Welding Metallurgy of Nonferrous High-Temperature Materials R.G. Thompson, University of Alabama at Birmingham ‘THE PHYSICAL METALLURGY of nonfer- ous high-temperature materials that affects ‘weldability centers on the precipitates wsed for ‘ge hardening (y' and 7") and those associated ‘vith solidification and solidification segregation (primarily, Laves and carbides). Age hardening ‘eaes problems associated with strain-aze (that is, reheat) cracking, while carbides and Laves ‘phases can initiate melting and cause cracking of beat-affected zone (HAZ) grain boundaries. The ‘weldability ofthese alloys generally affects both the fabricator, who must weld complicated as- semblies, and the foundry. which must make repair welds to salvage expensive castings. Thus, weldability problems are not solved by esignating some alloys weldable and others un- weldable. Weldabilty “solutions are. often needed for both weldable and unweldable al- loys. Strain-Age Cracking Cracking is sometimes found in age-harden- able alloys that are slowly cooled or reheated through the hardening temperature range inthe presence of residual or applied sires ina con- strained condition. The rate of hardening is of primary importance relative to the beating or Cooling rate through the hardening temperature range. For cracking to occur, the thermal cycle ‘must allow suficent hardening for the imposed stress to cause cracking. Of equal importance is the imposed stress, which must be sufficient in ‘magnitude to inate cracking. When these two phenomena occur simultaneously, they can re- Sule in severe cracking. ‘The root ofthe stain-age eracking problem from the metallurgical viewpoint is” precipita. tion. The nominal composition of "is NisAl However, the precise composition i even more complex. Atypical’ precipitate in alloy 7318: ica CosenCoonM0s.9¥e.(AlaansTe se VaorsCracleycet) A typical range of heat treatments for hardening nickel superalloys i given in Tale 1 ‘After welding, the residual sess is relieved, and the maximum strength is obtained by 2 Solu: tion anneal and aging heat treatment. Problems fase when the welded strcture is heated through the aging temperature range on its way to the solution temperature. Stain-age weldabil ity is dependent on both the rate and the maga’ tude of y' precipitation (Ref 1) Figure | shows @ plot of weldabilty asa fonction of the (Ti + Al) Content. Titanium ¢ndalumioum are the strengtheners in mapy superalloys. When the (A+ Ti level exceeds some trical value, sirsin-age cracking becomes a significant prob. lem. The base metal can be effectively protected against strain-age cracking by welding in the ‘overaged condition. This prevents aging during reheating Unfortunately the HAZ cannot be protected ina similar manner, The welding proces invar- ably produces a HAZ thermal evel, which puts Some ofthe age-hardning constituents into s0- lution. During slow cooling o reheating these constituents ean repecipitate, age harden, and produce a erack-suscepible condition inthe HAZ. ‘This will be the case regardless of the reweld heat treatment Alloy 718 does not undergo stran-ageerack= ing (Ref 2). The age hardening develops around a NiNb, 7, precipitate. The "precipitates ata ‘much slower rate than the y. This allows alloys to be heated into the solution temperature range ‘without sufeing aging and the resultant strain- age cracking. Figure 2 compares the aging rates fof several 7 alloys with those of alloy 718, which is strengthened withthe "precipitate. Table 1 Typical heat treatment parameters for hardening nickel-base Superalloys Hardening is retarded inthe "alloys. and they offer great latitude in methods for heating and cooling pars, ‘Welded structures that require corrosion rsis- tance but not high strength often will not need postweld heat, and can thus avoid stain-age racking. However, if they ae placed inservice at elevated temperature, they may still cack Garing the initial heat-up eyele Strain-Age Cracking Susceptibility Curves. ‘The citcularpatch testis a high-estsint weld test hat canbe used to evaluate the sensiisity of an alloy 1 stai-age cracking. The ts when used with thermal treatments. can be ted 10 produce crack-suscepiilty C-curves. These eto a sree sdicesic"™ yassn0 momo ot of suminam cont venue nan pre nr rein T13900" ta-tood 1ncts FIB- 1 Content to inate commerce riche bie PREMISE EEE BRIS (SS stopaetpresenteday problems a 1 Content exceecr ss Source Ref?Harnas, HRA ses 2 ot of hardest versus time 10 show age: Fig. 2 hardening kinetics of selected nichel-base a loys Sour: fet ' nee al ‘Wot cracked Cracked] 1109 Sarr © so Tl ose » : ovo} — NS ee € RSS) zt NY) 1472 Bon ASSs) 2 & e Seine reo Ce se soo AT ie caer eee Te, ma Fig. 3 Sn Oh Sah Sad lee ens are so named because ofthe characteristic “C™ shape of the temperature-time space that sepa Fates the cracked from the uneracked behavior of this rate process. Figure 3 shows that, for a given C-curve behavior, different heating rates ‘an produce cracked or uncracked plates. Figure 4 shows alloy chemistry variations that can af- fect the crack sensitivity ofa given alloy. 'HAZ Liquation Cracking. Phases that form daring solidification, such as MC carbides and Laves phases, have the potential initiate melt= ing in the HAZ during welding and spread along ‘the grain boundaries (Fig. 5). The melting, often, termed liquation, occurs because of a reaction between the dissolving precipitate and the ma- trix. When tis melting is accompanied by suff- cient thermal stress, cracks can form along the HAZ grain boundaries, and extend ito the fe son zone. Such cracking may be termed Iiqua- tion cracking, hot eracking, of microfissuring. A ‘number of alloy systems are known t0 experi- ace liqution emcking: some are listed in Ta- quid metal is invariably associated with the MAZ except in the unusual ease of very pure, Single-element metals. This is so because the HAZ suetches from the base metal othe edge of Welding Metallurgy of Nonferrous High-Temperature Materials / 567 High By, tow. Aging temperate, 1100 7000 1 10 leothermal agg range exposure time, rin 700 sc 4 {let of alloy compostion igh oy verss Fig. 4 tow sloy concentrations ofttan icon, imanganee ands aan cena onthe ling nly pst etre Roe the fasion zone and will include all or pat ofthe mushy zone (a pure metal has no mushy 20%). This liguid is almost always found along the rain boundaries (Fig. 6). The few exceptions are alloys that have: miscibility gaps, such as Feaded brass. These alloys can have liquid from the low-melting-point phase, such as lead, which does not wet the grain boundaries. Such nonwetting behavior is associated with alloys ‘where the solute is insoluble in the parent phase, Tecan be concluded that most engineerin alloys contain a HAZ during welding that has a mushy Zone full of intergranalae liquid The mushy-zone liquid. generally does not contribute to poor weldability, because during the normal course of solidification itis always ‘open tothe fusion zone. The fusion zone acs as Source of liguid to backfill or heal shrinkage or racks that might form. ‘Metallurgically, liquation cracking. occurs when an alloy containing a susceptible second phase is heated al such a rate that the second ‘hase cannot dissolve before the ally reaches & System solidus that eauses melting. This melting ‘will invariably occur at the interface between the precipitate andthe matrix, as can be shown with an analysis of the appropriate phase diagram. ‘The molten liquid will spread along the grain boundaries iits solutes soluble in the matrx or ifthere is sufficient impurity to enhance wetting (Ref 10). This liquation can occur below the system solidus and thus be located remotely from the HAZ. mushy zone. Such a location pre- vents backfilling and promotes Iiqution crack- ing. The fact that liquation from precipitates can extend well away from the fusion zone not only increases the chance of Tiquation eracking but also inereases the potential length ofthe crack, accentuating the stess intensity of the crack ‘Metallurgical evaluation of HAZ, liquation re- veals three stages of microstructural and compo- tional evolution (Fig. 7). An inital stage de- Yelops where the liguating. precipitate isin ‘contact with the liquid. In alter stage of evolu- tion, the precipitate is completely Tiguated, but the intergranular Liquid ie stable and may even be growing. Finally, the intergranular Tiguid begins to solidify and may retract from the grain boundary Parameters Affecting Liquation Cracking Grain Size. A large grain size promotes li- ‘uation cracking (Ref 11). 28 shown in Fi. 8 ‘This can be understood in several ways. When the HAZ begins to accumulate tain fom resid= ual stress, grain boundary sliding is one mecha- nism that operates to accommodate the stain. Large grain size does not accommodate the strain as realy as smaller grin size, and the potential for crack initiation at grain boundary triple points and therefore Hiqution cracking, i= Increased (Ref 13), Another effet of grain size ‘occurs when precipitates liquate and the liquid spreads along the boundaries. Material of large ‘rain size will sccumulate a hiker layer of ig- fora given amount (volume fraction) of pre- cipitae, Because larger grains have less grain ‘boundary surface area (Ref I). The thicker liq id layer takes longer to resliify during coo! ing. as hasbeen shown in alloy 718 (Ref 11) and ‘through computer simulations (Ref 14, 15) ‘Anything that increases the life ofthe incergran- lar liguid elatve tothe onset of residual stress accentuates liquation cracking. Liquation racking is sensitive o the amount and location of second-phise precipitates, The Size of precipitates in the HAZ, as well asthe location relative to the postion of grain bound aries, changes during the welding thermal cycle Precipitates, especially those susceptible to con sttutional Tiguation, dissolve during the dermal cycle Ret 16). ‘Constitutional liguation can be ilustated with the simple binary eutectic shown in Fig. a). Alloy Co has a certain volume fraction of second: phase particles, AB, at room tempers: ture. When the alloy is rapidly heated to ater perature, T, above the binary eutectic tempers Ture, Tes there may be insufficient time for complete dissolution of AB. Therefore, at tem- peratures above Tp, the AB phase is sil present. Dissolution of AB above Te takes place by the formation of aliquid phase that subsequently resoliifes in accordance with phase diagram requirements. The concentration gradients inthe ‘matrix adjacent o the AB particle are shown in Fig. 9(6). The terms C,, and C, are the con centrations of liquid in equilibrium with and ‘AB, respectively temperature 7. The term C is the concentration of y in equilibrium with Tiguid, and Cy is the concentration of the y ‘matrix in equllbriam with the AB particle at room temperature. ‘Behavior of NOC Dissolved in Nickel (Ref 16) ‘A computer simulation of NOC dissolved in nickel is shown in Fig. 10. Some precipitates dissolve completely and disappear, while ohers become small and lose their attachment to the rain boundary. This is shown by computer sim lation in Fig. 11, where R is the fraction of initial grain boundary precipitates remaining on ‘the HAZ grain boundaries during heat ‘Amount of Liquating Precipitate. A large ‘amount of liquating precipitate can have both Positive and negative effects relative ro iquation tracking. On the negative side, a large amount568 / Selection of Nonferrous High-Temperature Materials Fig.5 Table 2 Constitutional liquation in multicomponent systems Syme ci Inconel 500 ree THC I marie ae Sane sie) igeseeezh rages ie NE Ystsang pe Intergranular ature surface showing paral Fig. 6 inneegramular wetting with both sold-rod and quid bonding 50 (of liquation produces 2 thicker layer of inter- frandlar figuid. lost as. for large-gainsize ker layer takes longer to solidify and Tiguatin cracking. However, onthe positive side, a larger amount of lquaton pro- ‘duces a wider path for backfilling from the ‘mushy zone and thus ean help heal cracking ‘This would be especially effective for liguation temperature near the bulk soli- dus. Because wrought alloys and many cast al loys are metallurgealy designed to minimize liquation-type precipitates, te intial emount of precipitates is low (0.5 to 2.0 vol% for both ‘rought and cas alloy 718) Increasing aa ini- Ay small amount of precipitate increses fie uation cracking (Ref 11). Thus, using large “mounts of precipitate to reduce iguation crack- jing would ‘seem prudent only under closely ‘Buarded conditions where the precipitate is wel ‘connected tothe HAZ. mushy zone, LUqustion of sisbum carbide stinger na aicketbase ly 718 wire. (a Stingesbeloreonst of Laon Snngersn ntl sage of liqunion sr ti heats by weding arma le, Movement of singe liguaton no ran bounce slay 50 Finally, « more sophisticated analysis of the effet of precipitate volume fraction on lguation cracking must ake into account the rate at which the precipitates dissolve before liquation (be- ‘cause all precipitates that liquate below the soi- (dus uy to dissolve fis), While a large volume Fraction of precipitates may be present in the HAZ before welding. those precipitates may dis- appear quickly during heating. Thus, the rate of ‘recpitate dissolution andthe welding thermal fyele must be known to predict the effect of precipitate volume faction on cracking, “Type of Precipitate. Two types of precipi- tates Tiqate in the HAZ: {© Consitutonalyliguating precipitates (Ref 7) 1 Equlisiom melting precipitates (Ref 12) Constitutional liguating precipteres can be- gin melting below the bulk solidus because their Iiquaton i ted to he fat thatthe alloy has been Torced to support thet existence beyond some equilibrium limit. Such nonequilbeium process= ing can result fom twa factors: (1) a rapid heat- ing rate that takes a noclly low-temperature ‘hase above is equilibrium stability temperature ‘F (2) coring-ype segregation during casting. CCoring-type segregation causes the system to ‘create 8 nonequilibrium phase (Such as Laves ‘phase in alloy 718) or an overabundance of an ‘equilibrium phase (such 2s MC carbides). Both ‘the nonequilibrium phase and the excessive frac- tion of the equilibrium phase can constiution- ally liquate (Re 4). Equlibrium Melting Precipitates. The equi- rium phase melts when heated above its sli- dus temperature, producing HAZ liquid. ‘Precipitates Versus Liguation Cracking. The two types of precipitates described above are different relative to liqation eacking because their meking ranges are diferent relative tothe ‘mushy zone. Because equilibrium precipitates will always liquate at or above the butk solids, they willbe connected with the mushy zone and have accesso large volumes of liquid for back- filling and healing. The nonequilibeium preci tates wil have the potential to liquate below the bulk solidus and thus be separated from backil- ing liquid from the larger mushy zone. These rnonequlbeium precipitates will have a greater Potential for liquation cracking. Solidification earbides such as MC carbides can be present in overabundance due to coring uring solidification. Thus, they ean be present Inthe nonequilibrium form but with a melting ‘ange that spans the subsolidus tothe bulk igul- us. The ligution of the carbides should pro- duce a continuous path to the mushy zone and thus provide a network for backfilling and heal- ing cracks. However, the liguation of an MC carbide produces such great local solue enrich: ment atthe gran boundary that the resolidifica- tion of these boundaries can be greatly delayed. ‘This delay in resoldificaion separates them from the bulk solidification ofthe mushy zone tnd makes these boundaries potential sites for Tiquation cracking. Impurities and Heat Treatment. Impurity metallic elements have long been the subject of inergranulaccracking investigations (Ref 17-21). Some elements (for example, sulfur, phosphorus, antimony, arsenic, bismuth, and {in) concentrate in the grain Boundaries of vari- ous systems. Other elements (for example, bo- on), affect intexpranular properties (for exam= ple, stress rupture strength). Elements that have been identified as poten- tial sourees of liguation eracking are sulfur, phosphorus, boron, and lead, has been sug: ested that if the impurity Tevel restrictions shown below are observed, increased liquation ‘racking will not be observed (Ref 20): Propo 208 Nicos ons ‘Some researchers separate the behavior of im- parties into two groupe: (1) those that are [resent as precipitates (for example, borides, salfides, and s0 02) and (2) those that are not ‘recipitted but are enriched atthe grain bound ary and te precipitate interfaces due to segrega- tion. The latter eategory would also include ele- ‘ments such as boron and sulfur. However, the state in which the impurities reside is often de- batable, and the issue ere i her effect on HAZ. thot eracking. Thus, no attempt will be made to diferente between impurity precipitates or segregation. [Liquation is not necessarily caused by impuri- ties. Impurities magnity the problem by: ‘© Increasing the weting ofthe intergranular ig- uid (Ref 11) Depressing the solidus temperature ‘© Forming —low-melting-point precipitates! cutectics ‘© Increasing the amount of liquid present onthe grain boundaries Salfur and carbon provide @ unique case. When the carbon content is increased in alloy 718, the‘Welding Metallurgy of Nonferrous High-Temperature Materials / 569 ow CConesnvaton 3 a ro | | Pst ; sg. 7 its HAZ Lgston sho vt he ic astormaton n micostctur and composion ona ally 78. Sage: prespate Fig. 7 [gcaton‘t tgeclmnaion companion eden Sage saison " dann n ce o_omsa nose 0088 i pe 42 Fea #: te F | ic ba ae : pat a4 ose B t al 0 8 04080 120 160 aon 200 280 Caan sen ym ig, 8 Motol ol cack ng vr paseo Fig. 8 stow elie of micalssring thay 718 when erating nckestare oy with atari test Source: RaW? P9e Daten —— ‘mount of carbide and te potential for tiquation racking both increase (Fig. 12). 1F the sulfur ‘content is increased, the potential for Iiquaton racking also increases about the same amount 5g ect. for bot carbon levels (Fig. 12). One reason for FHB- 9 parc » temperature and distance on tquaton ina binary sytem. a) Consttions quation of AB Concenzson grstentn ont of tne hquating Xe parce570 / Selection of Nonferrous High-Temperature Materials Tonpenen Table 3 neva sutures nexces se0_Tear tino _ 220 GP puterleaned wraces for eat rested 6° anton Sore Shay 718 specimen rite to act fes[ ssieee gow Soy ram net ‘200 31st. Po z ‘Set coment Bicol amaiiees con mare om : {oo = I io om § = fe po Si, 2 ° oF Soph 8 ete es SE Tero. sg 10 Sesion inte ol NSC pein Fig. 10 RietSoueestete 29 set ™ 102 g Tena ™ tae 4s 200. 860" 1700 24a E 2 ooes & 404 2 eee u fa rer Had ood a ore § BH Ne 5 ie osm 33 a a t 2 14 0.551 a \ lly gee dome Bod wof—3 ase ne met, meme ear see ca. ge Tia 0 Oe Oe Oe 8 ae Sten ee Foal st Fig. 13 (eee AOE Sy estan as os Tone ng ca or Fie 11 Sstegpanompese shen [NoC precplate concenrsion, and = during continuous 18K (80°F heating. The ratio, Athol s step crop in value 3 te tempore ts ‘howe RTO, Sores Rel 1 ore § on oss: ¥ 0 we. ose 3 osu 8 "0 0.002 0.004 0,006 0.008 0.010 ake woe ot otter engih es sur cone Fig, 12 (tas sincion of to seed bak ‘on evelsto show microtaering sureptay fae shoy 7. Source: Rel the increased cracking suscepsbiiy wit sulfur thatthe sulfur becomes trapped between the carbide and the matrix during eating (Table 3). ‘A high sulfur level reduces the soliifistion temperature of the cabide and appears 10 in- ‘rease the wetting of the itergranlarFiquid in HAZ during cooling (Ref 22). mpurities may also affect the response of li- ‘uation cracking to heat treatment. Heat weat- ‘ment has been shown to have ether an adverse ‘or beneficial effect on liquation cracking (Ref 5, 23, 24). This has been shown for alloy 718. (ig. 13) tobe a function of earbon content. This effect might be partially explained bythe change In impurity distribution (in this example, sulfur) during heat weatment (Ref 21,25). As given in ‘Table 3, sulfur moves from the carbide matrix interface onto the grain boundaries during age- hardening treatment, Simulianeously,liquation cracking increases during heat treatment. Con- versely, the soloionanneal heat weatment cleans the grain boundary of any residual sulfur land reduces the potential for iguation cracking, “Many other metallurgical events occu simulta: neously during these heat treatments, and ithas ‘ot been shown conclusively which of these vents (if not al) affect crackin. Reducing Susceptibility to Liquation Cracking. Welding parametes and fabrication sequence ean often be adjusted to reduce the possibilty of Tiquation eracking. In addition, there are several metallurgical conditions that minimize HAZ liquation cracking: ‘© Grain size should be minimized 1 I precipitates are desired for grain size con- tel, solidification precipitates such as MC carbides shouldbe used, These will minimize Tiguid penetration into the HAZ and promote backfilling. and healing of cracks, because thei iquation temperature is similar to that of the mushy zone {© The amount of precipitate that iquates should be minimized. Ia panicularly difficult erack- ing problem cannot be resolved ary other way, then increasing the amount of precipi- tate may produce enough liquation to initiate backfilling from the mushy one and promote healing oferacks ‘¢ Impurity content should be minimized ‘¢ Welding should take place when the alloy bas tndergone some combination of the solu tioned andlor homogenized conditions, fol Towed by rapid cooling (direct quenching should be avoided). These heat treatments ‘minimize impurity concentration on the grain boundaries [REFERENCES 1, M, Prager and C.S. Shira, Welding of Pre- cipitation-Hardening, Nickel-Base Alloys, Weld. Res. Coun. Bull., No. 128, 1968 2. HLL, Eiseistein, Advances in the Techno: (08) of Stainless Steels and Related Alloys, STP 369, ASTM, p62-79 3. RM, Wilson Je. and L.W.G. Burchfield, Weld. J, Vol 35, 1956, p 32s 4. TE Beny and W.P. Hughes. Weld. J., Val 46,1969, p 505s 5. D.S. Duvall and W.A, Owezarski, Further Heat-Alfected Zone Studies in Heat Resis- {ant Nickel Alloys, Weld. J., Vol 46, 1967, paras. 6. B, Weiss, GE, Grotke, and R. Stickler, Weld, ., Vol 49, 1970, p471s-487s 7. 1. Pepe and WP, Savage, Effects of Con- ‘tutional Liquation in I8-Ni Maraging Steel Weldments, Weld. J., Vol 45, 1967, palls-t226 8, LR, Brooks, Weld J., Vol53, 1974, p$17- 523 9. W.A, Baeslck Il, $.J. Savage, and FH, Froes, J. Mater. Sci, Let, 1988. p 935.939 10, C'S. Smith, Grains, Phases and Interfaces: ‘An interpretation of Microstructure, Trans. AIME, Vol 175, 1948, p 15-51 11. R.G, Thompson, D.E. Mayo, and B. Rad- hnskrishnan, On the Relationship Between Carbon Content, Microstructure, and Inter ‘ranular Hot Cracking in Cast Nickel Alloy 718, Mell. Trans. A, Vol 22, 1991, 551-567 12, B. Radhakrishnan and R.G. Thompson, ‘Modeling of Microstructural Evolution i the Weld HAZ, Metal Science of Joining, (Mi. Cieslak ef al., Ed., TMS, Oct 1991, p3i-40 13, RG. Thompson, JJ. Cassimus, D.E. Mayo, and J.R. Dobbs, The Relationship Between Grain Size and Mirofissuring in Alloy 718, Weld. J., Vol 63, 1984, p91 14, B, Radhakrishnan ‘and R.G. Thompson, ‘The Kinetics of imtergranular Liquation ia the HAZ of Alloy 718, Recent Trends in Welding Science and Technology, Pro. 2nd Int Conf. Trends in Welding Research, ‘ASM International, 1989, p 637-648 15, B. Radhatsishnan and R.G. Thompson. A ‘Model for the Solidification of Grain Boundary Liguld in the HAZ of Welds, ‘Metall. Trans., June 199216. Y. Shen, B. Radhakrishnan, and RG. ‘Thompson, Monte Carlo Simulation. of Grain Growth in the HAZ, Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. Trends in Welding Research, ASM Inemational, June 1992 TJ. Morrison, C.S. Shira, and L.A. Weisenterg, Effects of Minor Elements on the Weldabtity of High Nicks! Alloys, Proc. Weld. Res. Symp., AWS, Vol 93, 1367 WA. Owczarski, Eifects of Minor Ele. ‘ments on the Weldability of High Nickel Al- loys, Welding Research Council, 1969, p6 W. Yeniseavich and C.W. Fox, Effects of ‘Minor Elements on the Weldabilty of High- 20, 21 2 ‘Welding Metallurgy of Nonferrous High-Temperature Materials / 571 Nickel Alloys, Welding Research Council, 1969, p24 D.A. Canonico etal, Effects af Minor Ele- ‘ments on the Weldablity of High-NickelAl- lay, Welding Research Council, 1965. p 8 R.G. Thompson, M.C. Koopman, and BAH. King, Grin Boundary Chemistry of Alloy 718-Type Alloys, Superalloy 718, (625 and Derivatives, B. Lovia, Ed., TMS, 1991,.p53-70 C. Chen, R.G. Thompson, and D.W. Davis, A’Study of Effects of Phosphors, Sulfur, Boron and Carbon on Laves and Carbide Formation in Alloy 718, Superal- 2, um. 2s. loy 718, 625 and Derivatives, E. Lovin, Bd., TMS, 1991, p81-96 RG. Thompson and S. Genculu, Micro- structural Evaluation in the HAZ. of Inconel ‘18 and Correlations with the Hot Ductlity Test, Weld. J., Vol 62, 1983, p 3375-3455, R.G. Thompson, J.R. Dobbs, and D.E. ‘Mayo, The Effect of Heat Treatment onthe Microfisuring in Alloy 718, Weld. J, Vol 65, 1986, p 299s 304s R.G. Thompson, B. Radhakrishnan, and D.E. Mayo, Grain Boundary Chemistry CConttibutions to Intergranular Hot Crack ing, J. Physique-Collogue C5, suppl. No. 10, 1988, p 471-482