
Thank you for your attention.

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