Nkfmhk.bgmm 1 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<:2

 

Nkfmhk.bgmm : 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<:2

 

mbsoursf
Áerboa
mh bmhgtbmam
y
hg hk Oarbjh

Nkfmhk.bgmm ? 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<:2

 

Nkfmhk.bgmm = 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<:2

 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas

mbsoursf
Áerboa
mh bmhgtbmam
y
hg hk Oarbjh

Hmbobfghs mh
AOXMHJB

_fkhgfmfgth
HMB]FZBAK

Hmbobfghs Iégbias

Nkfmhk.bgmm 8 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<:2

 

Trbihra hmbobÿg ‛Hmbobfghs Iégbias :415’

_fkhgfmfgth Hmbtfrbak

Mbshñf mh pfrtama y iaquhtaobÿg<

M. Z. ]akkhr Orhatbvf, Mbxsfg Zfmrénuhz.

Tbgtura mh pfrtama< ‛Ka Jfggh ka hsokavh’

Ofrrhoobÿg<
Hmbobÿg ak oubmamf mhk autfr f autfra.

© Nkfmhk Ihzbkas
© _fkhgfmfgth Hmbtfrbak
© Aoumhjb

Zhshrvamfs tfmfs kfs mhrho`fs. Hk ofgthgbmf mh hsta fjra hstá prfthnbmf pfr ka
khy.. _h prf`éjh hxprhsaihgth su mbeusbÿg pfr ouakqubhr ihmbf sbg ka
khy
autfrbzaobÿg pfr hsorbtf mh kfs muhñfs mhk ofpyrbn`t.

‛Áerboa y mbsoursf mh bmhgtbmam hg hk Oarbjh’

Mhpÿsbtf Khnak<
Biprhsf hg Hspaña - Trbgthm bg _pabg

Nkfmhk.bgmm 5 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<:2

 

Égmboh thiátbof

Bgtrfmuoobÿg.................................................................................2
Bgtrfmuoobÿg.................................................................................2
1- Hk ofgohptf mh Oarbjh...................
Oarbjh............................................................1
.........................................1??
:- Hk ofgohptf mh bmhgtbmam oukturak...........................................:=
oukturak...........................................:=
?- Hk bgmbnhgbsif `abtbagf.........................................................:2
`abtbagf.........................................................:2
=-Hk Ifvbibhgtf mh ka ghnrbtum............
ghnrbtum.................................................
........................................?8
...?8
5-Orétboa mhk bgmbnhgbsif y mh ka ghnrbtum.................................=1
  >- Hmfuarm Nkbssagt, agtbkkagbmam y orbfkkbzaobÿg orbfkkbzaobÿg...........==
...........==
  0- Hk ifvbibhgtf mh ka ‛orâfkbtâ’........
‛orâfkbtâ’..................................=2
..........................=2
  2- Ka ‛bgmbagbmam’......
‛bgmbagbmam’.................................................
....................................................8:
.........8:

Ofgokusbÿg............
Ofgokusbÿg...........................
..............................
..............................
..............................
.........................8=
..........8=

Nkfmhk.bgmm > 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<:2

 

Nkfmhk.bgmm 0 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<:2

 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

Bgtrfmuoobÿg

  Hsth hgsayf ajfrma ka prfjkhiátboa mh ka bmhgtbmam ouktu-

rak hg hk mbsoursf oarbjhñf ofg rhsphotf a kas `hrhgobas oukturakhs
1
aerboagas. Hsth mbsoursf   trata mh oaptar ka hshgobakbmam oukturak
mhk Oarbjh tras sbnkfs mh ofkfgbzaobÿg, hg mfgmh Hurfpa kkhvÿ a
oajf kf quh _phrf _tagbskas Amfthvb, hk kÿsfef y agtrfpÿkfnf mh
Jhgég, kkaia ka ‛iagbpukaobÿg tftakbtarba mh kf ugbvhrsak’:.
  A mbehrhgoba mh ftras rhnbfghs mhk iugmf, hk Oarbjh prh-
shgta ug pagfraia oukturak sub nhghrbs. _h `a ofgstbtubmf a par-
tbr mh ug ofglugtf mh ulfs ibnratfrbfs prfvhgbhgths mh Áerboa,
Asba, Hurfpa. _u ouktura sh `a ofgefriamf a partbr mh ka mhstruo-
obÿg / ka hxtbrpaobÿg oasb tftak mh kas oukturas frbnbgakhs (bgménh-
gas) y su rhhipkazf mhkbjhramf pfr guhvas trambobfghs. Kf ouak
?
`a bgobmbmf hg su ofgefriaobÿg sfobfoukturak . Oama nrupf âtgbof
kkhvaja ofgsbnf sus orhhgobas, sus trambobfghs y sus vbsbfghs mhk
iugmf quh mag kunar a ka efriaobÿg mh ‛puhjkfs guhvfs’, sh-
nüg ka hxprhsbÿg mhk agtrfpÿkfnf jrasbkhñf Maroy Zbjhbrf, qubhg
`a ifstramf quh hk Oarbjh rhprhshgta puhjkfs guhvfs, mhjbmf ak
hgtrhoruzaibhgtf oukturak hgtrh kfs aerboagfs, kfs hurfphfs y kfs
aihrbgmbfs. Hsta mbgáiboa puhmh taijbâg shr mhgfibgama ofif
uga hsphobh mh uga tragsoukturaobÿg=.
1
Uâash Nkfmhk Ihzbkas, Hk trauia ofkfgbak hgtrh
hgtrh ka ihifrba y hk mbsoursf. Thgsar
(mhsmh) hk Oarbjh, HMXOAUB_BFG, Ekfrbma, :418. Hg hsth kbjrf mh iás mh trhsobhgtfs
(?44) pánbgas, agakbzaifs hk ofglugtf mh kfs pkagthaibhgtfs mhk mbsoursf oarbjhñf<
 pfkétbofs, oukturakhs,
oukturakhs, bmhfkÿnbofs,
bmhfkÿnbofs, hto.
:
Amfthvb< ‛Ka mbvhrsbtâ oukturhkkh aulfurm‒`ub’, hg  Mbvhrsbtâ oukturhkkh
_phrf _tagbskas Amfthvb<
ht ifgmbakbsatbfg, Hmbtbfgs Autrhihgt, Tarbs, :44=,
?
Hk mhstaoamf agtrfpÿkfnf ihxboagf, Lhsüs _hrgf Ifrhgf, mhmboa ug trajalf iuy rh-
khvagth a kas `hrhgobas htgfoukturakhs bgménhgas hg hk frbhgth mh Ouja mfgmh agakbza
hk paphk mhshiphñamf pfr âstas hg ka ofgefriaobÿg oukturak mh hsta rhnbÿg. Uhr Lhsüs
Iarba _hrgf Ifrhgf , Ouja< ug puhjkf guhvf. @hrhgobas htgfoukturakhs bgménhgas hg
ka rhnbÿg frbhgtak , XGAI, Iâxbof ME, :44>.
=
Ehrgagmf Frtbz mhgh ka tragsoukturaobÿg mh ka iaghra sbnubhgth< ‛tfmf oaijbf mh
ouktura hs ug prfohsf hg hk ouak sh ma aknf hg oaijbf mh kf quh sh rhobjh3 hs uga tfia y
maoa, ofif mbohg kfs oasthkkagfs. Hs ug prfohsf hg hk ouak aijas parths mh ka houaobÿg
rhsuktag ifmboamas. Xg prfohsf hg hk ouak hihrnh uga guhva rhakbmam, ofipuhsta y
ofipkhla3 uga rhakbmam quh gf hs ankfihraobÿg ihoágboa mh oaráothrhs, gb sbqubhra ug
ifsabof, sbgf ug ehgÿihgf guhvf, frbnbgak h bgmhphgmbhgth’.
2

Nkfmhk.bgmm 2 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<:2

 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

  Asé quh ka bgmanaobÿg sfjrh hk ‛gfsftrfs’ oarbjhñf tbh-

gh ofif iatrbz `bstÿrboa hk surnbibhgtf mh ka rhnbÿg hg hk  sbsth-
ia-iugmf ifmhrgf8 y kas tragsefriaobfghs oukturakhs quh `ag
fourrbmf mhsmh hgtfgohs. Hsta phrsphotbva jusoa agakbzar kas mbs-

tbgtas
y bguhgobas
mhshgtrañar obvbkbzatfrbas
hk güokhf murf mhsfjrh ka rhakbmam
ka bmhgtbmam oukturakmh
ofkhotbva rhnbfgak
ka rh-
nbÿg. A phsar mh quh kfs
kf s autfrhs mh ka rhnbÿg parthg
parth g mh uga ibsia
 prfjkhiátboa,, sus rhsuktamfs, sus ofgokusbfghs ht sus hvakuaobf-
 prfjkhiátboa
ghs sh rhvhkag iuy mbehrhgths, y a vhohs mbvhrnhgths.5
  Ka thsbs mhk hgsayf hs quh kfs ifvbibhgtfs mhk bgmbnhgbs-
if, ka ghnrbtum, ka agtbkkagbmam, ka ‛orâfkbtâ’ (orhfkbmam) pbhgsag
ka bmhgtbmam oukturak mh ka rhnbÿg a partbr mh ka rhehrhgoba aerboaga.
Kfs mfs prbihrfs ofgstruyhg su bmhgtbmam mhsmh ka ofgtbgubmam
ofg ka Áerboa, ibhgtras kfs mfs üktbifs rho`azag mbo`a ofgtbgub-
mam y fptag pfr ka mbsofgtbgubmam.

 sh mhsarrfkka
Thrf tfmfs hstfs
a partbr ifvbibhgtfs
mhk prfyhotf rhofgfohg
oukturak quh hk
foobmhgtak, hk ouak
Oarbjh
gf
tfiÿ hg ofgsbmhraobÿg ka akthrbmam oukturak mh sus puhjkfs. Tfr
hkkf, tratag mh mhgbr sus oaraothréstboas oukturakhs. _bg hijar -
nf, hk Oarbjh eragoÿefgf sh aeaga pfr hstumbar ofg mhtakkh mbo`as
oaraothréstboas.
oaraothréstboas. Hg hsth shgtbmf, guhstra arnuihgtaobÿg surnh mhk
mbsoursf oarbjhñf eragoÿefgf.
8
A prfpÿsbtf mhk sbsthia-iugmf ifmhrgf, Biiaguhk ^akkhrsthbg hsorbjh< ‛A gakhs
mhk sbnkf PU y prbgobpbfs mhk PUB, gaobÿ kf quh pfmréaifs kkaiar uga hofgfiéa-iug-
mf hurfpha. Gf hra ug biphrbf, phrf gf fjstagth hra hspaobfsa ofif ug nrag biphrbf y
ofipartéa ofg ‛âk aknugas oaraothréstboas.
oaraothréstboas. Thrf hra aknf mbehrhgth y guhvf. Hra ug tbpf
mh sbsthia sfobak quh hk iugmf hg rhakbmam gf `ajéa ofgfobmf agthrbfrihgth, y quh
ofgstbtuyh hk oaráothr mbstbgtbvf mhk ifmhrgf sbsthia iugmbak. Hra uga hgtbmam hofgÿ-
iboa phrf pfkétboa, ak ofgtrarbf quh kfs biphrbfs, kas obumamhs-Hstamf y kas gaobfghs-Hs-
tamf. Mh `ho`f, ofiprhgmh mhgtrf mh sus kbibths (hs mbeéobk `ajkar mh erfgthras) biph-
rbfs, obumamhs-Hstamf, y kas hihrnhgths ‛gaobfghs-Hstamf’.
‛gaobfghs-Hstamf’. Hs ug sbsthia ‛iugmbak’,
gf pfrquh bgokuéa ka tftakbmam mhk iugmf, sbgf pfrquh hs iayfr quh ouakqubhr ugbmam
 pfkétboa lurémboaihgth mhgbma. R hs uga ‛hofgfiéa-iugmf’ mhjbmf a quh hk végoukf
 jásbof hgtrh kas parths mhk sbsthia hs hofgÿibof, augquh hstâ hsefrzamf hg obhrta ih-
mbma pfr végoukfs oukturakhs y hvhgtuakihgth, ofif vhrhifs, pfr arrhnkfs pfkétbofs h
bgokusf hstruoturas ofgehmârakhs’. Uhr ^akkhrsthbg<  Hk ifmhrgf sbsthia iugmbak. Ka
anrbouktura oapbtakbsta y kfs frénhghs mh ka hofgfiéa-iugmf hurfpha hg hk sbnkf PUB ,
_bnkf PPB Hmbtfrhs, Iâxbof, :448, p. :1.
5 If`aiihm Ajhm Ak-R
Ak-Rajrb
ajrb sujraya quh ka ibsia prfjkhiát
prfjkhiátboa
boa gf bipkboa
kkhnar ka ibsia ofgokusbÿg. Uhr Orétboa mh ka razÿg árajh, Hmbtfrbak Boarba, Jarohkfga,
:441
14

Nkfmhk.bgmm 14 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<:2

 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

  Ka bmha mhk mbsoursf oarbjhñf rhibth a ug ofglugtf mh thx-

tfs orétbofs, kbthrarbfs, otbobfs quh ouipkhg uga eugobÿg hstratâ-
nboa y rhtÿrboa. _h trata mh ug ofglugtf mh thxtfs mbsphrsfs quh
ajfrmag ka prfjkhiátboa mh ka bmhgtbmam oukturak rhnbfgak mhsmh ka
rhkhotura mhk pasamf ofkfgbak, oaraothrbzamf pfr ka hsokavbtum, ka
ofkfgbzaobÿg, ka hxpkftaobÿg, ka mfibgaobÿg mh kfs aerboagfs hto.
Kfs hgugobamfrhs mh mbo`fs mbsoursfs sfg kfs bgthkhotuakhs mh ka
rhnbÿg. Ofif tfma práotboa sfobak>, sus mbsoursfs rhibthg a ug
ofiprfibsf `bstÿrbof, pfkétbof, bmhfkÿnbof hg obrougstagobas sf-
obakhs mhthribgamas.
mhthribgamas. Hg hkkfs sh artbouka ug ofglugtf mh prfpuhs-
tas, mh rhhxbfghs sfjrh kf quh hs ka rhnbÿg. _u mbsoursf apugta a
ka aoobÿg sfobak, hs mhobr, jusoag orhar uga ofgobhgoba ofkhotbva
mhgtrf mh kas pfjkaobfghs oarbjhñas. Mh a`é, su euhrth ofiprfib-
sf `bstÿrbof-pfkétbof. Kfs hsorbtfrhs sh ofgsbmhrag ofif kfs pfr-

tavfohs mh su rhnbÿg, quh ihrhoh thghr uga ofiüg phrthghgoba

 para kfnrar su autfmhthribga
autfmhthribgaobÿg
obÿg pfkétboa, oukturak
oukturak y pfkétboa.
pfkétboa.
Hg hk mbsoursf bgmbnhgbsta `abtbagf y ka ghnrbtum, vhrh-
ifs quh ka `hrhgoba aerboaga ofgstbtuyh ka jash eugmaihgtak quh
hstruotura hk bianbgarbf ofkhotbvf mh kfs puhjkfs oarbjhñfs. Hk
ifvbibhgtf bgmbnhgbsta `abtbagf rhifgta ak bgbobf mhk sbnkf PP
y `a sbmf hk prbihr ifvbibhgtf oukturak h bmhgtbtarbf quh pfstuka
hk khnamf aerboagf ofif ka iatrbz mh ka ouktura `abtbaga y, pfr
hgmh, mh ka ouktura oarbjhña. Agakbzarhif
Agakbzarhifss hk ofgthxtf, kfs rasnfs
oaraothréstbofs y sus bipaotfs sfjrh ka kbthratura, ka ouktura, ka

 pbgtura `abtbaga.
`abtbaga.
iás aipkbf Hg ouagtf
ouagt
hg târibgfs f a ka ghnrbtum,
ghnrbytum,
nhfnráofs tbhghkaug
hgefoa akoagoh mhk
bmhgtbmam iuo`
iuo`f
Oaf-
rbjh a partbr mh Áerboa, ofgsbmhrama ofif ka jash para oaptar su
hshgobakbmam oukturak. Ka ghnrbtum hs vbsta ofif uga agtrfpfkfnéa
orétboa erhgth a ka agtrfpfkfnéa ofkfgbakbsta foobmhgtak. ]bhgh ug
asphotf pfkétbof h bmhfkÿnbof hg hk shgtbmf mh quh jusoa ofgstrubr
ugh bianhg mhk Ghnrf iás akká mh ka `bstfrba y ka nhfnraeéa. _br-
vbÿ a ifvbkbzar kfs kuo`amfrhs mh ka bgmhphgmhgoba mh Áerboa. Hg
hk oasf oarbjhñf, rhprhshgtÿ ug rhoursf bmhfkÿnbof para ofgstrubr

> Uâash sfjrh hk agákbsbs mh mbsoursf, Hrhgh Efgth, Ka gaobÿg oujaga y Hsta-
mfs Xgbmfs. Xg hstumbf mhk mbsoursf phrbfméstbof (1245-121:) , Hk Ofkhnbf mh Iâxbof,
XAI-Bztapakapa,
XAI-Bztapa kapa, Iâxbof, :44:.
11

Nkfmhk.bgmm 11 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<:2

 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

hk ‛gfsftrfs’ oarbjhñf’ mhsmh ka prhhibghgoba ftfrnama

ftfrnama a kas `h-
rhgobas htgfoukturakhs aerboagas.
  Tfr ftra parth, `ay kfs hgefquhs mh ka agtbkkagbmam, mh
ka orbfkkbzaobÿg, mh ka ‛orâfkbtâ’ quh orbtboag hk bgmbnhgbsif, ka
ghnrbtum, ofif vbsbfghs hshgobakbstas y gf rhakbstas. Agakbzag ka
bmhgtbmam oukturak mhk Oarbjh mhsmh ka mbsofgtbgubmam, tfiagmf hg
ouhgta tfmas kas oukturas, kfs bianbgarbfs quh sh oruzarfg hg hk
suhkf oarbjhñf.
  Asbibsif, kfs mhsohgmbhgths mh ka Bgmba mhhgmhg su ‛bg-
mbagbmam’, sus trambobfghs oukturakhs y orbtboag a kfs partbmarbfs mh
Abiâ Oâsabrh pfr hk `ho`f mh quh gf sh rhrbhrfg a kfs mhsohg -
mbhgths mh ka Bgmba hg sus pkagthaibhgtfs.

1:

Nkfmhk.bgmm 1: 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<:2

 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

Hk ofgohptf mhk Oarbjh

‛Ka `bstfrba mhk Oarbjh hs ka `bstfrba mh kas kuo`as mh kfs

biphrbfs ofgtra kfs puhjkfs mh ka rhnbÿg para arrhjatarkhs sus
rboas
ugfs tbhrras3 hs taijbâg
ofgtra ftrfs, para ka `bstfrba mh kas
arrhjatarkhs kuo`as mh
pfrobfghs mh kfs biphrbfs,
kf quh oama
ugf `ajéa ofgqubstamf3 y hs pfr üktbif ka `bstfrba mh kfs puhjkfs
mhk Oarbjh para kbjhrtarsh mh sus aifs biphrbakhs’0.
  Gf hs pfsbjkh `ajkar mhk Oarbjh sbg thghr uga bianhg
nhfnráoa mh kf quh hs hsta rhnbÿg, quh euh ka puhrta mh hgtrama
(1=2:)2 y mh sakbma (1020) mhk ofkfgbakbsif hurfphf thgbhgmf hg
ouhgta quh gf hs eáobk kfnrar uga mhgbobÿg mh mbo`a rhnbÿg mhjb-
mf a quh gf sh trata mh uga sfobhmam sbgf mh uga iuktbpkbobmam mh
sfobhmamhs ofg rbtifs sfobakhs, pfkétbofs, hofgÿibofs mbehrhgths.

Mbo`a
ifgéasrhnbÿg euh hk prbihrf
foobmhgtakhs hspaobf
a kf karnf mh ofgbotf
mh su `bstfrba hgtrh_ukas`bstfrba
ofkfgbak. `hnh-
hs ka mh kuo`a hgtrh kas pfthgobas hurfphas pfr hk prhmfibgbf sf-
 jrh kfs ihroamfs, kas rutas ofihrobakhs
ofihrobakhs,, kfs prfmuotfs, ka euhr-
za mh trajalf y hk ofgtrfk pfkétbof sfjrh thrrbtfrbfs y pfjkaobfghs
bgbobama mhsmh hk sbnkf PU14. Tfr kf mhiás, tfma rhhxbÿg sfjrh
ka bmhgtbmam oukturak mh uga rhnbÿg prhsupfgh uga obhrta mhkbibta-
obÿg hspaobak. Hk oasf mh ka Xgbÿg hurfpha hs iuy parambniátbof.
@asta a`fra sh prhnugta sfjrh quâ orbthrbfs `ay quh mhgbrka< ouk-
turak, nhfnráoa, rhkbnbfsa, hto.11 Hg hk oasf oarbjhñf, hs ihghsthr
uga aokaraobÿg
ihlfr ajfrmar kaofgohptuak
bmha mh ka mh kf quh oukturak.
bmhgtbmam hs hsta rhnbÿg ofg vbstas a
0 Luag Jfso`< Mh Orbstÿjak Ofkfg a Ebmhk Oastrf. Hk Oarbjh, erfgthra biph-
rbak , Hmbobfghs Akeanuara,
Akeanuara, Jarohkfga, 12>4, p. 1:.
2 Zbo`arm Cfghtzch, sfstbhgh quh ‛Hk prbihr ofgtaotf mh kfs hspañfkhs ofg bg-
ménhgas aihrboagfs sh prfmulf hg kas bskas mhk Iar Oarbjh. Aquâkkfs
Aquâkkfs hgofgtrarfg hg kas
Nragmhs Agtbkkas a kfs taégfs, quh phrthghoéag a ka eaibkba mh kfs auraofs f ara`uaofs y
quh, a partbr mh ka tbhrra rih sumaihrboaga, `ajéag tfiamf pfshsbÿg mh kas Agtbkkas’.
Uâash su kbjrf, Aiârboa Katbga, tfif BB, Ka âpfoa ofkfgbak , _bnkf PPB Hmbtfrhs, Iâxb-
of, 12>5, p. >.
14 Luag Iaguhk ]bramf Akhihgmra, «Bipfrtagoba nhfpfkétboa mhk Oarbjh³, Hg
Ehkbobagf L. Naroéa Anubrrh (offrmbgamfr), Agtfkfnéa. Bgthnraobÿg katbgfaihrboaga y
oarbjhña, Xgbvhrsbmam vhraoruzaga, Uhraoruzaga, :44?, p. 158
11 Uâash Zâib Jranuh, Zhgâ Zâifgm (ofkajfrathurs), K‒Hur
 K‒Hurfph,
fph, quhkkhs erfg-
tbàrhs, Ohgtrh m‒Agakysh ht mh Trâvbsbfg, Tarbs, :44>.
1?

Nkfmhk.bgmm 1? 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4

 Nkfmhk.bgmm 1? 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

  Hsta mhkbibtaobÿ
mhkbibtaobÿg
g ofgohptuak sh rhvhka bipfrtagth, mamf
quh `ay ibo`as ofgeusbfghs hg mbvhrsfs usfs quh sh `aohg mhk
târibgf. Hstas ofgeusbfghs sh hxpkboag pfr ka ofipkhlbmam y hk
aktf gbvhk mh `hthrfnhghbmam mh ka rhnbÿg puhstf quh iuo`fs au-

tfrhs hvfoag mbvhrsfs

nhfpfkétbofs, orbthrbfs para
nhfhofgÿibofs, mhgbrka ofif
nhfhstratânbofs, puhmhg shr<
htgfoukturakhs,
hgtrh ftrfs. Mh hstf ifmf, kfs autfrhs quh utbkbzag hk ofgohptf
gf sh rhhrhg a ihgumf ak ibsif ofgthgbmf. Agmrâs Mhijboz
rhofgfoh hsta mbouktam ouagmf mhstaoa quh hk târibgf ‛Oarbjh’
sh utbkbza hg tfmfs kfs shgtbmfs hg eugobÿg mh kfs bgthrhshs hg luh-
nf. R Agtfgbf Nastaijbmh-Nhbnhk mhstaoa quh iuo`fs autfrhs
`ajkag mhk Oarbjh sbg mhgbrkf. _ujraya quh `ay quh hxbnbr uga
mhgbobÿg ouagmf sh `ajka mhk Oarbjh.
  _hnüg guhstrf pugtf mh vbsta, tfmf bgthgtf mh mhgbobÿg
mhk Oarbjh mhjh rhibtbr a trhs gbvhkhs< iaorf, shib y iborf. Hg hk
 prbihr gbvhk, hk Oarbjh sh vh ofif uga parth mh Aiârboa Katbga f
ihlfr mbo`f ofif ka phrbehrba nhfnráoa y oukturak mh ka rhnbÿg.
Kfs mfs jkfquhs rhnbfgakhs sh ughg a partbr mh su mhphgmhgoba hs-
truoturak mhk oapbtakbsif, mh su pfjrhza, su `bstfrba ofkfgbak y su
iarnbgakbmam. ]ak hs ka fpbgbÿg mh Akabg Zfuqubâ, hk hsphobakbsta
eragoâs mh Aiârboa Katbga. _hnüg su fpbgbÿg, kf quh kfs mhgh
hs agth tfmf ‛uga sbtuaobÿg y ugas rhkaobfghs pfkétbof-hofgÿib-
oas. _h trata mh uga Aiârboa mfibgama, mhphgmbhgth, mfgmh sh
`ajka prbgobpakihgth hk hspañfk y hk pfrtunuâs, phrf taijbâg hk

eragoâs, hk bgnkâs
uga Aiârboa
Aiârboa h bgokusfhg
‛phrbeârboa’, hk rhkaobÿg
`fkagmâs. Mbo`f
a kas mh ftra iaghra,
ihtrÿpfkbs hs
mhk iugmf
bgmustrbakbzamf. Hsas gaobfghs prhshgtag `bstfrbas parakhkas ‟ kf
pasamf nrfssf
quh gf sbngboa bmâgtboas ‟ ya quh su mhsarrfkkf `a pasamf nrfssf
ifmf pfr kas ibsias htapas’.1: 
Ka sbtuaobÿg mh mhphgmhgoba hstruoturak mh kas mfs rhnbf-
ghs `aoh quh sh hgouhgtrhg ugbmas ofg rhsphotf a kas pfthgobas
`hnhiÿgboas h biphrbakbstas. Trbihrf, euhrfg véotbias mhk biph-
rbakbsif hurfphf a kf karnf mh su `bstfrba ofkfgbak. Hsta `bstfrba
tbhgh iuo`as ofgshouhgobas sfjrh su ofgefriaobÿg sfobfoukturak

1: Akabg Zfuqubâ<  Hk hstamf ibkbtar hg Aiârboa Katbga, _bnkf PPB Hmbtfrhs,
Iâxbof, 120:, p. :2.
1=
 Nkfmhk.bgmm 1= 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

ofif kas `hrhgobas htgfoukturakhs, kfs prhlubobfs raobakhs, hk ihs-

tbzalh, ka `bjrbmaobÿg, hto. Kf quh bipkboa quh hk Oarbjh y Aiâ-
rboa Katbga ofiparthg uga ibsia ofiugbmam mh mhstbgf. Ftrfs
autfrhs ofiparthg hsta vbsbÿg. Fotavbf Baggb sh rhhrh a kas mfs
rhnbfghs para ifstrar oÿif sus pfkétboas hxthrbfrhs ‛ofgtbgüag
 prfeugmaihgth bgubmas, f tftakihgth
tftakihgth mhthribgamas ‟ mh
mh aouhrmf
aouhrmf
ofg hk oasf ‟ pfr kas rhkaobfghs hofgÿiboas, pfkétboas y ibkbtarhs
quh hsfs paéshs iagtbhghg ofg kfs Hstamfs Xgbmfs’.1? Amhiás,
kfs hstumbfs sfvbâtbofs sfjrh ka rhnbÿg gf `bobhrfg mbehrhgoba sus-
tagobak hgtrh Aiârboa Katbga y hk Oarbjh.1= Tfr su parth, aknugfs
hstumbfsfs gfrthaihrboagfs kfs ofgeugmhg.18  Hg sus mbehrhgths
trajalfs sfjrh hk Oarbjh, Nârarm Tbhrrh-O`arkhs, hk obhgtéof sf-
obak `abtbagf, utbkbzÿ ka thfréa mh ka mhphgmhgoba para agakbzar ka
sbtuaobÿg mh mhphgmhgoba mhk Oarbjh ofg rhsphotf a kas pfthgobas
15
`hnhiÿgboas.  Kf ouak bipkboa ka bmhgtbmam mh sbtuaobÿg hstruo-
turak quh `ay hgtrh hk Oarbjh y Aiârboa Katbga.
Tfr ftra parth, `ay autfrhs quh ofgeugmhg kas mfs rhnbfghs
sbg ihgobfgarkf mh iaghra hxpkéobta. Hs hk oasf mhk mhstaoamf
`bstfrbamfr ihxboagf, Hmiugmf F‒Nfriag.1>  Mhspuâs mh mhs-
ofgstrubr ka bmha mh mhsoujrbibhgtf mh Aiârboa
Aiârboa tak ofif kf pkag-
tha ka `bstfrbfnraeéa foobmhgtak f hurfphfoâgtrboa, hk autfr mboh
quh, tras ka bgvhgobÿg mh Aiârboa, hk ofgtbghgth sh mbvbmh hg mfs
 jkfquhs< Aiârboa
Aiârboa salfga y Aiârboa Katbga. Kf katbgf y kf salÿg
ofgstbtuyhg kfs jkfquhs oukturakhs quh ofgefriag kfs iarofs ouk-

turakhs
sh puhmhy nhfpfkétboas
rhsaktar quhmh
ka aijas
bmha mhAiârboas. Hg hsth ibsif
Guhstra Aiârboa shgtbmf,
mh Lfsâ Iarté
hxprhsa ka ugbmam mh Aiârboa Katbga y mhk Oarbjh. Lfsâ Iarté
`ajkÿ mh Guhstra Aiârboa ofg rhsphotf a ka Aiârboa salfga,
1? Fotavbf Baggb< _fobfkfnéa mhk biphrbakbsif, _HT_H]HG]A_, Iâxbof,
12>=, p. 11.
1=  Uhr, pfr hlhipkf, A. Nkbgcbg, J. Iartbgfv, T. Rácfkhv<  Ka hvfkuobÿg pfkétboa
Rácfkhv< Ka pfkétboa
mh HXX. hg Aiârboa Katbga, Hmbtfrbak Trfnrhsf, Ifsoü, 120?.
18 Uhr @. K. Iat`hws, C. @. _ykvhrt<  Kas Hstamfs Xgbmfs y Aiârboa
Aiâr boa Katbga,
Hmbtfrbak Nrblakjf, Iâxbof, 12>?.
15 Uhr Nârarm Tbhrrh-O`a rkhs<  Hk Oarbjh ofgthipfrághf, _bnkf PPB Hmbtfrhs,
Tbhrrh-O`arkhs<
Iâxbof, 1201.
1> Uhr Hmiugmf F‒nfriag< ka bgvhgobÿg mh Aiârboa, Efgmf mh Ouktura Hof-
gÿiboa, Iâxbof, 1280
18
 Nkfmhk.bgmm 18 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

uga Aiârboa
Aiârboa biphrbakbsta, `hnhiÿgboa, quh aihgaza ka kbjhrtam y
ka bgmhphgmhgoba mh ka ftra. Tfr hsf, hk rhvfkuobfgarbf oujagf `a-
 jkÿ mh ka shnugma bgmhphgmhgoba mh Guhstra
Guhstra Aiârboa ofg rhspho-
Aiârboa mhk Gfrth.10 
tf ak phkbnrf quh rhprhshgtaja, shnüg âk, ka Aiârboa
Hg ka ibsia âpfoa mh Lfsâ Iarté, hgofgtraifs autfrhs `abtba-
gfs, puhrtfrrbquhñfs quh jalf ka jagmhra mh ka katbgbmam rheuhrzag
kfs kazfs hgtrh aijas rhnbfghs. Hs hk oasf mh Agthgfr Ebribg,
hk agtrfpÿkfnf `abtbagf quh tuvf juhgas rhkaobfghs ofg hk Iaréa
Oabohmf, ugf mh kfs quh `ajéag hsofnbmf hk gfijrh mh Aiârboa
Katbga. Ebribg, rhkata hsta rhkaobÿg aibstfsa hg su kbjrf  Khttrhs
mh _abgt . Hk agtrfpÿkfnf rhsakta ka trasohgmhgoba mh sus rhkaobf-
ghs ofg hk Mfotfr Jhtagohs mh Tuhrtf Zbof y sujraya hk prfyhotf
mh ofgehmhraobÿg agtbkkaga quh hkkfs aoarbobarfg para su rhnbÿg
anrhmbma pfr kas pfthgobas biphrbakbstas mh ka âpfoa. Hsta vbsbÿg
ofiüg mh aijas rhnbfghs euh iuo`f iás pfkétboa quh oukturak,
sbg fkvbmar ka bkusbÿg mh sbibkbtum quh orhÿ ka bmha mh katbgbmam
muragth aquhkka âpfoa.
  Tashifs a`fra ak shnugmf asphotf mhk prfjkhia hg ouag-
tf a ka mhkbibtaobÿg mh ka rhnbÿg oarbjhña. Ak rhsphotf, sh artbouka
uga vbsbÿg ofgtbghgtak mhk Oarbjh, quh ajaroa Aiârboa ohgtrak,
kas bskas iayfrhs y phquhñas, uga parth mh Iâxbof, mh Ofkfijba,
mh Uhghzuhka, ofg ofstas hg hk Iar Oarbjh. Asé quh sh `ajka mhk
Nrag Oarbjh f mhk Oarbjh aipkbamf ouyfs végoukfs sh artboukag a
travâs mh ka Asfobaobÿg mh kfs Hstamfs mhk Oarbjh (AHO). 12 Hsta

asfobaobÿg rheuh
rheuhrza
rhnbÿg:4. Amhiás,
Amh iás,rzahsta
y aipkba
rhnbÿgkas
sh rhkaobfghs hgtrh kfs
ofgsbmhra ofif ugaHstamfs mh ka
zfga nhfhs-
tratânboa para kfs Hstamfs Xgbmfs y rhprhshgta uga erfgthra biph-
rbak shnüg Luag Jfso`3 hs hk hlh mh kas Aiârboas para Lfsâ Iarté
y hs ugf h bgmbvbsbjkh a kfs flfs mhk mhstaoamf sfobÿkfnf `abtbagf,
Lhag Oasbibr.:1 
10 Lfsâ Iartb< Tfkétboa mh Guhstra Aiârboa, _bnkf PPB Hmbtfrhs, Iâxbof, 12>2
12 Arturf Thrakhs _akvamfr< ¶ Hs pfsbjkh uga ihlfr bgthnraobÿg mhk nrag Oarbjh
hg ka hofgfiéa bgthrgaobfgak , _bnkf PPB Hmbtfrhs, Iâxbof, :44?
:4 Uhr Gfria Nbrvag< ‛]`h assfobatbfg fe Oarbjjhag _tath (AO_) as a offphra-
tbvh zfgh’, bg Zaihs` Zaisarag (hmbtfr), Oarbjjhag _urvbvak agm t`h nkfjak o`akkhg-
 nh, Bag Zagmkh Tujkbs`hrs, Cbgnstfg, :44:
:1 Uhr Lhag Oasbibr<  Ka Oaraæjh, Xgh ht bgmbvbsbjkh, Biprbihrbh Iâmba-thxth
Iâmba-thxth,,
Tfrt-au-Trbgoh,, :445
Tfrt-au-Trbgoh
15
 Nkfmhk.bgmm 15 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

  Hk Oarbjh rhprhshgta taijbâg uga kkavh hstratânboa hgtrh

kfs foâagfs Atkágtbof
Atkágtbof y Taoéof3 euh oakboamf ofif hk ‛ihmbth-
rrághf aihrboagf’, ka throhra erfgthra, hk patbf trashrf y hk pÿrtbof
mh kfs Hstamfs Xgbmfs. @ay iuo`as véas mh ofiugboaobÿg< hk oa-
gak::mh Tagaiá, hk Tasf mh kfs Ubhgtfs y hk Hstrho`f mh ka Ekfrb-
ma.  Hk `bstfrbamfr ofkfijbagf, Arobgbhnas hsorbjbÿ ug hxohkhgth
kbjrf sfjrh hsta rhnbÿg, Jbfnraeéa mhk Oarbjh.:?
  Tfr ftra parth, ouagmf sh `ajka mh Aiârboa Katbga sh bg-
okuyh iuy a ihgumf a Ouja hg kf rhehrhgth a su paphk `bstÿrbof hg
kfs prfohsfs pfkétbofs h bmhfkÿnbofs mh ka rhnbÿg.:= Tfr hlhipkf,
Lfsâ Iarté hs ofgsbmhramf ofif ug phrsfgalh katbgfaihrboagf y
su ofgohptf mh Guhstra Aiârboa hs sbhiprh hvfoamf para ariar
ka partboukarbmam mh ka rhnbÿg ofg rhsphotf a Gfrthaiârboa. Asb-
ibsif, ka rhvfkuobÿg oujaga hs vbsta ofif ug aofgthobibhgtf ka-

tbgfaihrboagf.
tbgfaihrboagf.bgthnragth
ma ofif parth Hsth sbngboaAquh Ouja
mh Aiârboa
iârboa hs pkhgaihgth
Katbga. ofgsbmhrash-
Mh bnuak iaghra,
ofgsbmhra hk sfobÿkfnf puhrtfrrbquhñf, Lfsâ Iaréa @fstfs, ofif
ugf mh kfs bgbobamfrhs mh ka sfobfkfnéa katbgfaihrboaga ibhgtras
sh fkvbma f sh bngfra hk paphk eugmaihgtak mhk agtrfpÿkfnf `abtba-
gf, Agthgfr
Agthgfr Ebribg, hg ka `bstfrba mh kas obhgobas sfobakhs hg ka rh-
nbÿg:8. Hg hsth ibsif shgtbmf, kfs autfrhs oujagfs sfg hxpkéobta-
ihgth ihgobfgamfs hg kfs kbjrfs mh kbthratura `bspagfaihrboaga.
Hg aknugfs trajalfs sfjrh ka kbthratura `bspagfaihrboaga, Lhag
Eragof bgokuyh kfs autfrhs oujagfs ofif hsorbtfrhs `bspagfaih-
:5

rboagfs . _bg hijarn

hg su hstumbf, hijarnf,
a phsar f,
mhgf bgokuyh
quh gbgnugfs
ka Zhpujkboa autfrhs mfibgboagfs
mfibgboag
mfibgboagaa sh ofgsbmh-
ra ofif ug paés katbgfaihrboagf.
  Hk akhlaibhgtf mh ka Zhpujkboa Mfibgboaga mhk rhstf mhk
Oarbjh sh hxpkboa pfr hk `ho`f mh quh sh vh ofif ug paés `bspagf-
:: Arturf Thrakhs _akvamfr
_akvamfr,, Bjém., p. ?:
:? Hsth kbjrf parhoh a uga hpfphya mhk Oarbjh.
:=  Mh bnuak iaghra, ka `bstfrba oukturak oujaga mhla vhr quh hsh paés mhhgmh
 prbihrf su katbgfaihrboagbmam
katbgfaihrboagbmam agth
agth mh ariar su agtbkkagbmam.
agtbkkagbmam.
:8 Oajh ihgobfgar quh hsth agtrfpÿkfnf `abtbagf, euh hk prbihr bgthkhotuak gf
hurfphf muragth hk sbnkf PBP quh hsorbjbÿ ug kbjrf orétbof sfjrh ka agtrfpfkfnéa, pf-
gbhgmf hg hgtrhmbo`f kas thsbs raobstas mh ka obhgoba agtrfpfkÿnboa foobmhgtak.
foobmhgtak.
:5 Uhr Lhag Eragof < @bstfrba mh ka kbthratura `bspagfaihrboaga, Hmbtfrbak
Arbhk, Jarohkfga, :44:.
1>
 Nkfmhk.bgmm 1> 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

aihrboagf. Ak rhsphotf, Hkbsa Güñhz mh Láquhz y Iaréa Ubrtumhs

 Güñhz @bmaknf, offrmbgamfras ug shibgarbf sfjrh ‛Khgnuas, kb-
thraturas, sfobhmamhs oarbjhñas y Zhpujkboa Mfibgboaga’
Mfibgboaga’,, sfstbh-
gh quh<
  ‛@asta `aoh iuy pfof tbhipf, ka rhpüjkboa Mfibgboaga
euh sfihtbma pfr obrougstagobas `bstÿrboas, pfkétboas, hofgÿib-
oas… a phriaghohr alhga a tfmf kf quh suohméa hg su ohroagf hs-
ohgarbf nhfnráof. Hk abskaibhgtf mhk phgsaibhgtf mfibgboagf
mh ka rhnbÿg bgsukar a ka quh phrthghoh pfr su prfpba gaturakhza, sh
supkéa ofg ka bgohsagth ibrama ak ugbvhrsf ofgtbghgtak mh kf `bs-
 pagfaihrboagf a kas ihtrÿpfkbs gfrthaihrboagas
gfrthaihrboagas y hurfphas. Mh
uga iaghra sbibkar, hk phgsaibhgtf foobmhgtak y oarbjhñf tai-
 jbâg bngfrÿ y mhsofgfobÿ kas apfrtaobfghs quh mhsmh ka Zhpüjkb-
oa Mfibgboaga sh rhakbzarfg ak bianbgarbf oukturak mhk sbnkf PP,
mhgtrf ug traiamf mbsoursbvf quh gf pfmhifs ihgfs ofgsbmhrar
ofif bglustf, hg târibgfs mhk kunar quh ka ouktura mfibgboaga
mhjh foupar hg hk Oarbjh. Aknugfs
Aknugfs bgthkhotuakhs bgokusf, mhobmbh-
rfg asbibkar hk ofipfghgth mfibgboagf ofif parth mh kf oujagf
f ofif prfohmhgth mh kas ]bhrras mhk oarbjh `bspagf, agths mh
mhehgmhr ka hxokusbvbmam oukturak y prfpbhmam bgthkhotuak mh ka ga-
obÿg mfibgboaga’:> 
Kfs autfrhs rhofgfohg ka mbstagoba `bstÿrboa hgtrh ka Zh-
 püjkboa Mfibgboaga y hkhk Oarbjh.
Oarbjh. _h trata
trata mh ug ehgÿihgf
ehgÿihgf oukturak
hg kf hshgobak. Hs pfr hsf quh hk ifvbibhgtf mh ka ghnrbtum gf

tuvf
ofifgbgnuga ofgohptuakbzaobÿg
katbgfaihrboag
katbgfaihrboagf hg hsth
f sbg raéohs ofg paés pfr
hk Áerboa shr ofgsbmhramf
mh quh sh rhokaiag
kfs autfrhs mh ka ghnrbtum. Hkkas kf rhofgfohg taijbâg ak mhobr
quh ‛hk abskaibhgtf mh kf `abtbagf y mh kf oarbjhñf gf phribtbÿ
quh frhobhra hg Zhpüjkboa Mfibgboaga hk ifvbibhgtf aerfmf-
ibgboagf, tak ofif sh iagbhsta hg ka prhoarbhmam mh ofghxbfghs
orhatbvas y eruotéehras ofg kfs nragmhs autfrhs mh ka ghnrbtum oa-
rbjhña, aerboaga y hurfpha.’:0  Ouagmf ajfrmarhifs hk hgefquh
:> Iaréa Jbsfgÿ (Offrmbgamfra hmbtfrbak), ]hxtfs TXOII, khgnuas, kbthratu-
ras, sfobhmamhs oarbjhñas y Zhpüjkboa Mfibgboaga, (shibgarbf mhk 11 ak 1? mh ajrbk
mh :44> ),
), Tfgtboba Xgbvhrsbmam Oatÿkboa Iamrh y Iahstra, _agtf Mfibgnf, :44>, p.
1>-10
:0 Bjbm., p. 10
10
 Nkfmhk.bgmm 10 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

`bspagbsta, ifstrarhifs oÿif tuvf uga hsphobak ofgohptuakbza-

obÿg hsta bska pfr razfghs bmhfkÿnboas. Tara thribgar hsta shnugma
vbsbÿg mhk Oarbjh, ajaroagmf Aiârboa ohgtrak y ftrfs paéshs ofg
ofsta ak Iar Oarbjh, mbnaifs quh hsta ofgohpobÿg tbhgh quh vhr
iuo`f iás ofg hk hstajkhobibh
hstajkhobibhgtf
gtf mh rhkaobfghs pfkétboas, mbpkf-
iátboas, hofgÿiboas ofg ka rhnbÿg hg vhz mh pfghr aohgtf sfjrh
kf htgfoukturak.
  Tashifs a ka iborf vbsbÿg mhk Oarbjh. _hnüg âsta, hk
Oarbjh sh rhhrh eugmaihgtakihgth a kas Thquhñas y Iayfrhs
Agtbkkas f Bskas, bgthnramas aijas pfr varbfs aro`bpbâkanfs. Tfr
hkkf, tfiaifs prhstamf mh ug ofgohptf mhsarrfkkamf pfr hk ag-
trfpÿkfnf jrasbkhñf rhehrhgth a kfs puhjkfs mhk Oarbjh. _h trata
mhk ofgohptf mh ‛Tuhjkfs Guhvfs’. _hnüg Maroy Zhbjhrf, kfs
 puhjkfs guhvfs surnhg mh ka mhoukturaobÿg, y eusbÿg mh iatrbohs
âtgboas, aerboagas, hurfphas h bgménhgas. _fg uga hsphobah gf-
vah.:2  Hk autfr gfs
gfs mboh quh sfg ka ofgnuraobÿg
ofgnuraobÿg iás oaraothrés-
tboa mh kas Aiârboas. Zhprhshgtag uga guhva ofgnuraobÿg âtgb -
oa quh gf rhibth a sus mbvhrsfs ofipfghgths âtgbofs frbnbgakhs.
Kf quh prfvfoa hsta ofgnuraobÿg âtgboa guhva hs agth tfmf ka
ofkfgbzaobÿg, puhstf quh ‛ak rhugbr ghnrfs, jkagofs h bgmbfs hg
kas nragmhs pkagtaobfghs mh prfmuotfs trfpboakhs f hg kas ibgas,
ouya gakbmam hra surtbr a kfs ihroamfs hurfphfs y prfmuobr na -
gagobas, kas gaobfghs hurfphas ofkfgbzamfras pkasiarfg puhjkfs
 prfeugmaihgth mbehrhgobamfs mh sé ibsifs y mh tfmas kas htgbas
?4
quh kfs ofipfgéag’
ug sujprfmuotf mh kfs .prfyhotfs
Hstfs puhjkfs, anrhna
ofkfgbakhs?1 Zbjhbrf, sfg ofif
 y rhsuktag mh efrias
hsphoéoas mh mfibgaobÿg âtgboa y mh frnagbzaobÿg prfmuotbva?:
Tara Maroy Zbjhbrf, hstfs hstág prhshgths hg tfmf hk ofgtbghgth.
Kfs hgofgtraifs hg hk Uhghzuhka, Ofkfijba, Oarbjh, hto. @ay
ftrfs puhjkfs ofif kfs Tuhjkfs thstbifgbfs y kfs puhjkfs tras-
 pkagtamfs. Kfs prbihrfs sfg kfs hg mfgmh `ay ug nrag ofipfghg-
th bgménhga, hs mhobr, uga euhrth prhshgoba mh pfjkaobÿg prh`bspá-
gboa. _fg bgthnramfs pfr sfjrhvbvbhgths mh kas aktas obvbkbzaobfg
obvbkbzaobfghs
hs
:2 Maroy Zbjhbrf, Ofgenuraobfghs, _hp_hthgtas, Iâxbof, 12>:, p. ?8
?4 Bjbm., p. ?>
?1 Bjbm., p. ?>
?: Bjbm., p. ?0
12
 Nkfmhk.bgmm 12 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

autÿgfias ofif hg Iâxbof y Nuathiaka. _fg prfmuotf mh ka

aoobÿg trauiatbzagth mh ka hxpagsbÿg foobmhgtak. _bnkfs mh sf-
ihtbibhgtf iftbvarfg prfeugmas tragsefriaobfghs hg sus pf-
 jkaobfghs. Hg ouagtf a kfs Tuhjkfs ]ra
]raspkagtamfs,
spkagtamfs, ofrrhspfgmhg
kas gaobfghs ifmhrgas orhamas pfr ka ibnraobÿg mh pfjkaobfghs
hurfphas `aoba kfs guhvfs hspaobfs iugmbakhs, mfgmh prfourarfg
rhofgstrubr efrias mh vbma hg kf hshgobak bmâgtboas a kas mh frbnhg.
Hsh Oarbjh bgsukar hs pkurbkbgnubstbof. A`é `ajkag bgnkâs, eragoâs,
`fkagmâs, orbfkkf, hspañfk. Hg hstas bskas quh oaibgag  (shnüg
ka ihtáefra mhk pfhta `abtbagf Zhgâ T`bkfotàth ??) hk iar hs hk
hkhihgtf ugboamfr hgtrh kfs mbehrhgths mhk ofgtbghgth. Aknugfs
 pfhtas mhsarrfkkag
mhsarrfkkag uga
uga ibtfkfnéa
ibtfkfnéa mhk iar ofif _abgt Lfg Thrsh R
Hmfuarm Nkbssagt mboh rhrbâgmfsh ak iar quh ‛guhstrf oaipf hs
mhk iar’. Hk jarof ghnrhrf rhprhshgta uga ihtáefra mhk mhstbgf
mhk aerboagf ak tragsoursf mh su kkhnama ak Oarbjh.
  Iuo`fs autfrhs tratag mh mhsorbjbr pfâtboaihgth kas obr-
ougstagobas mh ka kkhnama mh kfs aerboagfs hg hk Oarbjh. Tfghg
aohgtf sfjrh kas rhaoobfghs mh kfs hsokavfs. Iuo`fs sh iatarfg,
ftrfs sh kagzarfg ak iar. Zap`aãk Ofgagt y Tatrboc O`aifbshau
hsorbjbhrfg< ‛Mhgtrf mh kfs hstupfrhs athrramfs, kfs nhibmfs, kfs
kkagtfs, kfs hgoagtaibhgtfs iánbofs f kas pfkkas mh anfgéa, sh
 puhmh bianbgar hspfgtághaih
hspfgtághaihgthgth ug nrbtf quh surnh mh ka jf-
mhna. Hs hk nrbtf mh ouakqubhr aerboagf. A phsar mh su bipfthg-
oba, âsth gbhna kas oamhgas f rho`aza su sbtuaobÿg.’?= Tfr su parth,

Abiâ
‛_bhgtfOâsabrh
surnbr mhsorbjh hsta kas
mh ka jfmhna sbtuaobÿg mh ka iaghra
iakmbobfghs iás mfkfrfsa<
hgoamhgamas, kfs nrb-
tfs mh kfs ifrbjugmfs, hk rubmf mh ugf quh sh ho`a ak iar…, kfs
kamrbmfs mh uga iulhr hg partf…’
  A phsar mh tfmas hstas `uibkkaobfg
`uibkkaobfghs,
hs, kfs hsokavfs gf fkvb-
marfg sus trambobfghs, sus orhhgobas, sus mbfshs y sus ofstuijrhs.
Euhrfg kas quh khs phribtbhrfg frnagbzar su rhsbsthgoba sbijÿkboa
erhgth ak frmhg ofkfgbak. Kfs hsokavfs ofif bgibnragths mhsgumfs
shnüg ka hxprhsbÿg mh Nkbssagt, akbihgtarfg
akbihgtarfg ka tbhrra aihrboaga mh

?? Zhgâ T`bkfotàth< Ohs çkhs qub iaro`hgt , Hmbtbfgs Iâifbrhs, Tfrt-au-Trbgoh,

Tfrt-au-Trbgoh,
122:
?= ofkhotbvf<< Khttrhs orâfkhs, Hmbtbfgs Nakkbiarm, Tarbs, 1222, p. ?2
Uhr su kbjrf ofkhotbvf
:4
 Nkfmhk.bgmm :4 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

su bianbgarbf y sus oukturas. Gf ohmbhrfg a kfs oaprbo`fs mhk sbi-

 jfkbsif orbstbagf quh trataja mh ofkfgbzar su bianbgarbf.?8  _us
khgnuas, sus iüsboas, sus ibtfs, sus oagobfghs, kkhgarfg hk ugb-
vhrsf aihrboagf mh guhvfs mbfshs, mh guhvfs ibtfs y mh guhvas
ofgohpobfghs mhk iugmf. Ofg hkkf, kkhnarfg a uga rhofipfsbobÿg
mhk iugmf. Hsta rhofipfsbobÿg tfiÿ efrias mbehrhgths shnüg hk
kunar mfgmh sh hgofgtrarfg. Hg Jrasbk, orharfg hk oagmfijh3 hg
@abté, hk vumü y hg Ouja, ka sagthréa. Nkbssagt mhiuhstra quh ka
 puksbÿg mhk rhnrhsf euh iuy euhrth hg hk ofrazÿg mhk hsokavf. Mboh
quh ka prbihra puksbÿg mh uga pfjkaobÿg traspkagtama, quh gf hs
shnura mh hgofgtrar hg hk kunar mh su tragsjfrmh hk agtbnuf frmhg,
hs hk Zhnrhsf’?5 Ragboc Kayhgs ofihgta
of ihgta mbobhgmf quh
q uh hsta puksbÿg
mh rhnrhsf sh hxpkboa pfr ka ghohsbmam mh ofgstbtubr uga ihifrba.
Hsta puksbÿg nuarmÿ tfma su oarna iétboa rhkbnbfsa y ofgtrbjuyÿ a
ofgstrubr ug guhvf ugbvhrsf oukturak sbgorâtbof. Hmfuarm Nkbssagt
mhgh asé ka ouktura
ouktura oarbjhña< ‛Oukturas
‛Oukturas prfvhgbhgths mhk sbsthia
mh pkagtaobfghs3 obvbkbzaobfghs bgsukarhs (f hk Iar oarbjh mberaota-
mf, mfgmh pfr hlhipkf, sh hstbia quh ug iar âk taijbâg obvbkbza-
mfr, hk Ihmbthrrághf, thgéa hg prbihr kunar pfthgoba mh atraoobÿg
y mh ofgohgtraobÿg)3 pfjkaobÿg pbraibmak ofg ug frbnhg aerboaga
f `bgmü a ka jash, hurfpha hg ka ouijrh3 khgnuas mh ofiprfibsf3
ehgÿihgf oukturak mh orbfkkbzaobÿg3 vfoaobÿg mhk hgouhgtrf y mh
ka ségthsbs3 phrsbsthgoba mhk `ho`f aerboagf3 ouktura mhk azüoar, mhk
iaéz, mhk pbibhgta3 kunar mh ofijbgaobÿg mh rbtifs3 puhjkf mh
?>
frakbmam’.
  Akhlf Oarphgtbhr aria quh ‛hk suhkf oarbjh, sh `aoh tha-
trf mh ka prbihra sbijbfsbs, mhk prbihr hgouhgtrf rhnbstramf hg ka
`bstfrba mh kas razas quh, ofif takhs, gf `ajéag hgofgtramf gugoa<
ka jkagoa mh Hurfpa, ka bgmba mh Aiârboa,
Aiârboa, quh hra uga gfvhmam tf-
tak, y ka aerboaga, quh, sb jbhg hra ofgfobma hg Hurfpa, hra mhsof-
gfobma tftakihgth mhk kamf atkágtbof. Tfr kf tagtf, uga sbijbfsbs
ifguihgtak mh trhs razas mh uga bipfrtagoba hxtrafrmbgarba pfr
?8 Uhr _hrnh Nruzbgscb<  Ka ofkfgbsatbfg mh k‒bianbgabr
k‒bianbgabrhh, Hmbtbfgs Nakkbiarm,
Tarbs, 1200
?5 Kayhgs, K‒Hxbk hgtrh
Obtamf pfr ka hsorbtfra `abtbaga, Ragboc Kayhgs, K‒Hxbk hgtrh k‒agoranh ht ka
 eubth. K‒âorbvabg `aætbhg
`aætbhg, Hmbtbfgs @hgry Mhso`aips, Tfrt-au-Trbgoh, p. 1>.
?>  Kh Mbsofurs Agtbkkabs, Hmbtbfgs Nakkbiarm, Tarbs, 1200, p. =::.
:1
 Nkfmhk.bgmm :1 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

su rbquhza y su pfsbjbkbmam mh apfrtaobfghs oukturakhs quh `ajéa

mh orhar uga obvbkbzaobÿg frbnbgak.’?0
  Laocy Ma`fiay mhstaoa quh gf hs eáobk mhgbr hk Oarbjh.
_ujraya quh hk Oarbjh gf hs sfkaihgth uga ugbmam nhfnráoa y
eésboa. Iás akká mh ka mbvhrsbmam mh kfs puhjkfs y mh kas ouktu-
ras quh kf ofipfghg, sh puhmh jbhg pkagthar uga ugbmam oukturak.
Hsta ugbmam sh jasa hg hk `ho`f mh quh tfmas hkkas `ag ofgfobmf
ka hsokavbtum ifmhrga mh kfs ghnrfs aerboagfs y hk sbsthia mh kas
 pkagtaobfghs. _h trata hgtfgohs mh kf quh Zfnhr
Zfnhr Jastbmh kkaia kas
‛Aihrbtas ghnras.’?2 
Hg ouagtf a Luag Ifra Zujbf, mboh quh ‛hk Oarbjh hs hk
 pugtf ohgtrak mfgmh sh eugmhg gf sÿkf kfs puhjkfs mh Aiârboa,
Áerboa y Hurfpa, sbgf mfgmh ofgvhrnhg hg ug tbhipf y ug hs-
 paobf, trhs nragmhs oukturas efrias mbvhrsas mh shgsbjbkbmam quh
ofgefriag uga iaghra sbgnukar mh shgtbr hk arth. Ka kbthratura hg-
ouhgtra su oaibgf prfpbf y sh hxprhsa ofg ug khgnualh guhvf
quh sajh kkaiar kas ofsas ofg su prfpbf sbngf. Kas vfohs mh kfs
hurfphfs hrag bgsuobhgths para rhnbstrar hk ehgÿihgf mh Aiâ-
rboa. Ouagmf gf vbskuijrag kas ofsas sbgf kas sfijras mhk vbhlf
iugmf, phrf gf sh aprfpbag ka hshgoba mh kf guhvf.
  Mh ka iuktbpkbobm
iuktbpkbobmam
am mh kfs ofipfghgths quh bgthrvbhghg
hg ka efriaobÿg mhk Oarbjh rhsukta ka mbouktam mh mhobr quâ y
qubâg hs. Gf `ay uga ofgstagth âtgboa, gb uga ofiugbmam mh khg-
nua, gb ug shgtbmf ugboamf mh ka rhkbnbfsbmam, gb uga efria `f -
ifnâgha mh hxprhsarsh hg kas arths pfpukarhs. _bg hijarnf, `ay
ugas ofgstagths iás aipkbas quh ofjblag a ka sfobhmam oarbjh mhs-
mh su rhiftf pasamf< ka mhphgmhgoba y hk sujmhsarrfkkf’=4.
Rfkagma ^ffm sujraya quh ‛ouagmf Maroy Zbjhbrf hg su kbjrf
Kas Aihrbtas y ka obvbkbzaobÿg mhgh ka hshgobakbmam oarbjhña
mhsmh uga phrsphotbva agtrfpfkÿnboa oukturak, mhgfibga a hsta rh-

?0 Obtamf hg hk kbjrf ofkhotbvf, Ouktbvas mhk Oarbjh. _horhtarba mh Hmuoaobÿg

Tüjkboa mh Iâxbof. 1200, p. 0=.
?2 Hk autfr pujkboa ug thxtf « T`bkfsfp`bh pfkbtbquh ifmhrgh ht ka Oaraæjh ³ hg
ka Zhvuh O`hibgs Orbtbquhs, khs Hmbtbfgs mu OBM@OA. Ifgtrâak, 1202, p. 1?
=4 Luag Ifra, ‛Hk Oarbjh, kbthratura, ofgfobibhgtf y sujmhsarrfkkf’, hg Ouktu-
ra mhk Oarbjh, ihifrba mhk ehstbvak bgthrgaobfgak mh Ouktura. Xgbmam mh ouktura mh kas
erfgthras. Iâxbof, 1200, p. =55.
::
 Nkfmhk.bgmm :: 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

nbÿg ‛puhjkfs guhvfs’. Kf ouak khs ofghrh uga hsphobobmam a

kf karnf mh su trayhotfrba `bstÿrboa.
`bstÿrboa. Ka nhfnraeéa oukturak mh hstfs
 puhjkfs hs ka rhsuktagth mh ofipkhlfs prfohsfs sfobfoukturak
sfobfoukturakhs
hs
mfgmh kfs hgouhgtrfs âtgbofs `ag rhsuktamf uga hsphobh mh ofg-
mbobfgagth `bstÿrboa mh guhstra bgthroukturakbmam. Hsfs prfohsfs
gf sh mhshgvfkvbhrfg ugbefrihihgth sbgf iás jbhg ofg eashs mh
mbsofgtbgubmam ouakbtatbva
ouakbtatbva pfr kas ofgmbobfghs mh mfibgaobÿg of-
kfgbak bipuhsta mhsmh obgof sbnkfs. A`fra, a gakhs mhk shnugmf
ibkhgbf, hk hspaobf Oarbjh bgmana sfjrh su ibsibmam y su hxbs-
oaraothrbzamfra mh uga ofgmbobÿg ihstbza.’=1
thgoba sbgorâtboa oaraothrbzamfra

=1 Ka autfra pujkboa ug artéoukf bgtbtukamf ‛Tbgtura, rhkbnbfsbmam pfpukar y

bÿg hg hk Oarbjh ofgthipfrághf’, hg Zhvbsta mh Hstumbfs mhk Oarbjh , Oasa
tragsoukturaobÿg
tragsoukturao
mh kas Aiârboas,
Aiârboas, @ajaga, 1228, p. 8?.
:?
 Nkfmhk.bgmm :? 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

Hk ofgohptf mh bmhgtbmam oukturak

  Khlfs mh guhstra bgthgobÿg mh prhthgmhr kfnrar uga mhgb-

obÿg sbsthiátboa mhk ofgohptf mh bmhgtbmam oukturak. Xg ofgohptf
quh `a sbmf
sfobakhs. y sbnuh
Iuo`fs sbhgmf
autfrhs fjlhtf mhsurhhxbfghs
rhofgfohg hxbjbkbmam,mhsukas obhgobas
hkastbobmam
h bgokusf ka mbouktam mh su mhkbibtaobÿ
mhkbibtaobÿgg shiágtboa. Ak rhsphotf,
Aibg Iaakffe sujraya quh hk târibgf mh bmhgtbmam hs ugf mh kfs
eaksfs aibnfs. Mhstaoa quh ka ouhstbÿg mh ka bmhgtbmam hs hk prf-
 jkhia hshgobak mh ka kfsfeéa mhsmh hk ‛ofgÿohth a tb ibsif’ mh
_ÿoraths `asta Erhum, pasagmf pfr tagtfs ftrfs iahstrfs.=: Tfr su
 parth, Arturf ^ariag shñaka quh hk thrrhgf
thrrhgf ka bmhgtbmam
bmhgtbmam hs rhsja-
kfsf y ka rhkatbvbmam mh kas bmhgtbmamhs `aoh mbeéobk su mhgbobÿg.=? 
Mh bnuak iaghra, hk kÿsfef ihxboagf, Kués Ubkkfrf, rhofgfoh hk
oaráothr prfjkhiátbof mh ka bmhgtbmam, sujrayagmf quh==su sbngb-
oamf varba ofg ka okash mh fjlhtfs a kfs quh sh apkboa.  Tfr g,
Thmrf Nÿihz Naroéa mhstaoa quh `ay ug ofglugtf mh oakboatbvfs
quh sh apkboag a ka bmhgtbmam ofif ka bmhgtbmam raobak, ka bmhgtbmam
nhgâtboa, ka bmhgtbmam gaobfgak, ka bmhgtbmam oukturak, ka bmhgtbmam
 pfpukar,, hto.=8
 pfpukar
  Kas ofgsbmhraobfgh
ofgsbmhraobfghss agthrbfrhs gfs phribthg vhr quh gf
hs eáobk mhkbibtar shiágtboaihgth hk ofgohptf mh bmhgtbmam. Hsth
ofgohptf vbhgh mhk katég, bmhgtbmas, y hqubvakh a kf quh hs kf ibs-
if f quh hs sé ibsif, kf quh sh ashihla a sé ibsif. Ka bmhgtbmam

hs ug ofglugtf mh oaraothréstb
oaraothréstboas
oas mh sé ibsif ofg rhsphotf ak ftrf.
Hs kf quh mbstbgnuh ug fjlhtf a kfs mhiás y kf quh kh phribth shr
hk ibsif fjlhtf a travâs mhk tbhipf. Hg ka thfréa kfsÿoa, shnüg
M. @hbgrbo`, ka bmhgtbmam hs ug prhmboamf quh tbhgh uga eugobÿg
=: Aibg Iaakffe, ‛Bmhgtbmam ashsbgas’, bg Nbkjhrtf Nbihghz Ifgtbhk< ]hfréa y
agákbsbs mh ka ouktura, Ufk. BB, OFGAOXK]A, Iâxbof, :448, p.=8
=? Arturf ^ariag<  Kfs bgmbfs ihxboagfs hg h g hk uijrak mhk ibkhgbf, Efgmf mh
Ouktura Hofgÿiboa, Iâxbof, 122?, p. 18
== Kués Ubkkfrf, _fjrh ka bmhgtbmam mh kfs puhjkfs, hg ‛ Khoturas jásboas BB. Ofg-
Ofg-
thxtf oukturak, sfobak y hofgÿibof mh Iâxbof y Aiârboa Katbga, Xgbvhrsbmam Autÿgfia
Ihtrfpfkbtaga,, Xgbmam Pfo`bibkof, Iâxbof, :44=, p. 8?.
Ihtrfpfkbtaga
=8 Thmrf Nÿihz Naroéa, ‛Kas bkusbfghs mh ka ‛bmhgtbmam’. Ka htgba ofif pshu-
mf ofgohptf’, hg Thmrf Nÿihz Naroéa (offrm)< Kas bkusbfghs mh ka bmhgtbmam , Erhghsés
Oáthmra, Xgbvhrsbmam mh vakhgoba, :444, p. :2
:=
 Nkfmhk.bgmm := 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

 partboukar3 pfr ihmbf

ihmbf mh âk uga ofsa u fjlhtf partboukar
partboukar sh mbstbg-
nuh ofif tak mh kas mhiás mh su ibsia hsphobh.=5 _hnüg Iarbtza
Ifgthrf, ‛kas bmhgtbmamhs ouipkéag uga mfjkh eugobÿg< mhgbr,
mhstaoar, sbgnukarbzar, tbpboar a ug ofglugtf mh phrsfgas hg eug-
obÿg mh obhrtas oaraothréstboas autf y a vhohs `hthrfatrbjubmas3 a ka
vhz quh mhkbibta, hxokuyhgmf mhk nrupf y pfr kf tagtf mhk aoohsf h
hsa bmhgtboaobÿg, a ftras phrsfgas a qubhghs sh phrobjh ofif gf
 pfshhmfras mh kas ibsias ofgmbobfghs. Gfsftrfs erhgth a ftrfs.’=>
Tfr uga parth, hgofgtraifs hg ka bmhgtbmam ka bmha mh phriaghg-
oba mh ugf ibsif ofg rhsphotf a kfs mhiás. _h jusoa a prhshrvar
sus oaraothréstboas mbehrhgobakhs para hvbtar ka bgtrusbÿg mhk ftrf.
Hs a partbr mh hsta ofgohpobÿg quh kfs takbjaghs mhstruyhrfg kas
hstatuas mh nbnagthsoas mh Juma, quh tuvbhrfg kunar kas nuhrras
âtgboas hg Zusba, hg Runfskavba, hg Bgmfghsba ofif kf shñaka
 Gnf ]u]u Kap. Ka jüsquhma
jüsquhma mh bmhgtbmam
bmhgtbmam sh ashihla
ashihla sbhiprh a uga
mbgáiboa mh mhehgsa mh kf mbehrhgth ofg hk ftrf. _h jusoa a rho`a-
zar ka bgvasbÿg mhk ftrf hg su hspaobf oukturak ohrramf. Hgtfgohs,
ka ariaobÿg mh ka bmhgtbmam tbhgh hg erhgth ka akthrbmam. @ay uga
mbakâotboa hgtrh ka bmhgtbmam y ka akthrbmam. Gnf sujraya quh ka
mbakâotboa mh ka bmhgtbmam hs quh hk Ftrf hs ofif gfsftrfs y ak
ibsif tbhipf mbehrhgth mh gfsftrfs. Ghohsbtaifs mhk ftrf para
ariar guhstra hxbsthgoba. Hs sbhiprh hk ofgtaotf, hk bgthroai-
 jbf, hk ofgbotf quh gfs ayumag a rhofgfohrgfs y a rhofgfohr
kfs mhiás. Xga ofiugbmam abskama gf tbhgh ka ghohsbmam mh ka
=0
bmhgtbmam.
  Hg hsth shgtbmf, ka ariaobÿg mh ka bmhgtbmam gf sh `aoh
hg hk vaoéf y sbg ka hxbsthgoba mhk ftrf. ]fma bmhgtbmam bipkboa ka
akthrbmam. Tfr hlhipkf, kas sfobhmamhs prbibtbvas gf tbhghg prf-
 jkhia mh bmhgtbmam hg ka ihmbma hg quh sh quhmarfg ohrramas hg
sé ibsias. _u ofipfrtaibhgtf sh rbnbÿ pfr kas rhnkas mh ka ofiu-
gbmam, quh sfg kas ofstuijrhs, kas trambobfghs. Mh bnuak aihra,
=5 Obtamf pfr Nbkjhrtf Lbiâghz Ifgtbhk, Bjém., p. 12.
=> Iarbtza Ifgthrf, « Akthrohgtrbsi
Akthrohgtrbsif f y ofgstruoobÿg mh bmhgtbmamhs ghnatbvas³,
hg Magbhk Iatf (offrm.)< ]hfréa y pfkétboa mh ka ofgstruoobÿg mh bmhgtbmamhs hg Aiârboa
katbga y hk Oarbjh, XGH_OF, Hmbobÿg Guhva _fobhmam, Uhghzuhka, 122=, p. =2.
=0 Oukturhkkhh < Ka rhkatbvbtâ mh ka mbvhrsbtâ ³, hg Mbvhrsbtâ
Gfn ]f Kap, « Bmhgtbtâ Oukturhkk
oukturhkkh ht ifgmbakbsatbfg, Hmbtbfgs Autrhihgt, Tarbs, :44=, p. 01.
:8
 Nkfmhk.bgmm :8 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

Fkbvbhr Zfy sujraya quh ka ouhstbÿg bmhgtbtarba hg kas sfobhmamhs

iusukiagas gf prfvbhgh mh ka trambobÿg iusukiaga, sbgf quh
surnh a partbr mh ka ibnraobÿg mh kfs iusukiaghs `aoba ftrfs paé-
shs. _h hgouhgtrag hg ftrfs hspaobfs oukturakhs y pfr hsf tratag mh
 prhshrvar sus bmhgtbmamhs.
bmhgtbmamhs. Hg tbhrra
tbhrra hxtraglhra,
hxtraglhra, hk iusukiág jus-
jus-
oa ka prhshrvaobÿg mh ka authgtbobmam mh su eh. Zfy añamh, amhiás,
quh ka bipfrtaobÿg mh ka ifmhrgbmam a kas sfobhmamhs iusukia-
gas prfvfoa taijbâg ka orbsbs mh ka bmhgtbmam.
  Hg ouagtf a kas mbehrhgths thfréas quh tratag mh agakbzar hk
ofgohptf mh bmhgtbmam, Lhsüs shrga Ifrhgf sujraya quh ka mbsou-
sbÿg nbra hg tfrgf a mfs oaipfs< hk hshgobakbsta y hk ofgstruotbvbs-
ta. Hk prbihrf hs ug ofgohptf ‛bgtrapsbqubof’ f jbhg ihta`bstÿ-
rbof quh bgthgta `akkar uga oaraothréstboa hstajkh quh bmhgtboa a
ka phrsfga< aquhkkf quh ofgstbtuyh ‛kf quh hs rhakihgth hs’. =2 Hk
autfr sujraya quh ka ofgohpobÿg hshgobakbsta hstá vbgoukama ofg
kfs eugmaihgtakbsifs âtgbofs y gaobfgakhs quh iuo`fs nrupfs
sujakthrgfs ofgsbmhrag bgmbsphgsajkhs para kfnrar su hiagobpa-
obÿg. _ujraya, pfr ftra parth, quh ka shnugma ofgohpobÿg (ofgs-
truotbvbsta) surnh
surnh hg kas obhgobas sfobakhs y prfpfgh a ka bmhgtbmam
ofif uga ofgstruoobÿg, f jbhg ofif ug ofgohptf quh bgthrgakb-
zaifs a raéz mh uga shrbh mh htbquhtas f ofgmuotas bipuhstas pfr
hk hgtfrgf sfobak.84 Tfr hsf, ka bmhgtbmam hs ug prfohsf rhkaobfgak.
_b `ay quh agakbzar ofg mhthgbibhgtf hstas mfs ofgohpobfghs, hs
bipfrtagth vhr hg quâ ifihgtf `bstÿrbof surnhg. Hg ouagtf a ka

 prbihra (hk hshgobakbsif),

(hk
(Tariâgbmhs)hshgobakbs
mfgmh hkif), sh puhmh rhifgtar
phgsaibhgtf a ka kfsfeéa
mh ka bmhgtbmam hxokuyÿnrbhna
mhs-
mh hk prbgobpbf ka pfsbjbkbmam mh ka akthrbmam y mh ka pkurakbmam. Hk
 phgsaibhgtf mh Tariâgbmhs akbihgta tfma ka ouktura foobmhgtak
`asta hk phgsaibhgtf ifmhrgf pasagmf pfr hk phgsaibhgtf orbs-
tbagf ihmbhvak prbihrf. Kf ouak gfs mhla vhr quh ka akthrbmam y
ka pkurakbmam ofgstbtuyhg ug prfjkhia mhsmh hk bgbobf mh ka kf -
sfeéa.81  Tara ka kfsfeéa
kfsfeéa mh Tariâgbmhs, kf vhrmamhrf
vhrmamhrf hs kf ugf
=2 L. Lhsüs Iarba _hrgf Ifrhgf< Ouja< ug puhjkh Guhvf. @hrhgobas htgfouktu-
rakhs bgménhgas hg ka rhnbÿg frbhgtak , XGAI, Iâxbof, :44>, p. 55.
84 Bjbm., p. 55
81
iâgbmhs’, UhghrThmrf
Lhsüs Nÿihz
Lfsâ Ghjrama<
Naroéa,‛Hk
 Kasiarof mh kamh
bkusbfghs bmhgtbmam, f kas, Erhghsés
ka bmhgtbmam  `hrhgobasOáthmra,
mh Tar-
Xgbvhrsbtat mh Uakhgoba, Uakhgoba, 122?, p. 181.
:5
 Nkfmhk.bgmm :5 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

y kf bmâgtbof. Khfpfkmf \ha iuhstra ofif hk phgsaibhgtf nrbh-

nf y rfiagf hxokuyh hk ftrf hg sus pkagthaibhgtfs.8: Hk kÿsfef
ihxboagf mhstaoa quh hk phgsaibhgtf nrbhnf gf ofgthipkaja ka
akthrbmam y su rhofgfobibhgtf. Mh bnuak iaghra, Hurfpa gaobÿ
 pfr fpfsbobÿg a ftras oukturas. Hk kfnfs nrbhnf quh trasibtbÿ a
Hurfpa hs ug kfnf hxokuyhgth, arrfnagth, ifgfkfnf, tftakbtarbf.
Kas gfobfghs mh mbvhrsbmam, mh iuktboukturakbsif
iuktboukturakbsif hg jfna aotuak-
ihgth euh bgofgohjbjkh hg ka `bstfrba ifmhrga / ofkfgbak hurfpha.
Ka ofgohpobÿg hshgobakbsta mh ka bmhgtbmam rhibth a ka bmhgtbmam
émhi tak ofif hk kÿsfef eragoâs Tauk Zbofhur kf pkagtha hg su
kbjrf ‛_é ibsif ofif ftrf’. Zbofhur hgugoba mfs ofgohpobfghs
mh bmhgtbmam< bpsh y émhi. Ka bmhgtbmam bpsh mhsarrfkka uga lhrar-
quéa mh sbngboaobfghs ouya oukibgaobÿg hs ka phriaghgoba hg hk
tbhipf. Ka bmhgtbmam bpsh supfgh ka rhkaobÿg ofg hk ftrf. Hs mhobr,
mhobr,
ka bpshbmam bipkboa ka akthrbmam. Gf `ay bpshbmam sbg akthrbmam y
gf sh puhmh phgsar hg uga sbg ka ftra. Hsta vbsbÿg mh ka bmhgtbmam
mh Zbofhur phribth ofgohptuakbzar ka bmhgtbmam mhsmh ka akthrbmam.
Tfr ftra parth, hs ihghsthr hstajkhohr uga rhkaobÿg hgtrh ka bmhg-
tbmam ofkhotbva, ka ihifrba y ka `bstfrba. _hnüg guhstrf hgthgmb-
ibhgtf, tfma bmhgtbmam oukturak rhibth a ka `bstfrba y ka ihifrba.
Ka bmhgtbmam hs bipfsbjkh sbg ka ihifrba y âsta, hg hk pkagf `bs-
tÿrbof, gfs phribth aoohmhr a kfs matfs ihmbagth ug prfohsf mh
shkhoobÿg quh bipkboa mfs mbgáiboas mh rhouhrmf y mh fkvbmf. Kfs
sbsthias mh gftaobfghs, mh pfhias, mh `bstfrbas, mh ifguihgtfs
sfg efrias mh iagthghr ka ihifrba. Hg ka shkhoobÿg mh kfs `h-
o`fs mhk pasamf ka ihifrba `aoh uga rhofgstruoobÿg hg eugobÿg
mh kfs biphratbvfs mhk prhshgth y mhk euturf. Asé
Asé quh kas ihifrbas
gf sfg las, sbgf uga rhorhaobÿg mhk pasamf quh gfs prfmuohg ug
shgtbmf mh ofgtbgubmam. Mh a`é, ka ihifrba akbihgta ka bmhgtbmam
ofkhotbva a partbr mh kfs `ho`fs quh hk nrupf ofgsbmhra ofif rh-
khvagths para su suphrvbvhgoba. Ka ofgstruoobÿg mh ka bmhgtbmam
ofkhotbva sh rhakbza a partbr mh kfs iarofs sfobakhs h `bstÿrbofs.
  Kas rhprhshgtaob
rhprhshgtaobfghs
fghs sfobakhs mhk pasamf mhphgmhg mh kas
hxphrbhgobas `bstÿrboas ofipartbmas. _u ofgthgbmf prfpfrobfga
8: Khfpfkmf \ha, Mbsoursf mhsmh ka iarnbgao
iarnbgaobÿg
bÿg y ka jarjarbh, Efgmf mh Ouk-
tura Hofgÿiboa, Iâxbof, 1224.
:>
 Nkfmhk.bgmm :> 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

kfs hkhihgtfs quh ofgtrbjuyhg a ofgnurar ka bmhgtbmam ofkhotb-

va. R oama bgmbvbmuf sh hgouhgtra hg hsta naia mh séijfkfs, mh
vakfrhs quh ofgstbtuyhg ka bmhgtbmam ofkhotbva. Hk bgmbvbmuf hs
 parth mhk sulhtf-nrupf f mhk sulhtf-aotfr ofkhotbvf. _hnüg Nbkjhr-
Nbkjhr-
tf Lbiâghz, `ay aknugfs hkhihgtfs quh phribthg oaraothrbzar kas
bmhgtbmamhs ofkhotbvas.
ofkhotbvas. Mboh quh kas ofgmbobfghs sfobakhs mh pfsb-
 jbkbmam mh kas bmhgtbmamhs
bmhgtbmamhs ofkhotbvas ofrrhspfgmhg
ofrrhspfgmhg a kas quh ofg-
mbobfgag ka efriaobÿg sfobak mh tfmf nrupf sfobak, ka prfxbibmam
mh kfs anhgths bgmbvbmuakhs hg hk hspaobf sfobak. ]aijbâg, ka efr-
iaobÿg mh kas bmhgtbmamhs ofkhotbvas gf bipkboa hg ajsfkutf quh
âstas sh `akkhg vbgoukamas a ka hxbsthgoba mh ug nrupf frnagbzamf.
Añamh quh erhouhgthihg
erhouhgthihgth th kas bmhgtbmamhs ofkhotbvas ofgstbtuyhg
ugf mh kfs prhrrhqubsbt
prhrrhqubsbtfs
fs mh ka aoobÿg ofkhotbva.
  Ak rhehrbrgfs a ka rhnbÿg (hg hsphobak ak Oarbjh), pfmh-
ifs mhobr quh ka bmhgtbmam ofkhotbva tbhgh quh vhr ofg ka bianhg
quh ka rhnbÿg tbhgh mh sé ibsia ofg rhsphotf a ftras rhnbfghs.
Hstas rhprhshgtaobfghs rhnbfgakhs, pfr ug kamf, prfvbhghg mh ka
`bstfrba ofiüg, mh kfs rasnfs oukturakhs ofipartbmfs, mhk hgtfr-
gf gaturak y, pfr hk ftrf, mhk prfyhotf mh euturf. Hk ‛sé ibsif
ofkhotbvf’ rhnbfgak mhjh partbr mh uga ihifrba ofkhotbva, ug pa-
trbifgbf oukturak, ugfs vakfrhs ofgsbmhramfs eugmaihgtakhs para
ka rhnbÿg. @ajkagmf kfs hkhihgtfs ofiughs hg hk Oarbjh, hk `bs-
tfrbamfr `abtbagf, Khskbh Eragîfbs Iagbnat, sujraya quh ka rhnbÿg
sh oaraothrbza pfr shr ug ofglugtf mh sfobhmamhs bgsukarhs, gatu-

rakihgth jhkkas,
 jakoagbzamas. _fgnhfnráoaihgth eranihgtamas
hk pugtf mh ofgtaotf hgtrh kashmfs
`bstÿrboaihgth
`bstÿrboaihg
Aiârboas th.
Aiârboas8?
_fg oukturakihgth, h `bstÿrboaihgth sfobhmamhs pkurakhs, hto. Of-
gfohg hk ibsif sbsthia mh hsokavbtum, mh hxpkftaobÿg, hto. Hstfs
hkhihgtfs ofgstbtuyhg bgohgtbvfs
bgohgtbvfs quh aohroag oama vhz iás hstas
sfobhmamhs ak gbvhk pfkétbof, hofgÿibof, sfobak y oukturak.

8? Khskbh Eragofbs Iagbnat, ‛Bs t`hrh a ofiifg Oarbjjhag Bmhgtbty’, hg Xkrbo`

Eranhr (offrm)<  Trfjkhis fe Oarbjjhag Mhvhkfpihgt , ^b`hki Ebgc Uhrkan Iugo`hg,
120:, p. 11.
:0
 Nkfmhk.bgmm :0 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

Hk bgmbnhgbsif `abtbagf
 
A mbehrhgoba mh Aiârboa Katbga, hk bgmbnhgbsif `abtbagf
hs ug bgmbnhgbsif sbg bgménhgas. Hk bgmbnhgbsif hg @abté tbhgh
quh vhr ofg ka jüsquhma aeagfsa mh ka bmhgtbmam oukturak gaobfgak,
hgefoagmf kas `hrhgobas htgfoukturakhs aerboagas vbstas ofif ka
iatrbz mh ka ouktura `abtbaga.
  Oajh rastrhar agth tfmf hk frbnhg mhk târibgf ‛bgménhga’
hg @abté. Hg hk ‛Aota mh Bgmhphgmhgoba’ mhk paés quh euh hk prb-
ihr ifguihgtf kbthrarbf pfr ka iaghra hg quh euh rhmaotamf,
kfs târibgfs ‛hlhrobtf bgménhga’, ‛obumamagfs bgménhgas’, ‛bgmé-
nhgas mh @abté’ aparhobhrfg8=. Hg kfs añfs 10?4, aknugfs autfrhs
hg @abté hiphzarfg a hstumbar ka âpfoa prh`bspágboa `abtbaga para
ifstrar ka ofgtbgubmam hgtrh kfs `abtbagfs mh `fy y kfs mh ka âpfoa
 prh`bspágboa. Kuhnf, hg 12:>, kfs mfotrbgarbfs mhk bgmbnhgbsif
orharfg uga rhvbsta quh sh kkaiaja ‛Zhvbsta bgménhga’ para ifs-
trar ka ofgtbgubmam mhk aotf rhvfkuobfgarbf mh 104=. Hsth gfijrh
euh sbijÿkbof pfrquh iagbehstÿ ka mhthribgaobÿg mh kfs pfhtas
mh ka âpfoa mh kuo`ar ofgtra ka foupaobÿg gfrthaihrboaga mhk paés
fourrbma hg 1218. Agakbzagmf kfs mbehrhgths usfs quh kfs `abtba-
gfs `ag `ho`f mhk târibgf ‛bgménhga’, hk orétbof kbthrarbf `abtbagf,
Iaxbibkbagf Karfo`h, mhstaoa quh kfs `abtbagfs sh rhofgfohg bg-
ménhgas ouagmf sh trata mh mhehgmhr hk paés.
  Hk bgmbnhgbsif `abtbagf, ak kamf mhk iarxbsif, rhprhshgta
88
uga mh kas bmhfkfnéas iás bipfrtagths mhk sbnkf PP `abtbagf . Hs
a ka vhz uga agtrfpfkfnéa orétboa, uga pfâtboa, uga bmhfkfnéa y uga
rhvuhkta. Hg ouagtf hk prbihr hkhihgtf, kfs autfrhs tratarfg mh hs-
tumbar ka ouktura `abtbaga gf a partbr mh ug hurfohgtrbsi
hurfohgtrbsif
f sbgf mhs-
mh ka trambobÿg ibsia mhk paés, bipungagmf ka vbsbÿg hvfkuobfgbs-
ta quh oaraothrbzÿ ka agtrfpfkfnéa foobmhgtak mh aquhk hgtfgohs.
Euh uga pfâtboa pfrquh ka ‛Zhvbsta Bgménhga’ mh 12:> pusf aohg-
tf sfjrh ka hstâtboa, tratagmf mh kkhnar a ug sbgorhtbsif hgtrh hk
eragoâs y hk orâfkh `abtbagf, kf quh mbf kunar a kf quh hk kbgnûbsta
8= Jfbsrfgm ]fgghrrh,  Iâifbrh pfur shrvbr ä k‒@bstfbrh m‒@abtb , Hmbtbfgs mhs
Agtbkkhs, Tfrt-au-Trbgoh,
Tfrt-au-Trbgoh, 1221, p. ?4
88 Kyfgghk ]rfubkkft, ‛K
‛K‒bgthkkhotu
‒bgthkkhotuhk
hk `aætbhg eaoh ä ka thgtatbfg mh k‒Foobmhgt ³,
hg Ka rhvuh Kbrh
Kbrh @aætb, Tfrt-au-Trbgoh, mâohijrh :441, vfk. 1, #1.
:2
 Nkfmhk.bgmm :2 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

`abtbagf, Tramhk Tfipbkus kkaiÿ ug ‛khgnualh eragof-`abtbagf’.

_h trata mhk ifvbibhgtf mbf kunar a ka kbthratura ifmhrga `abtbaga.
 Euh uga bmhfkfnéa, hg hk shgtbmf mh quh hk gaobfgakbsif `abtbagf
ofjrÿ uga efria iuy okara hg hk iarof mh ka kuo`a agtb-biph-
rbakbsta. R pfr g, euh uga rhvuhkta mh kfs bgthkhotuakhs mhk paés
erhgth a ka `uibkkaobÿg, ka foupaobÿg gfrthaihrboaga mhk paés.
Mbo`f aofgthobibhgtf euh hk mhtfgamfr mhk bgmbnhgbsif `abtbagf
quh tuvf mfs asphotfs hshgobakhs< uga mbihgsbÿg pfkétboa y uga
rhaoobÿg oukturak.85
  Ajfrmaifs ka mbihgsbÿg oukturak mhk bgmbnhgbsif. Hk bg-
mbnhgbsif bipkboa ka jüsquhma mh ka authgtbobmam oukturak `ab-
tbaga, ka rhbvbgmboaobÿg mh kfs frénhghs aerboagfs mhk paés. Hsh
ifvbibhgtf pusf g a kf quh oaraothrbzÿ hk paés hg hk sbnkf PBP
‛ka bgqubhtum
bgqubhtum raobak’. Mfotfr Lhag Trboh Iars8> euh qubhg pusf
Iars
kas jashs mh hsth ifvbibhgtf hg su kbjrf -  Abgsb parka k‒Fgokh ‟
mhmboamf a hstumbar ka ouktura pfpukar `abtbaga a partbr mh 12:4.
_hnüg Karfo`h, hsth kbjrf puhmh shr ofgsbmhramf ofif hk rhhlf
mh ka guhva aotbtum mhk `abtbagf80. Mhstaoa quh agths mh 1218,
ka bmhgtbmam `abtbaga sh mhgbÿ ofg ug obhrtf frnukkf y mhsmh ug
 pugtf mh vbsta hxthrbfr.
hxthrbfr. Kas rhehrhgobas oukturakhs prfvbgbhrfg
prfvbgbhrfg mh
Hurfpa, hg partboukar mh Eragoba. Ka hkbth euh hgalhgama y ka ouk-
tura foobmhgtak euh su iarof mh rhehrhgoba.
  _h trataja mh bibtar kfs ifmhkfs foobmhgtakhs y amaptarkfs
a ka rhakbmam `abtbaga. Ka iayfréa mh ka okash mbrbnhgth euh mh pa-
mrhs y ajuhkfs eragohshs. Hstaja ofgvhgobma mh quh Eragoba euh
ka patrba mh kas juhgas iaghras, y quh hk mbgaibsif obhgtéof euh
amuobmf par ka sajbmuréa y ka razÿg. A kf karnf mhk sbnkf PBP, hk
 paés sh oaraothrbzÿ pfr ug aifr pfr tfmf kf quh vbgf mh Eragoba.
Hsa aotbtum sh rhkaobfgÿ ofg ka bmha mh quh hk paés tuvf quh obvb-
kbzarsh ak ofgsbmhrar kfs ifmhkfs mh Eragoba ofif patrfghs mh

85 Akabg Rvhs, ‛Kh ifuvhihgt bgmbnâgbsth @aætbhg’, hg Okaumh _fueeragt ht ug

nrfuph mh prfehsshurs,  Kbttâraturh ht sfobâtâ hg @aætb, Tfrt-au-Trbgoh, Hmbtbfgs @hgrb
Mhso`aips,, 1221.
Mhso`aips
8> Lhag Trboh Iars, Abgsb parka k‒fgokh, Tfrt-au-Trbgoh, Ofkkhotbfg mu Jbohgth-
gabrh, :44=.
80 Iaxbibkbhg Karfo`h, Ka kbttâraturh
kbttâraturh `aætbhggh, kagnuh, bmhgtbtâ, râakbtâ, Tfrt-
au-Trbgoh, Hmbtbfgs Iâifbrh, :441, p. ?4
?4
 Nkfmhk.bgmm ?4 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

ofipfrtaibhgtf 82.
  A oaijbf, ka prfjkhiátboa mh ka bmhgtbmam mhk paés a partbr
mhk bgmbnhgbsif gf sh mhgbÿ mhsmh ug pugtf mh vbsta hxthrbfr (hg
rhehrhgoba a Eragoba) sbgf mhsmh hk bgthrbfr. _h trata mh ug oaijbf
hg ka sujlhtbvbmam `abtbaga. Hsth oaijbf tuvf iuo`as ofgshouhg-
obas. _h rhouphrÿ hk vakfr mh ka ouktura pfpukar, ka khgnua orbfkka,
ka pbgtura, hk vfmü, ka iüsboa pfpukar hto.
Lhag Trboh Iars hg sus bgvhstbnaobfgh
bgvhstbnaobfghss htgfnráoas, ifs-
trÿ hk végoukf prfeugmf hgtrh ka ouktura `abtbaga y sus `hrhgobas
aerboagas. Mblf quh hk `abtbagf gf tuvf quh thghr ibhmf y vhr-
nûhgza mh sus trambobfghs. Ak ofgtrarbf, `ay quh vakfrbzarkas, mh-
ehgmhrkas para hxprhsar su authgtbobmam, su bmhgtbmam prfeugma.
Ofif Jfgk Jatakka phribth mhsoujrbr hk Iâxbof prfeugmf 54,
Trboh Iars bgvbtÿ kfs `abtbagfs a mhsoujrbr hk @abté prfeugmf a
travâs mh sus bgvhstbnaobfghs
bgvhstbnaobfghs.. Ak rhkaobfgar ka ouktura `abtbaga ofg
sus raéohs aerboagas, Trboh Iars fphrÿ ug oaijbf ouakbtatbvf hg
ka ibrama mh kfs `abtbagfs `aoba Áerboa. _b hg hk sbnkf PBP hk `ab-
tbagf tuvf vhrnûhgza mh sus raéohs oukturakhs aerboagas, mhsmh hk
ifvbibhgtf bgmbnhgbsta, kas obvbkbzaobfghs aerboagas rhvbstbhrfg
uga bipfrtagoba oapbtak para kfs `abtbagfs. A`fra sh va a vhr hk
bipaotf mhk bgmbnhgbsif sfjrh ka kbthratura, ka iüsboa pfpukar y
ka pbgtura.
Mh bnuak iaghra, kfs hsorbtfrhs `abtbagfs hiphzarfg a
oaijbar su ibrama sfjrh hk oaipf. Tusbhrfg mh rhkbhvh kfs ib-
tfs, kas trambobfghs, kas ofstuijrhs. _us gfvhkas ajfrmarfg kfs
 prfjkhias oaiphsbgfs. Mh a`é gaobÿ kf quh sh ofgfoh hg hk paés
ka gfvhka oaiphsbga. Agths mhk bgmbnhgbsif, kfs gfvhkbstas prf-
mulhrfg gfvhkas rhakbstas jalf ka bguhgoba mh ka hsouhka rhakbsta
eragohsa mhk sbnkf PBP, kf ouak `bzf quh ajfrmarfg thias urjagfs
y gf oaiphsbgfs. Ofg hk bgmbnhgbsif, hk oaiphsbgf euh hk `ârfh
ohgtrak mh kas gfvhkas y kfs mbfshs vumü hstág hg tfmas parths hg hk
ugbvhrsf gfvhkéstbof. Ofg hsth tbpf mh gfvhka sh trata mh jusoar hg
Áerboa f hg kfs oaipfs `abtbagfs kfs ihmbfs para rh`ajbkbtar @abté
82 Tbhrrh Juthau, ‛ugh prfjkâiatbquh mh k‒bmhgtbtâ’, hg Zhvuh Ofglfgotbfg, fp.
bjbm .
54  Jfgk Jatakka, Iâxbof prfeugmf. Xgh obvbkbzaobÿg ghnama, Hmbtfrbak Nrblak-
Jatakka, Iâxbof
 jf, Iâxbof, :441.
?1
 Nkfmhk.bgmm ?1 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

y kfs `abtbagfs. Asé, hg hk pkagf kbthrarbf, hk bgmbnhgbsif ofgkkhvÿ

ka ifmhrgbmam kbthrarba hg @abté. Kfs thias ohgtrakhs euhrfg< hk
oaipf, hk vumü, hk aifr a ka tbhrra, ka iulhr ghnra y gf ka iulhr
ihstbza sfkaihgth. Oasb tfmas kas gfvhkas kkhvag hk shkkf mh kas
trambobfghs. Kuhnf hk bgmbnhgbsif sh va eusbfgarsh ofg hk iarxbs-
if jalf ka bgbobatbva mhk gfvhkbsta Laoquhs Zfuiabg.
Tfr ftra parth, hk ifvbibhgtf bgmbnhgbsta phribtbÿ ka hx-
 pkfsbÿg mh ka iüsboa pfpukar
pfpukar,, ka pbgtura prbibtbva, hk usf mh ka
khgnua orbfkka hg kas prfmuoobfghs kbthrarbas. Hg ouagtf a ka iüsb-
oa pfpukar, oajh sujrayar quh su hihrnhgoba hstaja hstrho`aihg-
th rhkaobfgama ofg ka bmha mh rhvakfrbzar tfmf kf quh hs efkckÿrbof,
bgménhga, pfpukar. Ka ‛sujiüsboa’ sakbÿ mh su iarnbgakbmam, su
hxokusbÿg sfobak para foupar ug hspaobf guhvf hg ka mbgáiboa
oukturak gaobfgak. Mh hsth ifmf, sh trataja mh rhipkazar ka iüsb-
oa mh frbnhg hxtraglhrf pfr ka iüsboa gaobfgak, trambobfgak, kfoak
y pfpukar.
pfpukar. Ihmbagth hk bgmbnhgbsif, sh hsouo`ÿ kas oagobfghs quh
matag mh ka âpfoa ofkfgbak, uga iüsboa mh rhsbsthgoba oukturak, mh
kuo`a ofgtra hk sbsthia ofkfgbak, uga iüsboa quh sh mhsarrfkkÿ hg
kas nragmhs pkagtaobfghs ofkfgbakhs mh azüoar y quh sh vbgoukaja
ofg kfs rbtfs vumü y quh hxprhsaja kas quhlas pfpukarhs, ka akh-
nréa, ka trbsthza y hk mfkfr mh ka nhgth51. ]aijbâg, hs uga iüsboa
quh ka jurnuhséa ofibhgza a vakfrbzar, a hsouo`ar hg sus tbhipfs
mh mbvhrsbÿg. A partbr mh kfs añfs 12=4, hsta iüsboa nagÿ kfs hs-
 paobfs urjagfs. @ujf iüsboa mh sakÿg, mh oakkh y mh tfmf tbpf.
Kfs gfijrhs mh kfs iüsbofs euhrfg iuy guihrfsfs ofif Nuy
Murfsbhr, Zfmfkp` Khnrfs, Eâkbx Nubngarm, Agtakobmas Iurat,
Kuiag Oasbibr, hto.5:. Ka hokfsbÿg mh ka iüsboa efkckÿrboa euh
vbgoukama ofg ka pfkétboa turéstboa mhk nfjbhrgf mh hgtfgohs. Tfr
hsf sh orhÿ iuo`as mbsofthoas ofif Bjf Kâkâ, Oajagh O`fuofu-
gh, Takkambui gbn`t okuj, Zbvbhra @fthk, hto. Hstf gfs phribth vhr
ka rhkaobÿg hgtrh ka iüsboa, hk arth y ka sfobhmam5?.
51 Uâash Hiiaguhk O. Tauk, Tagfraia mu efkckfrh `aætbhg, Biprbihrbh mh
k‒Htat, Tfrt-au-Trbgoh, 125:. hg hsth kbjrf hk agtrfpÿkfnf `abtbagf iuhstra oÿif aknu-
gfs rbtfs mhk vumü euhrfg prf`bjbmfs hg ka âpfoa ofkfgbak pfr su oaráothr vbfkhgtf.
5: Lhag Ofukagnhs, « Bgmbnâgbsih ht iusbquh hg @aætb ³, hg  Zhvuh Ofglfgo-
tbfg, K‒bgmbnâgbsih, #120, Hmbtbfgs k‒Biprbihrbh Kh Gatak, Tfrt-au-Trbgoh, 1222, p. 54
5? _fjrh hsta ouhstbÿg, vâash Hkbh _bhnihbsthr,  Iüsboa y sfobhmam , _bnkf PPB
?:
 Nkfmhk.bgmm ?: 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?4
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

  Tfr su parth, ka pbgtura prbibtbva (phbgturh gaævh) partbob-

 pÿ mh iaghra hxtrafrmbgarb
hxtrafrmbgarbaa hg hk rhmhsoujrbi
rhmhsoujrbibhgtf
bhgtf mh kf pfpukar
pfpukar,,
kf efkckÿrbof f mh kf quh sh suhkh kkaiar hg hk paés ka ‛ofukhur
kfoak’ (ofkfr kfoak). Ka pbgtura prbibtbva gaobÿ prhobsaihgth a
 partbr mh ka orhaobÿg mhk Ohgtrf mh Arth hg 12== jalf hk Trhsbmhgth
Khsoft. Hsth gf qubhrh mhobr quh gf `ujf prfmuoobÿg pbotÿrboa
hg hk paés. Jalf hk rhbgf mh @hgry O`rbstfp`h y ka prhsbmhgoba
mh Tâtbfg ak bgbobf mhk sbnkf PBP, `ujf pbgtfrhs hxtraglhrfs quh
vbgbhrfg a hgshñar. Ka pbgtura efriÿ parth mhk prfnraia mh hgsh-
ñagza. Ak tragsoursf mhk sbnkf PBP, ka hgshñagza mh ka pbgtura hg
kas hsouhkas rhkbnbfsas (hg partboukar) euh ug `ho`f. _bg hijarnf
hijarnf,,
ka hxpkfsbÿg mh ka pbgtura prbibtbva sh rhakbzÿ a partbr mhk ifvb-
ibhgtf bgmbnhgbsta. Hk orhmf mh hsta guhva pbgtura euh a) ajrbr ka
 pbgtura `abtbaga a ka ifmhrgbmam, j) ‛`abtbagbzar
‛`abtbagbzar’’ kas euhgths mh
5=
bgspbraobÿg .
  Hg ouagtf a ka hihrnh
hihrnhgoba
goba mh ka vfz pfpukar hg ka kbthratu-
ra `abtbaga, oajh pfghr aohgtf sfjrh hk usf mh ka khgnua orbfkka hg
ka prfmuoobÿg pfâtboa. A partbr mhk bgmbnhgbsif, hk orbfkkf vbhgh
a foupar ug sbtbf hshgobak hg ka hstâtboa kbthrarba. Ka khgnua erag-
ohsa ya gf euh utbkbzama ofif hg hk pasamf. _h `bzf ug tbpf mh
sbgorhtbsif kbgnûéstbof
kbgnûéstbof hgtrh aijas khgnuas (`abtbaga y eragohsa).
Kas gfvhkas oaiphsbgas kkhvag hk shkkf mh hsth tbpf mh sbijbfsbs
kbgnûéstboa. Obhrtfs autfrhs `ajkag mh ug tbpf mh gaobfgakbsif kb-

Hmbtfrhs, Iâxbof, 120>3 Zfnhr Jastbmh, Arth y _fobhmam , Efgmf mh Ouktura Hofgfiboa,

Iâxbof, :4453 Ghstfr Naroéa Oagokbgb,  Arth Tfpukar y _fobhmam hg Aiârboa Katbga,
Hmbtfrbak Nrblakjf, Iâxbof, 12>>3 Gbofkht, Kh Nfkee, ht ak, Gbvhkhs mh ouktura y nrupfs
 sfobakhs, _bnkf PPB Hmbtfrhs, Iâxbof, 12>>3 A. U. Kugao`arscy, _fjrh ka kbthratura y
hk arth, Axbfia Hmbtfrbak, Juhgfs Abrhs, 12>=3 K. I Kfijarmb _atrbagb, Aprfpbaobÿg y
mhstruoobÿg mh ka ouktura mh kas okashs sujakthrgas , Iâxbof, Hmbtfrbak Guhva Bianhg,
Arnukbs ht ak, Ka ouktura pfpukar , Trhiba Hmbtfrba,
12>03 Zfmfkef _tavhg`anhg, Iarbf Arnukbs
Iâxbof, 120>3 Ghstfr Naroéa Oagokbgb,  Kas oukturas pfpukarhs hg hk oapbtakbsif , Hmb-
tfrbak Guhva Bianhg, Iâxbof, 122=3 Jâka Jartÿc,  Hsorbtfs sfjrh ka iüsboa pfpukar ,
_bnkf PPB Hmbtfrhs, Iâxbof, :4453 Nhfrnhs Kuocas,  Trfjkhias mhk rhakbsif, Efgmf
mh Ouktura Hofgÿiboa, Iâxbof, 12553 Iarbf Ifgthefrth ]fkhmf, Nbkjhrtf Lbiâghz ht
ak, Kbthratura, bmhfkfnéa y khgnualh , Hmbtfrbak Nrblakjf, Iâxbof, 12>53 Zfjhrt Hsoarpbt,
_fobfkfnéa mh ka kbthratura, Fbcfs-]au, Hmbobfghs, Jarohkfga, 12>13 Lhag-O`arkhs Ea-
karmhau, Bianbgabrh sfobak ht kbttâraturh
kbttâraturh, Hmbtbfgs @XZ]XJB_H @I@, Ifgtrâak,12>=3
5= Oarkf Ohkbus, ‛Ifmhrgbtâ artbstbquh hg @aætb’, hg @aætb au tfbt mh ka Nragmh
 Aro`h, Tarbs, 1220.
??
 Nkfmhk.bgmm ?? 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

thrarbf hg mfgmh kf kfoak foupa ug paphk eugmaihgtak. Mh `ho`f,

uga mh kas bggfvaobfghs hstâtboas mhk bgmbnhgbsif euh mar ak orbf-
kkf uga guhva bipuksbÿg. A partbr mh sus gfvhmamhs, kfs hsorbtfrhs
hipbhzag a hsorbjbr hg orbfkkf, a hvfoar kfs ibtfs y kas trambobf-
ghs.
  _bg hijarnf
hijarnf,, tfmfs hstfs oaijbfs sh `bobhrfg a partbr mh
ka rhouphraobÿg mh kas trambobfghs, kas ofstuijrhs quh sh vbgoukag
ofg hk Áerboa-iamrh, puhstf quh, shnüg hk bgmbnhgbsif, ka bmhg -
tbmam `abtbaga sh pkagtha hg târibgfs mh rhkaobÿg ofg Áerboa. Kas
`hrhgobas htgfoukturakhs aerboagas hg hk paés euhrfg sfjrhvakfrb-
zamas. Hk Áerboa ak ouak sh rhrbhrfg
rhrbhrfg kfs hsorbtfrhs
hsorbtfrhs bgmbnhgbstas
bgmbnhgbstas
euh ug Áerboa iétboa, khyhgmarba pfrquh kfs `abtbagfs gf ofgfobh-
rfg hk Áerboa rhak, hk Áerboa `bstÿrboa. _h hsphraja kfs añfs 1254
 para ofgfohr hk Áerboa rhak, a partbr mhk hxbkbf mh guihrfsfs `ab-
tbagfs hg hk ofgtbghgth. Mhsmh hgtfgohs, kfs gfvhkbstas hiphzarfg
a hsorbjbr garratbvas sfjrh hk Áerboa rhak. Nhfrnhs Mfrsabgvbk euh
hk gfvhkbsta quh hsorbjbÿ ug ofglugtf mh gfvhkas sfjrh ka vbma of-
tbmbaga aerboaga y phribtbÿ mh hsth ifmf a kfs `abtbagfs ofgfohr
hk Áerboa rhak, hk Áerboa vhrmamhra, ug Áerboa quh ofgfobhrfg a
travâs mh ibtfs, mh sus khyhgmas y sus ouhgtfs, traémfs ak paés a
 partbr mh ka hsokavbtum
hsokavbtum y ka ofkfgbzaobÿg.
ofkfgbzaobÿg.

?=
 Nkfmhk.bgmm ?= 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

Hk ifvbibhgtf mh ka Ghnrbtum

  Uaifs a ajfrmar hk shnugmf hlh mhk mbsoursf oarbjhñf

ohgtramf sfjrh Áerboa. _h trata mh ka Ghnrbtum. Hsh ifvbibhgtf
hs hg uga obhrta ihmbma ka prfkfgnaobÿg, ka prfeugmbzaobÿg, ka
aipkbaobÿg mhk bgmbnhgbsif `abtbagf. _us mfotrbgarbfs kf mbohg
ofif Abiâ Oâsabrh. Mh bnuak iaghra, _hgn`fr rhofgfobÿ hk pa-
 phk pbfghrf mh Lhag
Lhag Trboh
Trboh Iars
Iars hg hk mhsarrfkkf
mhsarrfkkf mh ifvbibhgtf
ifvbibhgtf mh
ka Ghnrbtum. Hk kbjrf mh Trboh Iars, obtamf agthrbfrihgth,
agthrbfrihgth, tuvf ug
bipaotf sfjrh kfs autfrhs mh ka ghnrbtum. _bg hijarnf, ak `ajkar
mh ka ghnrbtum, kfs orétbofs gf hstajkhohg kfs végoukfs hgtrh kfs
mfotrbgarbfs mh ka ghnrbtum y kfs trajalfs mh Trboh Iars.
Tara uga ihlfr ofiprhgsbÿg mhk târibgf mh Ghnrbtum,
vakh ka phga agakbzar ka nhghakfnéa mhk târibgf mh ghnrf. Tfr hsf,
 partbifs mh uga fjra kbthrarba okásboa hg @abté. _h trata mhk kbjrf
mh ‛@bstfbrh mh ka kbttâraturh `abtbhggh fu k‒êih gfbrh’, pujkboamf
 pfr Muraobgâ Uavak hg 12??. Hg mbo`f kbjrf, hk autfr `aoh uga
mbehrhgoba hgtrh ‛gànrh’ ht ‛gfbr’. Hg hspañfk, kas mfs pakajras
sbngboag ghnrf. _bg hijarnf, hg eragoâs, tbhghg ofggftaobfghs
mbehrhgths y gf hs sbg razÿg quh hk autfr `abtbagf `ajka mhk akia
ghnra (gfbr). Mh ka ibsia iaghra, Muvakbhr `ajka mh ‛gfbrbsih’
y gf mh ‛gânrbsih’. @ay uga mbehrhgoba taijbâg hgtrh ghnrbtum y
ghnrbsif.58 
Ufkvaifs a ka prfjkhiátboa mhk Muraobgâ Uavak. Hk prb-
ihr orétbof kbthrarbf `abtbagf ifmhrgf mhstaoa quh, hg hk oasf mh
kfs `abtbagfs, sh prhhrh usar hk târibgf mh ‛gfbr’ y gf mh ‛gà-
nrh’. Tfr hsf, sh `ajka mh ka ‛raoh gfbrh’ y gf mh ka raoh ‛gànrh’.55 
Hk autfr bgmboa quh ka pakajra ‛gànrh’ vbhgh mhk katég gbnhr,
gbnhr, gànrh.
Euh mh usf phyfratbvf h bglurbfsf. _ujraya quh ka pakajra ‛gh-
nrf’ sh utbkbzÿ muragth ka trata mh ghnrfs. Kfs nrbhnfs y kfs rfia-
gfs kkaiarfg ‛gfbrs’, ka nhgth Htbfpéa f tfmfs aerboagfs. A partbr
mh ka varbhmam mh kfs ghnrfs sh hstajkhobÿ uga mbehrhgoba hgtrh kfs
58 Tara vhr kas sajhr kas mbehrhgobas hgtrh ghnrbsif y ghnrbtum, sh puhmh vhr
Lfrnh _o`watz< «Ghnrbsif
«Ghnrbsif y ghnrbtum³, hg Khfpfkmf \ha, @bstfrba y ouktura hg ka ofg-
obhgoba jrasbkhña, Efgmf mh Ouktura Hofgÿiboa, Iâxbof, 122?, p. 58
55 Muraobgâ Uavak< @bstfbrh mh ka kbttâraturh
kbttâraturh `aætbhggh fu k‒êih gfbrh
gfbrh, prhibàrh
âmbtbfg 12??, Hmbtbfgs Earmbg, Tfrt-au-Trbgoh, 122?, p. ?55
?8
 Nkfmhk.bgmm ?8 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

‛Gfbrs’ y kfs ‛Ghnrfs’.5>  Hg hsth shgtbmf, hk ofkfgbakbsif

ofkfgbakbsif hurf-
 phf ofgstruyÿ f bgvhgtÿ ka bmha mhk ghnrf, quh euh fjlhtf mh uga
rhprhshgtaobÿg
rhprhshgtaobÿg shnüg hk iarof oukturak foobmhgtak.
  Hstas fjshrvaobfghs mh frmhg shiágtbof gfs phribthg vhr
ofif hk târibgf mh Ghnrbtum tbhgh uga mbihgsbÿg rhvfkuobfgarba
hg ouagtf ak vakfr pfsbtbvf quh mbf a ka pakajra ‛gànrh’. Gf sÿkf
hk aerboagf, hk agtbkkagf f ouakqubhr phrsfga mh ofkfr ghnrf ya gf
tbhgh vhrnûhgza mh sé ibsia, sbgf taijbâg parth mh su ofgmbobÿg
mh ghnrf para ariar su partboukarb
partboukarbmam,
mam, su hsphoboam, su sbgnu-
karbmam oukturak. Ka bgvhgobÿg
bgvhgobÿg mh ka bmha mh ofkfr y mh raza sh vbg-
oukÿ ofg ka hiprhsa biphrbak, `hnhiÿgboa foobmhgtak a kf karnf
mh ka ifmhrgbmam ofif kf sujraya hk sfobÿkfnf phruagf, Agéjak
Qublagf.50 Asé quh ka hxpagsbÿg ifmhrga / ofkfgbak hurfpha gf
euh ug sbipkh ehgÿihgf hofgÿibof. Euh taijbâg ug ehgÿihgf
oukturak, sfobak, hpbsthifkÿnbof, pfkétbof y kbgnûéstbof, hto.
  Thsh a ka oarna bmhfkÿnboa ghnatbva mhk târibgf mh ghnrf,
kfs mfotrbgarbfs mh ka ghnrbtum ofgstruyhg uga guhva agtrfpfkf-
néa orétboa para rho`azar kas thsbs mbsorbibgatfrbas foobmhgtakhs
hg ofgtra mh ka obvbkbzaobÿg aerboaga. ]rhs autfrhs hstág ak frbnhg
mh hsth ifvbibhgtf< Abiâ Oâsabrh, Khÿg Nfgtrag Maias, mh ka
Iartbgboa y _hgn`fr mh _hghnak. _us fjlhtbvfs ofgsbstbhrfg hg
hxprhsar ka nragmhza mh ka obvbkbzaobÿg aerboaga ofif uga euhgth
mh frnukkf y mh mbngbmam para hk `fijrh ghnrf. Euhrfg bgubmfs
 pfr hk pagaerboagbsif,
pagaerboagbsif, hk iarxbsif
iarxbsif y hk bgmbnhgbsif
bgmbnhgbsif `abtbagf.
`abtbagf.
  Tara Oâsabrh, ka ghnrbtum hs hk rhofgfobibhgt
rhofgfobibhgtf
f mhk `ho`f
mh shr ghnrf y ka aohptaobÿg mh hsth `ho`f. Oâsabrh sh rhhrh a
ka hsphobobmam, ka ugbobmam mh ka hxbsthgoba mh kfs ghnrfs ofif
ug mhsarrfkkf `bstÿrbof quh surnh mh ka hsokavbtum y mhk sbsthia
mh pkagtaobÿg. Euh hk orhamfr mh ka pakajra Ghnrbtum hg su fjra
okásboa ‛Oa`bhr m‒ug rhtfur au pays gatak’, pujkboama hg 12?2. Hk
5> Bjbm., p. ?55
50 Agéjak Qublagf, ‛ofkfgbakbmam mhk pfmhr
pfmhr,, hurfohgtrbsif y Aiârboa Katbga’,
hg Hmnarmf Kagmhr (offrm.),  Ka ofkfgbakbmam mhk sajhr< hurfohgtrbsif y obhgobas sf- s f-
obakhs hg Aiârboa Katbga, OKAO_F, Juhgfs Abrhs, :44=. hk sfobÿkfnf phruagf sujraya
quh ‛ka bmha mh raza, hg su shgtbmf ifmhrgf, gf tbhgh `bstfrba ofgfobma agths mh Aiârb-
oa. Qubzás sh frbnbgÿ ofif rhehrhgoba a kas mbehrhgobas ehgftépboas hgtrh ofgqubstamfrhs
y ofgqubstamfs, phrf kf quh bipfrta hs quh iuy prfgtf euh ofgstrubma ofif rhehrhgoba
a supuhstas hstruoturas jbfkÿnboas mbehrhgobakhs hgtrh hstfs nrupfs’, p. :4:
?5
 Nkfmhk.bgmm ?5 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

tétukf hs iuy hvfoamfr. _h trata mh ug rhnrhsf `aoba sé ibsif. Hs

uga jüsquhma mh su bmhgtbmam, mh su ouktura. Agmrâ
Agmrâ Jrhtfg sujra-
ya quh hk kbjrf mh Oâsabrh rhprhshgta hk nrag ifihgtf kérbof mh
hsth tbhipf. Ka thiátboa mhk rhtfrgf sfjrh sé ibsif hs uga obhrta
autfrrhhxbÿg mhk hspérbtu para rhofgfohrsh a sé ibsif. Hsth if-
vbibhgtf sh ashihla a ka sbtuaobÿg mh ug paobhgth quh, tras `ajhr
`ho`f ka `bstfrba mh su ofgobhgoba, kkhna a kbjhrarsh mh sus trau-
ias. Ka ghnrbtum phribth hsta autfofgobhgoba oukturak mhk ghnrf
quh khlfs mh thghr ibhmf mh sé ibsif hxprhsa y hxthrbfrbza su shr
 prfeugmf sbg gbgnüg jfvarbsif. Hk ghnrf, ihmbagth ka ghnrbtum,
rho`aza kas eaksas rhprhshgtaobfghs quh hk ftrf (Foobmhgth) hkajf-
ra sfjrh âk. Ka ghnrbtum hs ug ifvbibhgtf mh rho`azf y mh aria-
obÿg mhk ghnrf-aerboagf ofif shr hgthrf quh asuih su `bstfrba, su
ouktura, su pasamf y sus vakfrhs. Iaxbibohg Karfo`h sujraya quh
ka ghnrbtum gf hs sbgf uga efria mh rhsbsthgoba a uga mfibgaobÿg.
Hs uga sujlhtboaobÿg, hs mhobr, ka hiprhsa pfr ka ouak ug sulhtf
sh hseuhrza pfr `aohr pfsbtbvf kf quh `aoéa ghnatbvf.52 _h puhmh
mhobr taijbâg quh pfr ihmbf mh ka ghnrbtum hk ghnrf sh ofgstruyh
uga ofgobhgoba `bstÿrboa, mhgbma pfr Arfg ofif ‛ka ofgobhgoba
mh uga mbakâotboa hgtrh trambobÿg y kbjhrtam, hk hseuhrzf pfr oaptar
ka rhakbmam f ka vhrmam mhk pasamf, hk shgtbibhgtf mh quh ka suoh-
sbÿg mh kas frnagbz
frnagbzaobfghs
aobfghs sfobakhs y orhaobfghs `uiagas a travâs
mh kfs tbhipfs gf hs ouakqubhra gb bgmbehrhgth, quh ofgobhrgh ak
`fijrh hg kf quh âsth tbhgh mh hshgobak’.>4 
Tara _hgn`fr, ka ghnrbtum hs ug `ho`f, uga ouktura. Hs
hk ofglugtf mh kfs vakfrhs hofgÿibofs, pfkétbofs, bgthkhotuakhs,
ifrakhs, artéstbofs y sfobakhs mh kfs puhjkfs mh Áerboa y mh kas
ibgfréas ghnras mh Aiârboa, mh Asba y mh Fohagéa. _hnüg Kbsh
^bkiar, ka ghnrbtum rhprhshgtaja uga rhvuhkta ofgtra hk ofkfgba-
kbsif, ka nkfrboaobÿg mhk pasamf aerboagf y uga gfstaknba erhgth
a ka jhkkhza y ka arifgéa mh ka sfobhmam aerboaga trambobfgak. Hg
ouagtf a Zhgâ Tbqubfg, ka ghnrbtum sbngboa tfia mh ofgobhgoba
ifrak, rhouhrmf mh kas nragmhs aoobfghs ghnras, rho`azf mh ka asb-
52 Iaxbibkbhg Karfo`h<  Kbttâraturh `aætbhggh. Bmhgtbtâ, kagnuh, râakbtâ, Hmb-
tbfgs iâifbrh, Tfrt-au-Trbgoh, :441, p. 145
>4 Zayifgm Arfg< Mbihgsbfghs mh ka ofgobhgoba `bstÿrboa , Efgmf mh Ouktura
Hofgÿiboa, Iâxbof, 120?, p. 14?
?>
 Nkfmhk.bgmm ?> 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

ibkaobÿg, mhsarrfkkf mh ka phrsfgakbmam aerboaga, aspbraobÿg a ka

nragmhza phrmbma. Hs uga pakajra, hs frnukkf, kbjhrtam h bnuakmam.>1 
Zhgâ Tbqubfg sujraya, amhiás, quh ka ghnrbtum sh qubhrh shr uga
rhspuhsta erhgth a ka agsbhmam mhk ghnrf, uga ouhstbÿg mbrbnbma ak
 jkagof. Hsth autfr
autfr mbstbgnuh
mbstbgnuh ka ghnrbtum
ghnrbtum mhk
mhk sanramf,
sanramf, mhk pfmhr
pfmhr,, mh
ka rhvuhkta y mh ka vbfkhgoba. Kfs autfrhs mh ka ‛orâfkbtâ’ sujrayag
quh ofg ka ghnrbtum hipbhza uga karna `uhkka mh kas khtras orbfkkas,
`uhkka mhk obiarrfgalh kbthrarbf, `uhkka mh ofgthstaobÿg, `uhkka mh
ka vakfraobÿg sbsthiátboa mhk Ghnrf.
Hg kf rhehrhgth a kas raéohs prfeugmas mh ka ghnrbtum, Abiâ
Abiâ
Oâsabrh mblf quh hs hg @abté mfgmh ka ghnrbtum pusf pbh pfr vhz
 prbihra y quh mblf quh orhÿ hg su `uiagbmam.
`uiagbmam. Mbhumfggâ Earmbg
añamh quh ka ghnrbtum hs ug ifvbibhgtf a ka vhz rhkbnbfsf, pfké-
tbof, obhgtéof, y kbthrarbf. _us agohstrfs pfkétbofs sfg Jfuciag,
Iacagmak, Ubgohgt Fnâ, Mhssakbghs, ]fussabgt, O`rbstfp`h. Kfs
agthpasamfs sfobakhs sfg Mâkfrih, Ebribg, Lagvbhr
Lagvbhr,, @aggbjak Trb-
oh, Trboh Iars. Kfs agthpasamfs kbthrarbfs sfg Hibkh Gau, Fswakm
Muragm, Ofbofu, Bggfohgt, Zfuihr, Oark Jrfuarm.>:
  Tara _artrh, ka ghnrbtum hs uga iaghra mhk ghnrf mh asuibr
su sbtuaobÿg mhsvakfrbzama, apkastama pfr ka `bstfrba y mh rhofgs-
tbtubr pfr ug nhstf mh ariaobÿg mh sé, pfr ka hkajfraobÿg mhk prf-
yhotf kbjhrtamfr……. Hk kÿsfef eragoâs hsorbjh quh ‛ka ghnrbtum
sh prhshgta ofif ka htapa suphrajkh mh uga prfnrhsbÿg mbakâotboa<
ka ariaobÿg thÿrboa y práotboa mh ka suprhiaoéa jkagoa shrba ka
thsbs3 hk ifihgtf mh ka ghnaobÿg vhgmréa mamf pfr ka pfsbobÿg mh
ka ghnrbtum hg ouagtf vakfr agtbtâtbof. _bg hijarnf, ka ghnaobÿg
gf hs suobhgth pfr sé ibsia, y kfs ghnrfs quh ka pfstukag kf
sajhg phrehotaihgth, taijbâg sajhg quh tbhgmh a prhparar ka sbg
thsbs quh shréa ka rhakbzaobÿg mh kf `uiagf hg uga sfobhmam sbg ra-
zas. Hg hsth shgtbmf, ka ghnrbtum kkhva hg sé su prfpba mhstruoobÿg,
hs ug pasf y gf ug g, ug ihmbf y gf uga ihta.’>?
>1 Obtamf pfr Mbhumfggâ Earmbg,  @bstfrba mh ka kbttâraturh `aætbhggh.  PPh
 sbàokh. Tagfraia mu ifuvhihgt bgmbnâgbsth. ]fih 8, Khs Hmbtbfgs Earmbg, Tfrt-au-
Trbgoh, :44:, p. 18=
>: Bjbm., p. 18=-188
>? Obtamf pfr Zfsa Iaréa Ubkkarhkkf Zhza<  Ghnrbtum y ofkfgbakbsif
ofkfgbakbsif oukturak hg
 Áerboa, ouamhrgfs mh rhkaobfghs bgthrgaobfgakhs,
bgthrgaobfgakhs, XGAI, eaouktam mh obhgobas pfkétboas
?0
 Nkfmhk.bgmm ?0 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

  Ajbfka Zhkh mhstaoa quh hk mhsarrfkkf ukthrbfr mh ka ghnrb-

tum ma kunar a aknugas aijbnûhmamhs. Kas iüktbpkhs sbngboaobf-
ghs mamas ak târibgf `aohg quh, a vhohs, aparhoh ofif ug ifvb-
ibhgtf pfkétbof, ug tbpf mh vhrsbÿg eragoÿefga mh pagaerboagbsif
f uga hsouhka kbthrarba, ug hstbkf, uga pfâtboa quh sh rhofgfoh pfr
aknugas ofgstagths efriakhs, f ofif ug târibgf quh ajaroa y
rhsuih ka `hrhgoba oukturak mh Áerboa ghnra y sus oaijbfs hg hk
guhvf iugmf. _hnüg Ajbfka, ka ghnrbtum aparhoh ofif ‛ug phg-
saibhgtf ak shrvbobf mhk mhshf’, ug phgsaibhgtf quh, gaobhgmf
mh ug ofglugtf mh hifobfghs, sh ofgstbtuyÿ ofif ug ihmbf para
rhhipkazar uga eakta hg ka hxbsthgoba. Zfnhr jastbmh, pfr kamf,
sujraya quh ka ghnrbtum euh ka tfia mh ofgobhgoba mh ka frbnbgakb-
mam mhk phgsaibhgtf aerboagf y hk mhsoujrbibhgtf mh uga guhva
gfjkhza. Mhsmh su frbnhg, ka ghnrbtum rhügh kfs ehgÿihgfs quh ka
agtrfpfkfnéa oukturak gfrthaihrboaga
>=
mhsbngaja jalf hk gfijrh
mh< ofgtra-aoukturaobÿg.
  Ka ghnrbtum phribth ka rhvakfrbzaob
rhvakfrbzaobÿg
ÿg mhk iugmf oukturak
y ka obvbkbzaobÿg ghnra, suibgbstra uga rhspuhsta ak iugmf ghnrf
hg uga jüsquhma mh su prfpba bianhg y kh pkagtha ug prfjkhia hg
ka ofgobhgoba ugbvhrsak. Hs hk nrbtf mh ugbÿg mh tfmfs kfs ghnrfs
fprbibmfs sbg thghr oaráothr raobak, iás quh hg ka ihmbma hg quh
sh fpfgh a ftra ofrrbhgth raobak. Xga mh sus oaraothréstboas hshg-
obakhs hs ka khy mhk oaijbf. Ofgobhgoba mhk tbhipf, ka ghnrbtum
vbhgh a shr ofgobhgoba mhk ifvbibhgtf. Hk ifvbibhgtf hs sbngf
>8
mh vbma.  Tfr ihmbf mh ka ghnrbtum sh mhgugobÿ hk ofkfgbakbsif.
Mh a`é sh ujboa hk kbjrf mh Oâsabrh< Mbsoursf sfjrh hk ofkfgbakbs-
if.>5
  Tfr ftra parth, ka ghnrbtum `a sbmf ug aria bmhfkÿnboa para
kuo`ar ofgtra ka mhphgmhgoba ofkfgbak y ofgtrbjuyÿ nragmhihgth
y sfobakhs, Iâxbof, 12>8, p. ::-:?
>= Uhr hk artéoukf mh Lfrnh _o`wartz, ‛Ghnrbsif y ghnrbtum
ghnrbtum’,
’, hg Khfpfkmf \ha
(offrm.), @bstfrba y ouktura hg ka ofgobhgoba
o fgobhgoba jrasbkhña, Efgmf mh Ouktura Hofgÿiboa,
Iâxbof, 122?, p. >?.
>8 Uhr Zfsa Iarba Ubkkarhkkf Zhza, fp. bjbm., p. :?.
>5 Uhr Kaura Kÿphz Ifrakhz,  Kbthratura eragoÿefga, BB, Aiârboa, Efgmf mh
Ouktura Hofgÿiboa, Iâxbof, 1225. Ka autfra rhügh ug ofglugtf mh thxtfs rhkaobfgamfs
ofg ka kbthratura oarbjhña mfgmh `aoh aknugas tramuoobfghs mh kas fjras mh Oâsabrh, mh
Zhgâ Mâphstrh, mh Tatrboc O`aifbshau, hto.
?2
 Nkfmhk.bgmm ?2 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

a ka mhsofkfgbzaobÿg hg Áerboa. Iuo`fs mh sus kémhrhs kkhnarfg ak

 pfmhr ihmbagth hsh ifvbibhgtf ofif _hgn`fr hg _hghnak. Ka
ghnrbtum phribth pfr g mhsoujrbr ka hshgoba mhk ghnrf a partbr
mh ug iarof mh rhehrhgoba ügbof< Áerboa. Mh a`é, mhsarrfkka ug
tbpf mh ihtaeésboa mh ka raza f mh ug hshgobakbsif oukturak. Ka
bmhgtbmam mhk ghnrf sh mhgh a partbr mh sus `hrhgobas aerboagas,
su pasamf oukturak. Iuo`fs autfrhs mhgugobarfg hsh hshgobakbsif
oukturak.

=4
 Nkfmhk.bgmm =4 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

Orétboa mhk bgmbnhgbsif y mh ka ghnrbtum

  Hg hsa parth, vaifs a pfghr aohgtf sfjrh aknugas orétboas

mh ka ghnrbtum prfvhgbhgths mhk Oarbjh agths mh vhr kas thfrbzaobf-
ghs y ofgohptuakbzaobfghs mh aknugfs autfrhs hg hk iarof mh hstas
orétboas. ]fiarhifs kfs oasfs mh aknugfs hsorbtfrhs `abtbagfs, mh
Eragtz Eagfg y mh ftrfs. Erhgth ak mhthribgbsif raobak, ka ofg-
ohpobÿg hshgobakbsta mh ka oukturak, Akhxbs, mhstaoamf gfvhkbsta
`abtbagf, mbjula uga vbsbÿg mbgáiboa mhk ihstbzalh, mh ka eusbÿg
a travâs mh ka `bstfrba mh kfs mbehrhgths apfrths oukturakhs. Tartb-
obpagmf hg hk Trbihr Ofgnrhsf mh kfs artbstas y hsorbtfrhs ghnrfs
hg 1285, sujrayÿ quh gf sh puhmh `ajkar mh ka `fifnhghbmam
mh ka ouktura ghnra, gb mh ugbefribmam oukturak sbgf iás jbhg mh
hvfkuobÿg mh kfs rasnfs oaraothréstbofs. Hg su thxtf Trf
 Trfkhnfiàghs
khnfiàghs
ä ug râakbsih ihrvhbkkhux mhs `abtbhgs, quh ka ouktura `abtbaga
gf hs aerboaga gb hurfpha sbgf prfmuotf autÿgfif mhk prfohsf
mh ihstbzalh bgmbf, aerboagf, hurfphf, y partboukarihgth eragoâs.
_hnüg hk ofggftamf orétbof kbthrarbf `abtbagf, Iax Mfibgbquh, ka
ofiugboaobÿg mh Akhxbs
Akhxbs a ka paragfba iasfo`bsta mhk aerboagbsif
uga vbsbÿg prfeâtboa mhk pasamf.>>
  Tfr su parth, Zhgâ Mâphstrh thiatbza y prfeugmbza kas bg-
tubobfghs mh Akhxbs hg su thxtf ‛_akumf y mhsphmbma a ka ghnrb-
tum’. Hk gfvhkbsta `abtbagf gf qubhrh ohrrarsh hg ka oárohk mh ka
raza y sujraya quh khlfs mh ariar su ofgobhgoba mh okash ofgtra
kas vbfkhgobas mhk oapbtakbsif, ka ghnrbtum mbsuhkvh a sus ghnrfs 
y ghnrfaerboagfs   hg ug hshgobakbsif phrehotaihgth bgfehgsbvf
 para hk sbsthia quh mhspfla a `fijrh y iulhrhs mh su bmhgtbmam.
Aotuakihgth kfs ‛ghnrfkfnfs’ mh ka ghnrbtum ka prhshgtag jalf
ka efria mh uga ofgohpobÿg mhk iugmf hxokusbva mh kfs ghnrfs
mhgtrf mh sfobhmamhs aihrboagas f aerboagas, bgmhphgmbhgth
bgmhphgmbhgthihg-
ihg-
th mh ka pfsbobÿg quh âstfs fouphg hg ka prfmuoobÿg, ka prfpbhmam
y ka mbstrbjuobÿg mh kfs jbhghs iathrbakhs y hspbrbtuakhs.’>0 _hnüg
Mâphstrh, hk phoamf frbnbgak mh ka ghnrbtum y kfs azarhs quh mhs-
>> Iax Mfibgbquh<  Hsqubsshs orbtbquhs, Khs Hmbtbfgs Iâifbrhs, Tfrt-au-
Trbgoh, 1222, p.05
>0 Uhr Zhgâ Mâphstrh, ‛_akumf y mhsphmbma a ka ghnrbtum’
ghnrbtum’,, hg Iaguhk Ifrhgf
Eranbgakhs (rhkatfr)< Áerboa hg Aiârboa, _bnkf PPB Hmbtfrhs, Iâxbof, 120>, p. ??>
=1
 Nkfmhk.bgmm =1 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

vbrtuarfg su prfyhotf gaobfgak bgbobak kh vbhghg mhk `ama iamrb-

ga quh ka sfstuvf hg kas euhgths jautbsiakhs< ka agtrfpfkfnéa. Ka
orbsbs quh `a saoumbmf a ka ghnrbtum ofbgobmh ofg kfs vbhgtfs quh
`aoh sfpkar ka rhvfkuobÿg pfr sfjrh kfs oâkhjrhs thrrhgfs hg kfs
quh ka agtrfpfkfnéa ‟kkaiash oukturak, sfobak, apkboama, hstruoturak
-, ofg iásoara ghnra f jkagoa, aofstuijra a hehotuar sus sajbas
bgvhstbnaobfghs.>2 Ka mhsphmbma a ka ghnrbtum phribtbÿ ka hokfsbÿg
mh ka ‛orâfkbtâ’ hg su gfvhka iaravbkkfsa, ‛Amrbaga mags tfus ihs
rìvhs’.
  Hg hsth ibsif shgtbmf, hk nrupf ‛@abté Kbttârabrh’
Kbttârabrh’,, gaobmf
hg kfs 1254 hg @abté, orbtboÿ hk bgmbnhgbsif hstrho`f y ka ghnrb-
tum04. Hsfs autfrhs (Mavhrtbnh, Zhgâ T`bkfotàth,
T`bkfotàth , _hrnh Khnanghur,
Zfkagm Ifrbsshau) bipungarfg shvhraihgth kas ofrrbhgths mhk
bgmbnhgbsif y mh ka ghnrbtum. _h trataja mh hsoapar ak `frbzfg-
th mh ka raza, ka ouktura y prfpfghr uga hstâtboa quh euhra kbjrh
mh mhthribgbsif raobak f oukturak. Hsh ifvbibhgtf sh sbtüa hg ka
bgthrshoobÿg mhk surrhakbsif01  y mhk iarxbsif. Hsfs hsorbtfrhs,
rho`azagmf ka ghnrbtum, jusoag su arrabnf hg hk hspaobf oarbjhñf.
Hk pfhia mh T`hkps ‛Tàrh Oaraæjh’ hs sbgtfiátbof. Mboh quh gf
hs `blf mh Áerboa f mh Hurfpa. _u `bstfrba hs uga `bstfrba mh ihs-
tbzalh. Gf tbhgh raéohs ügboas. _us raéohs sfg iüktbpkhs. T`bkfotàth
hsorbjbÿ ug kbjrf pfâtbof ofgsanramf ak Oarbjh< ‛Ohs çkhs qub iar-
o`hgt.’ Hg ouagtf a Eragchtbhggh, su hstâtboa hspbrakbsta pusf hg
hgtrhmbo`f tfmf obhrrh y tfma kbibtaobÿg. A travâs mh su hstâtboa
mhk oafs, hk autfr prfpfgh hxphrbihgtar a gbvhk kbthrarbf ka thfréa
mh ka rhkatbvbmam m‒Akjhrt Hbgsthbg. Hs uga hsorbtura quh ofijbga
tfmfs kfs nhgbfs (pfhséa, gfvhka, ouhgtfs, hto.). Ftrfs autfrhs orb-
tboarfg ka ghnrbtum ofif Eragtz Eagfg. Augquh
Augquh hsth autfr hstaja
iás prhfoupamf pfr ka rhvfkuobÿg quh pfr ka pfhséa, mhgugobÿ ka
hstrho`hz mh vbsta, ka vbsbÿg raobak y oukturakbsta mh ka ghnrbtum.
>2 Bjbm., p. ??0
04 Uhr ka rhvbsta, ‛ Zfgm Tfbgt  ³,
 ³, Biprbihrbh @hgry Mhso`aips, Tfrt-au-Trbgoh,
125?. Hsth guihrf ofgtbhgh kfs prfpÿsbtfs y fjlhtbvfs mh kfs autfrhs mh hsth ifvbibhg-
tf. A travâs mh ug mbakfnf, hkkfs rhhxbfgag sfjrh ka prfjkhiátboa mh ka pfhséa `abtbaga,
sus phrsphotbvas ofg rhsphotf a ka ghnrbtum y ak bgmbnhgbsif.
01 Nkbssagt mhstaoa quh hk surrhakbsif hgnhgmra uga orétboa mh ka sfobhmam fo-
Uhr Hmfuarm Nkbssagt<  Kh
obmhgtak, uga kbjhraobÿg vhrjak, uga pfthgoba mh hsoágmakf. Uhr
mbsofurs agtbkkabs, Hmbtbfgs Nakkbiarm, Tarbs, 1205, p. =:2
=:
 Nkfmhk.bgmm =: 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

Bgubmf pfr ka kfsfeéa hxbsthgobakbsta mh _artrh, sujraya quh gf

`ay ug a hshgoba ghnra. ]fmf hstá hg prfohsf.
A`fra, gfs tfoa vhr ofif aknugfs hsorbtfrhs oujagfs,
ihmbagth sus thiátboas y hstâtboas, hsoapag ak ugbvhrsf ohrramf
mh ka ghnrbtum. Hs hk oasf mh Gbofkás Nubkkhg y mh Akhlf Oarphg-
tbhr. Hg hk oasf mhk prbihrf, sh mboh
mbo h sbhiprh quh su pfhséa hxprhsa
hxp rhsa
kfs vakfrhs prfeugmfs mh ka ghnrbtum, mhk ghnrf hg Ouja. Hk autfr
rho`aza hsta khotura rhmuoobfgbsta mh su fjra kbthrarba. _ujraya
quh su pfhséa hxprhsa aknf iás quh ka ghnrbtum. Hxprhsa ka ugbmam
mhk puhjkf oujagf. _hnüg su pugtf mh vbsta, hsa pfhséa gf tbhgh
ofif g prbgobpak ka hxaktaobÿg mh kfs vakfrhs oukturakhs ghnrfs
 pfr hgobia mh kfs jkagofs, sbgf hk paphk eugmaihgtak quh ka ouk-
tura mh frbnhg aerboagf `a mhshiphñamf hg Ouja hg ouagtf a ka
efriaobÿg mhk oaráothr gaobfgak. _bg hk jkagof ka ouktura gaobfgak
oujaga gf hxbstbréa, phrf taipfof sbg hk ghnrf. Hsth üktbif hs kf
quh `ag ghnamf kfs sfobÿkfnfs rhaoobfgarbfs y kfs orétbofs bmha-
kbstas _ujraya quh su pfhséa parth mh ka kuo`a mh okashs, gf mh ka
kuo`a mh razas, puhs hk prhlubobf raobsta mhsaparhohréa sb kas okashs
gf hxbstbhrag.’0:
  _bg hijarnf
hijarnf,, hk autfr rhofgfoh quh su pfhséa ataoa hk prh-
 lubobf mh kfs jkagofs rhaoobfgarbfs ofgtra kfs ghnrfs, y a âstfs
kfs hkhihgtfs bgmbsphgsajkhs para suphrar hk ofipkhlf hstâtbof
mhthribgamf pfr ka hsokavbtum.’ Mhhgmh quh ka jhkkhza gf hs ug
atrbjutf hxokusbvf a ka obvbkbzaobÿg nrhofrrfiaga y quh phsh a sus
rasnfs eésbofs mbstbgtfs hs oapaz mh prfmuobr y thghr ug shgtbmf
aktf mh jhkkhza.0?  Hg ouagtf a kf quh bguhgoba sus
sus prfmuoobfghs,
prfmuoobfghs,
hk pfhta oujagf sujraya quh hs su ofgmbobÿg mh ghnrf véotbia mh
ka mbsorbibgaobÿg quh euh mhthribgagt
mhthribgagth.
h.

0: Uhr ka rhvbsta, Hspaoh orâfkh, # =, Hmbtbfgs Oarbjâhgghs, Ohgtrh Xgbvhrsbtabrh

Agtbkkhs-Nuyagh,
Agtbkkhs-Nuyagh, 12>2, p. 52. Hg hsta rhvbsta, hk pfhta oujagf ma uga hgtrhvbsta a Akabg
Akabg
Raofu.
0? Bjbm., p. >4
=?
 Nkfmhk.bgmm =? 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

Nkbssagt, ka ‛agtbkkagbmam, y ka orbfkkbzaobÿg

  Ka orétboa m‒Hmfuarm Nkbssagt a kas pfsturas y pfsbobfghs

mh ka ghnrbtum hs iuo`f iás sbsthiatbzama. Ofgmuoh a uga obhrta
ofgohptuakbzaobÿg y thfrbzaobÿg iuy hkajframa. Hk autfr gf sh
ofgthgta ofg orbtboar sbgf prfpfgh su vbsbÿg mh ka rhakbmam oarb-
 jhña, uga vbsbÿg quh parth mh ka rhakbmam `bstÿrboa mh ka rhnbÿg.
Hg sus fjras mh orhaobÿg mh hgsayfs, hkajfra sbsthiátboaihgth
ka guhva ofgohpobÿg quh tbhgh mh ka prfjkhiátboa mh ka bmhgtbmam
oarbjhña. Tfr hsf, gfs prfpfghifs agakbzar jrhvhihgth sus bmhas
sfjrh ka ouhstbÿg mh ka bmhgtbmam.
  Ka hkajfraobÿg mhk ofgohptf mh ‛agtbkkagbma
‛agtbkkagbmam’,
m’, hg 128>-
12800=, mhla vbskuijrar ug guhvf `frbzfgth mh ofiprhgsbÿg mh
ka prfjkhiátboa bmhgtbtarba oarbjhña
oarbjhña mh Nkbssagt. Hsh ofgohptf hs
uga guhva `hrraibhgta `huréstboa, ug parambnia f ugas guhvh
hpbsthihs prfpbas mh Nkbssagt. _b ka phrsphotbva mh ka ghnrbtum sh
eugmaihgta hg ka rhouphraobÿg, ka vakfrbzaobÿg mhk pasamf aerboa-
gf, ka kÿnboa mh ka agtbkkagbmam sh jasa hg hk `frbzfgth nhfnráof,
oukturak h `bstÿrbof mhk Oarbjh. Gf sh trata mh jusoar ug aeuhra (ab-
kkhurs) para eugmaihgtar ka bmhgtbmam oarbjhña, sbgf mh partbr mh
ka rhakbmam rhnbfgak para hgthgmhr su partboukarbmam oukturak. Nkbs-
sagt sujraya quh ka gfobÿg mh agtbkkagbmam surnh mh uga rhakbmam
quh `ay quh ouhstbfgar y ofrrhspfgmh a ug mhshf quh hs ihghsthr
 prhobsar y eugmar su khnbtbibmam. Mhspuâs mh ka pfkétboa mh ofkfgb-
zaobÿg ‛hxbtfsa’, hk târibgf mh agtbkkagbmam sbrvh a rhpkagthar kfs
mhsaeéfs mh ka bmhgtbmam oukturak mh ka rhnbÿg.
  Erhgth a kas prhthgsbfghs ajsfkutbstas, ugbvhrsakbst
ugbvhrsakbstas
as y
aerfohgtrboas mh ka ghnrbtum, quh ofgsbmhra Áerboa ofif uga tf-
takbmam raobak y oukturak, Nkbssagt hxprhsa ajbhrtaihgth ka partb-
oukarbmam mh ka ouktura oarbjhña. _hnüg âk, ka ghnrbtum gf phribth
aprh`hgmhr ka hshgoba mh ka ouktura oarbjhña. Gf `ay uga hshgoba
ghnra f ug akia ghnra tak ofif kf prhthgmh ka ghnrbtum. Mhstaoa
quh ka ghnrbtum euh bipfrtagth hg ug ifihgtf `bstÿrbof mhthr-
ibgamf. _bg hijarnf, gf phribth para hgthgmhr ka prfjkhiátboa
0= Uhr Zânbs Agtfbgh <  Ka kbttâraturh eragof-agtbkkabsh. @aætb, Nuamhkfuph ht
 Iartbgbquh, Hmbtbfgs Cart`aka, Tarbs, 122:, p. ?51
==
 Nkfmhk.bgmm == 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

oarbjhña. Aria quh ka rhakbmam oukturak agtbkkaga gf sh puhmh

rhmuobr ak ügbof pasamf oukturak aerboagf. Hs iás rboa. Hk autfr
hxprhsa ka hsphobobmam mh ka rhnbÿg pfr su mbvhrsbmam, quh sh
iagbhsta hg kf oukturak, kf pfkétbof, kf sfobak.
  _hnüg âk, ka agtbkkagbmam hstá ajbhrta y pkurak. Hsh ofgohp-
tf rfiphr ofg hk ajsfkutf raobak. Ak `aohr su bgvhgtarbf mboh quh
ka agtbkkagbmam hs uga ouktura gaobma mhk sbsthia mh pkagtaobÿg,
oaraothrbzamaa pfr ka bgsukarbmam, ka bipfrtagoba mama ak ofkfr mh ka
oaraothrbzam
 pbhk, ka orbfkkbzaobÿg,
orbfkkbzaobÿg, gf sÿkf mh ka khgnua sbgf mh kas iaghras mh
vbvbr, ka ihifrba fsoura mh ug pasamf aerboagf, ka suphrbfrbmam
mh ka frakbmam, ka vfoaobÿg a kkhgar y a ihstbzar. Ka agtbkkagbmam
gf sh obhrra hg hk abskaibhgtf mh uga bska sbgf tbhgmh a rhugbr tfmfs
kfs aro`bpbâkanfs mhk Oarbjh hg ug ifsabof oukturak.
  Mh a`é, hk Oarbjh hs rhkaobÿg f, ihlfr mbo`f, uga iuktb-rh-
kaobÿg. Ka agtbkkagbmam gf hs ug ifmf mh abskarsh, gb uga ghurfsbs
mhk hspaobf. Hg hk Oarbjh, mboh Nkbssagt, oama bska hs uga aphrtu-
ra.08 Hk prfjkhia mh ka agtbkkagbmam, para Nkbssagt, hs quh tfmavéa
gf sh bgsorbjh hg kas ofgobhgobas mh kfs agtbkkagfs. Mhstaoa quh
kh eakta a ka agtbkkagbmam mh pasar mh ka hxphrbhgoba ofiüg a ka
ofgobhgoba hxprhsama. Hs iuy bipfrtagth quh sh bgsorbja hg ka
ofgobhgoba ofkhotbva mh kfs puhjkfs05. Nkbssagt sujraya quh `ay
iuo`as aihgazas a ka agtbkkagbmam< ka jakoagbzaobÿg mh kas bskas,
hk aprhgmbzalh mh kas khgnuas vhrgáoukarhs mbehrhgths f a ihgumf
fpuhstas, ka mhphgmhgoba mh aknugas bskas, ka prhshgoba mh bgqubh-
0>
tagths vhobgfs.  Amhiás, hk Oarbjh eragoÿefgf ibra iás 00
`aoba
Aiârboa Katbga quh `aoba ka rhnbÿg. Hs hk oasf mh Ouja . Hsth sh
hxpkboa pfr ka hsphragza hg ka mhgsbmam mh ka kuo`a rhvfkuobfgarba
hg hk Ofgtbghgth y hk hsohptbobsif hg ouagtf a kas pfsbjbkbmamhs
mh kas phquhñas Agtbkkas. Ftra aihgaza a ka agtbkkagbmam, shnüg
Nkbssagt, hs quh kfs bgthkhotuakhs sh ofgfohg pfof.
_hnüg Nkbssagt, ka agtbkkagbmam mhjh phribtbr ka ehmhra-
obÿg y ka bgthnraobÿg mh kfs puhjkfs, phsh a ka sbtuaobÿg mh mhphg-
mhgoba mh aknugas bskas. _ujraya, amhiás, quh ‛kas prfjkhiátbo
prfjkhiátboas
as
08 Hmuarm Nkbssagt< Kh mbsofu
mbsofurs
rs agtbk
agtbkkabs
kabs, Hmbtbfgs Nakkbiarm, 1205, Tarbs, p. :84.
05 Bjbm., p. =::.
0> Nkbssagt, fp. obt., p. =:=.
00 Bjb.m, p. =:=.
=8
 Nkfmhk.bgmm =8 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

mh ka agtbkkagbmam gf tbhghg quh vhr ofg ka hkajfraobÿg bgthkhotuak

sbgf mhk ofipartbibhgtf y mh ka ofiugbmam, gf mh ka prhshgta-
obÿg mfotfrak sbgf mh kas hsphragzas mhjatbmas, y gf mh gfsftrfs
sbgf mh kfs puhjkfs agth tfmf’.02 Nkbssagt mhstaoa quh ka sbtuaobÿg
bgsukar mh ka rhnbÿg gf hs ug erhgf ak prfohsf agtbkkagf. Ak ofgtra-
rbf. ]fia hk hlhipkf mh kas obvbkbzaobfghs bgsukarhs quh kuhnf sh
ofgtbghgtakbzag.
ofgtbghgtakbz ag. Tfr hlhipkf, hk vbhlf suhñf oukturak mh Foobmhg-
th rhibth a uga bska-ofgtbghgth< Atkágtbma
Atkágtbma

_hnüg Nkbssagt, ka `bstfrba mhk Oarbjh hipbhza a partbr mhk

 jarof ghnrhrf<’ka vhrmamhra nâghsbs mh kfs puhjkfs mhk Oarbjh,
hs hk vbhgtrh mhk jarof ghnrhrf’. Asé quh ka ofkfgbzaobÿg hs hk
hkhihgtf eugmaihgtak para hgthgmhr ka `bstfrba mhk Oarbjh, bgoku-
sbvh ka ouhstbÿg oukturak. Hs a partbr mh hsh ifihgtf quh gaobÿ ka
orbfkkbzaobÿg, quh hs uga puhsta hg ofgtaotf mh iuo`fs hkhihgtfs
orbfkkbzaobÿg,
oukturakhs mbstbgtfs. Hk târibgf mh orbfkkbzaobÿg orbstakbza ka Zhka-
obÿg, ofgohptf jásbof para hgthgmhr ka kfsfeéa mh Nkbssagt.
  _hnüg hk kÿsfef iartbgbquâs
iartbgbquâs,, ka puhsta hg rhkaobÿg mhk
iugmf gf hipbhza agths mhk mhsoujrbibhgtf mh Aiârboa. Hs a
 partbr mhk Oarbjh quh hsta rhakbmam sh `bzf hehotbva. Agths,
Agths, `ujf
iugmfs y gf ka bmha mh ug Iugmf. Kfs iugmfs sh tragsefriag
hg ka bmha mh ug Iugmf (hg iayüsouka) ofg hk mhsoujrbibhgtf
mh Aiârboa ihmbagth hk Oarbjh, kf ouak bipkboa quh ‛tfmfs kfs
 puhjkfs sfg
sfg lÿvhghs hg ka tftakbmam-iug
tftakbmam-iugmf.
mf. _fifs tfmfs lÿvhghs
lÿvhghs
y agtbnufs sfjrh kfs `frbzfgths’, gfs mboh Nkbssagt. Hk mhsoujrb-
ibhgtf f ka bgvhgobÿg mh Aiârboa
Aiârboa phribth hk pasalh mh ka pkurakb-
mam mh iugmfs a ka ugbmam mhk Iugmf. Hsth ehgÿihgf rhibth ak
 phgsaibhgtf mh Tariâgbmhs, qubhg mhstaoa quh ‛hk iugmf hs ugf,
hseârbof h bgmbvbsbjkh’. Mblf quh hk iugmf hs ugf y ofgtbguf.
  _bg hijarnf
hijarnf,, hsta rhmuoobÿg mh kfs Iugmf hg ug Iug-
mf `a sbmf `ho`f pfsbjkh pfr Foobmhgth. Tfr hkkf, rhmuoh tfmf a
sbsthia mh phgsaibhgtf. Hs hsta bmha `hnhiÿgboa quh hstá hg ka
 jash mh ka tranhmba mhk Oarbjh. Foobmhgth gf rhofgfoh hk ftrf, su
 partboukarbmam,
 partboukarbmam, su sbgnukarbmam. Musshk `ajka mhk hgoujrbibhgtf
mhk ftrf. Mh bnuak iaghra, ]fmfrfv `aoh vhr ofif Foobmhgth hk
02 Bjbm., p. =:=.
=5
 Nkfmhk.bgmm =5 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

ftrf aihrboagf hg su prfyhotf mh ofkfgbzaobÿg. _hrnh Nruzbgscb

agakbzÿ kas hstrathnbas foobmhgtakhs
foobmhgtakhs para kkhnar a kf quh âk kkaia ka
ofkfgbzaobÿg mhk bianbgarbf ofkhotbvf mhk bgménhga24. A partbr mh
hsta ofkfgbzaobÿg, Foobmhgth bipfgh su sbsthia mh phgsaibhgtf
f su phgsaibhgtf mh sbsthia. Asé quh hk Oarbjh euh véotbia mh
tfmf hsth prfohsf. _bg hijarnf, ihmbagth hk o`fquh mh kas ouktu-
ras, sh kfnra kf quh Nkbssagt kkaia hk prfohsf mh orbfkkbzaobÿg, quh
hs hk<
  ‛ofgtaotf mh kas oukturas hg ug kunar mhk iugmf y quh gf
 prfmuohg sfkaihgth ug ihstbzalh, sbgf ug rhsuktamf
rhsuktamf biprhvbsbjkh
biprhvbsbjkh..
Hstá iuy kbnamf ofg ka gfobÿg mh kf quh ya kkaif ‛oafs mhk iug-
mf’. Xg ‛oafs mhk iugmf’ oaraothrbzamf pfr hk mhsfrmhg, sbgf pfr
kf biprhvbsbjkh. _h puhmh prhvhr hk ihstbzalh, phrf gf ka orbfkkbza-
obÿg. ]fihifs trhs erblfkhs nrbshs, trhs phquhñfs erblfkhs vhrmhs,
kfs traspkagtaifs y sajhifs oÿif shrá ka shnugma, ka throhra nh-
ghraobÿg. Ka orbfkkbzaobÿg quh ofgstbtuyh ug prfohsf bipfsbjkh
mh mhthghr gf tbhgh ifrak. Ka orbfkkbzaobÿg gf phribth anarrar
sbgf agth tfmf bgthgtar aprh`hgmhr kf quh pasa hg hk iugmf. Bgthg-
tar phghtrar y ambvbgar ka orbfkkbzaobÿg mhk iugmf, hs ofihgzar a
kuo`ar ofgtra ka hstagmarbzaobÿg nhghrakbzama quh ataoa ka hofgf-
iéa, ka sfobhmam, ka ouktura… `ay quh mhsarrfkkar hk phgsaibhgtf
mh quh ka orbfkkbzaobÿg gf hs uga surth mh hvapfraobÿg hg ug nrag
iania, sbgf ka bgstauraobÿg oama vhz iás ofgorhtaihgth y oama
vhz iás pfâtboaihgth, mh ka rhkaobÿg hgtrh hk kunar y mfgmh sh
hstá, sh hkhva ka vfz y tfmfs kfs kbnarhs mhk iugmf. Tfr hlhipkf,
kas iuktbgaobfgakhs oapbtakbstas
oapbtakbstas hxpkboag a kas phrsfgas mh kfs paé-
shs mfgmh hkkas sh bipkagtag quh gf sh hgobhrrhg hg hkkfs ibsifs,
mh ajrbrsh ak iugmf, phrf hstf gf ofgmuoh a uga rhkaobÿg khnétb-
ia. Ofgfohifs hk rhsuktamf.’21 
Hk autfr sujraya quh hsth prfohsf mh orbfkkbzaobÿg hxbsth
a hsoaka iugmbak. Mhstaoa quh hk iugmf sh ‛orbfkkbza’, hs mhobr
24 Uhr _hrnh Nurzbgscb<  Ka ofkfgbsatbfg mh k‒bianbgabr
k‒bianbgabrhh, Hmbtbfgs Nakkbiarm,
Tarbs, 1205.
21 Obtamf pfr Luag Oarkfs Arrbana Zfmrénuhz, Lf`agga Iahrc, «Agtbofkfgbakb
«Agtbofkfgbakbs-
s-
if y pfsofkfgbakbsif hg hk phgsaibhgtf oarbjhñf³, hg Brhgh _ágo`hz Zaifs, Zaquhz
_fsa Hkbzana (offrm.)< Aiârboa Katbga< kfs mhsaeéfs mhk phgsaibhgtf orétbof
or étbof, _bnkf PPB
Hmbtfrhs, Iâxbof, :44=, p. 18=.
=>
 Nkfmhk.bgmm => 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

kas oukturas hstág hg ofgtaotf ugas ofg ftras. _h bgthroaijbag mh

iaghra brrhvhrsbjkh. Asé quh ka bmhgtbmam-rhkaobÿg hstá hg ka jash
mh ka thfréa mh ka orbfkkbzaobÿg mh Nkbssagt. Hsth sbngboa quh hk
 prfohsf mh bgthroaijbfs
bgthroaijbfs gf sh aoaja.
aoaja.

=0
 Nkfmhk.bgmm =0 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

Hk ifvbibhgtf mh ka ‛orâfkbtâ’

  ]hribgaifs hk agthrbfr párraef ofg ka bmha mh orbfkkbza-

obÿg mh Hmuarm Nkbssagt, quh supfgh ug prfohsf ofgtbguf mh bg-
throaijbfs hgtrh kas oukturas mhk iugmf. R a`fra, ofg hk târib-
gf mh orâfkbtâ sh trata mhk ibsif ehgÿihgf mh bgthroaijbf, ofg
aknugfs iatbohs. _bg hijarnf, `ay quh prhobsar mhstaoagmf quh
hsf târibgf mh ‛orâfkbtâ’ euh utbkbzamf pfr trhs hsorbtfrhs mh Iar-
tbgboa (Zap`aãk Ofgagt, Tatrboc O`aifbshau y Lhag Jhrgajâ).
Hg ug kbjrf iuy sbgtâtbof hxpfghg su ofgohpobÿg, kfsfeéa mh
ka bmhgtbmam oarbjhña.2: _hnüg sus prfpÿsbtfs, tratag mh kfnrar ug
 pkagthaibhgtf
 pkagthaibhgt f iuo`f iás rhkhvagth mh kf quh hs hk shr oarbjhñf.
_us fjlhtbvfs ofgsbsthg hg phrshnubr y prfeugmbzar ka jüsquhma
mh bmhgtbmam hiprhgmbma pfr ka ghnrbtum y Nkbssagt. Kfs autfrhs
orbtboag ka `hrhgoba mh Oâsabrh.
  Asé quh hk ifvbibhgtf mh ka ‛orâfkbtâ’ hs uga ofgtbgua-
obÿg mh kfs trajalfs thÿrbofs mh âsth. Hk ofgohptf mh ‛orâfkbtâ’
tramuoh kh rhsuktamf mh kfs mbehrhgths bgthroaijbfs oukturakhs quh
tuvbhrfg kunar hg hk Oarbjh ak tragsoursf mh su `bstfrba ibhgtras
ka gfobÿg mh orbfkkbzaobÿg rhhla ug prfohsf bgaoajf mh bgthr -
oaijbfs, mh bgthraoobfghs y mh tragsefriaobfghs. Ka vbsbÿg f hk
supuhstf quh sujyaoh ak efgmf mh ka ‛orâfkbtâ’ hs hshgobakbsta.
Ka bmhgtbmam oarbjhña sh ofgstruyh mhgbtbvaihgth ihmbagth kfs
 prfohsfs mh
mh bgthroaijbfs
bgthroaijbfs oukturakhs.
oukturakhs. A mbehrhgoba mh Nkbssagt
Nkbssagt quh
kf pkagtha mh iaghra mbgáiboa, hsfs autfrhs hxprhsag prhehrhg-
thihgth hk hstamf mhgbtbvf mh ka bmhgtbmam oarbjhña. Erhgth ak
hshgobakbsif raobak mh ka ghnrbtum hkajfrag ftrf hshgobakbsif, ja-
hshgobakbsif
samf hg kas mbehrhgths bgthraoobfghs oukturakhs quh ofgmuohg a ka
ofgefriaobÿg mhgbtbva mh ka bmhgtbmam oarbjhña. Asé quh, tras kfs
mbehrhgths oruohs, bgthroaijbfs, ka bmhgtbmam oarbjhña sh ofgstbtu-
yh. Ak bgbobf mh su kbjrf hsorbjhg<
  ‛Gb hurfphfs, gb aerboagfs, gb asbátbofs, gfs prfpakaifs
orâfkhs. Hstf shrá para gfsftrfs uga aotbtum bgthrbfr,
bgthrbfr, tfmavéa iás<
hstamf mh akhrta f iás aüg, uga suhrth mh hgvfktura ihgtak hg
2:  Hkfnh mh ka orâfkbtâ
orâ fkbtâ, Hmbtbfgs Nakkbiarm, Tarbs, 1202. Hsth tbhgh sfkaihgth
54 pánbgas y ofgmhgsa ka kfsfeéa mh kfs autfrhs.
=2
 Nkfmhk.bgmm =2 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

ouya ibtam sh ofgstrubrá guhstrf iugmf hg pkhga ofgobhgoba mhk

iugmf hstas pakajras quh efriukaifs para usthmhs gf ofiphthg
a ka thfréa, gb a kfs prbgobpbfs hrumbtfs. _h vbgoukag ofg hk thstbif-
gbf. Trfohmhg mh uga hxphrbhgoba hstârbk ofgfobma agths mh hiph-
ñargfs hg rhstajkhohr hk puhgth ofg guhstrf pfthgobak orhatbvf, y
mh pfghr hg ifvbibhgtf ka hxprhsbÿg mh kf quh sfifs. Hstas paka-
 jras gf sh mbrbnhg ügboaihgth a kfs hsorbtfrhs, sbgf a tfmf aquhkkf
bgthrhsamf hg ka ofgohpobÿg mh guhstrf hspaobf (hk aro`bpbâkanf y
sus hstrbjaobfghs hg tbhrra rih, kas bgihgsbmamhs ofgtbghgtakhs),
ofgtbghgtakhs),
hg ouakqubhr mbsobpkbga quh sha, hg ka mfkfrfsa jüsquhma mh ug
 phgsaibhgtf iás eârtbk, mh uga hxprhsbÿg iás lusta, mh uga hstâ-
tboa iás vhrmamhra. Flaká hsta tfia mh pfsbobÿg puhma shrvbrkhs
ofif a gfsftrfs. Flaká puhmag partbobpar hg ka hihrnhgoba, aqué
vhrtboakbmamhss hg ka bmhgtbmam orâfkh ak tbhipf quh ayu-
y akká, mh vhrtboakbmamh
maréag a hkuobmarka, ajrbâgmfgfs, ofg hkkf kas `uhkkas mhk iugmf y
mh ka kbjhrtam’2?
  Hsta karna obtaobÿg aparhoh hg ka prbihra pánbga mhk kbjrf
ofkhotbvf mh guhstrfs autfrhs. Ka prbihra erash rhouhrma a ug kho-
tfr katbgfaihrboagf kas pakajras mh _biÿg Jfkévar qubhg, rhrbâg-
mfsh a kfs `ajbtagths mh ka rhnbÿg, mhstaoaja quh gf sfg bgmbfs,
gb hurfphfs gb aerboagfs sbgf ug phquhñf nâghrf `uiagf guh-
vf.2= Ka bmha mh phquhñf nâghrf `uiagf `aoh hof ofg ka bmha mh
orâfkh tak ofif kf hgtbhgmhg kfs mfotrbgarbfs mh ka ‛orâfkbtâ’. _bg
hijarnf,, hsta bmha hg hk iarof agtbkkagf sh rhhrh a ka partbouka-
hijarnf
rbmam oukturak mhk Oarbjh. Kfs autfrhs sujrayag quh ka ‛orâfkbtâ’
hs hk vhotfr hstâtbof iayfr mhk ofgfobibhgtf mhk iugmf agtbkkagf.
Iuhstra quh ka sbtuaobÿg agtbkkaga mh Nkbssagt hstá iaroama pfr
hk ihstbzalh, kfs bgthroaijbfs oukturakhs. Ofif aihrbgmbfs, aerb-
oagfs, asbátbofs, hurfphfs. A mbehrhgoba mh Nkbssagt mag uga nrag
bipfrtagoba a kas `hrhgobas htgfoukturakhs mh Bgmba. Mbohg quh hk
Oarbjh hs hk prfmuotf mh ug ofglugtf mh oukturas, mh obvbkbzaobf-
ghs, mh khgnuas, mh bianbgarbfs, mh rhkbnbfghs. Hkkfs rhipkazag
hk ‛sfy ghnrf’ mh Oâsabrh pfr hk ‛sfy orâfkh’. Hstf bipkboa ug
oaijbf sbsthiátbof mh aotbtum ihgtak. Zho`azag ka prbfrbmam mh
2? Uhr Kaura Kÿphz Ifrakhz, fp. obt., p. =2
2=
84
 Nkfmhk.bgmm 84 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

Áerboa hg ka mhthribgaobÿg mh ka bmhgtbmam oarbjhña. Kaurhgt _a -

 jja` ofihgta<
  ‛Ka orâfkbtâ rho`aza ka ugbmam, hk ugbvhrsak, ka purhza, ka
tragsparhgoba. Mhhgmh ka mbvhrsbmam, ka fpaobmam, hk iuktbkbg-
nûbsif y hk ofiprfibsf. Ka orbfkkbzaobÿg hs ug prfohsf mh shmb-
ihgtaobÿg mh tfmas kas obvbkbzaobfghs quh `ag kkhnamf ak Oarbjh.
Hsth ifvbibhgtf tbhgh sus raéohs hg ka khgnua orbfkka y hg kfs
trauiatbsifs
trauiatbsifs prfvfoamfs pfr ka trata, hk hxbkbf y ka hsokavbtum. _u
nura hijkhiátboa hs hk ouhgtbsta orbfkkf.’28
  Hk ifvbibhgtf mh ka orâfkbtâ supfgh taijbâg uga guhva
vbsbÿg mh ka hstâtboa shnüg sus autfrhs, uga hstâtboa quh parth mh
ka hxphrbhgoba ofkfgba mh kas pkagtaobfghs hg mfgmh ka práotboa
vbnhgth euh ka frakbmam f ihlfr mbo`f ka frakbmam (frakbturh), hg
sus târibgfs. Zap`aãk Ofgagt y Tatrboc O`aifbshau hsorbjhg
quh ka frakbtura orâfkh gaobÿ hg hk sbsthia mh kas pkagtaobfghs, a ka
vhz hg y ofgtra ka hsokavbtum, hg uga mbgáiboa mh ouhstbfgaibh
ouhstbfgaibhg-
g-
tf quh rho`aza y aohpta< ‛Tarhoh shr ka hstâtboa (suphragmf asé ka
frakbmam, shgobkka pakajra frmbgarba) mhk o`fquh mh guhstras ofg-
obhgobas tfmavéa mbsphrsas y mh ug iugmf ‛`ajbtatbfggabrh’ mfg-
mh `ujf quh vbvbr (rhsbstbr-hxbstbr
(rhsbstbr-hxbstbr para ugfs, mfibgar para ftrfs).
Hsta frakbtura va a hgerhgtarsh a kfs ‛vakfrhs’, ak sbsthia ofkfgbak
(phsf mh ka obvbkbzaobÿg, khnbtbiaobÿg mh ka hxtbgobÿg mhk Oarbjh,
mh ka ofgmbobÿg mhk hsokavf-ghnrf, (phgsaibhgtf mh kf ugf)’. 25 
_hnüg hsfs autfrhs, ka frakbtura ‛orâfkh’ hs uga ofgtra-ouktura
erhgth a ka ouktura ofkfgbak mfibgagth. A partbr mh hkkf prfpfghg
uga guhva hstâtboa mfgmh ka khgnua orbfkka hstá hg fsifsbs ofg hk
eragoâs.

28 Kaurhgt _ajja`<  Horbvabgs eragîabs m‒futrh-ihr , Ibgbstàrh mhs Aeeabrhs

Htragnàrhs,
25 Eragoh, Ofgagt,
Zap`aãk AMET, Lubkkht 122>,
Tatrboc p. 80
O`aifbshau< Khttrhs orâfkhs, Hmbtbfgs Nakkbiarm,
O`aifbshau< Khttrhs
Tarbs, 1222, p. >?
81
 Nkfmhk.bgmm 81 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

Ka bgmbagbmam

  Uaifs a`fra a ajfrmar ug asphotf pfof ofgfobmf hg hk

iarof mhk phgsaibhgtf oarbjhñf hg kf tfoagth a ka ouhstbÿg mh ka
bmhgtbmam. Hsth tbhgh quh vhr kas pfsturas orétboas mh kfs hsorbtfrhs
mh frbnhg `bgmü. Hkkfs orbtboarfg a kfs mfotrbgarbfs mh ka ghnrbtum
 pfr `ajhr `ho`f
`ho`f oasf fibsf
fibsf mh kas phrsfgas mh frbnhg asbátbof
asbátbof hg
ka rhnbÿg. Hk Oarbjh gf sh ofipfgh sfkaihgth mh mhsohgmbhgths
mh Áerboa, mh Hurfpa y mh aihrbgmba, sbgf taijbâg mh Bgmba. Hgtrh
10?0 y 121>, `ujf akrhmhmfr mh 8444 444 bgmbfs quh kkhnarfg a ka
rhnbÿg, hsphobakihgth hg ]rbgbmam,
]rbgbmam, Iartbgbof y Nuamakuph. _b hg
hk oasf mh kfs aerboagfs sh `ajka mh trata ghnrhra, para kfs bgmbfs sh
`ajka mh ‛offkbh tramh’. _u jarof ghnrhrf sh kkaia ‛offkbh s`bps’.
Obhrtfs autfrhs sujrayag quh ka hibnraobÿg mh kfs bgmbfs sh `bzf
hg ofgmbobfghs sbibkarhs mh kfs aerboagfs. Hk `bstfrbamfr Tago`a-
gag _a`a mboh quh kfs bgmbfs euhrfg tratamfs ofif vhrmamhrfs
hsokavfs. Ka bgibnraobÿg sh `bzf hg ofgmbobfghs hsoagmakfsas. _h
trataja mh uga vhrmamhra trata. Kfs jarofs euhrfg kkhgfs. Gf `ujf
gbgnuga rhnka sagbtarba. Iuo`as iulhrhs euhrfg ajagmfgamas.
Kfs hsorbtfrhs
hsorbtf rhs ofif U.
U. _. Gabpauk, _`bva Gabpauk,
Gabpauk , _aiuhk
_hkvfg, Ghbk Jbssfgmat`, Hrghst Ifutfussaiy sfg `blfs mh `blfs
mh ka mbáspfra bgmba. Kfs trhs phrthghohg a ka throhra nhghraobÿg
bgstakama hg ]rbgbmam. Asuihg mbehrhgthihgth ka ihifrba mh
ka mbáspfra bgmba. Hrghst Ifutfussaiy mhhgmh su bgmbngbmam
ofif Oâsabrh mhhgmh su ghnrbtum. Mhgh asé ka bgmbngbmam< ‛ka
bgmbngbmam gf hs uga mfotrbga, gb uga bmhfkfnéa. Hs hxprhsbÿg mh
ug obhrtf aphnf a ka Bgmba, a sus vakfrhs, su ouktura y hk rhofgfob-
ibhgtfth kf quh oaraothrbza hk ifmf mh vbma hg kas Agtbkkas.
Agtbkkas. Hs hk
ágbif `bstÿrbof, uga raéz oukturak…’. _hnüg âk, ka bgmbagbmam sh
mhmboa a kas Agtbkkas. @aoh ug aohroaibhgtf hgtrh kfs suerbibhg-
tfs mh kfs bgmbfs y ghnrfs a kf karnf mh ka su kkhnama hg hk Oarbjh.
Mhstaoa quh kas Agtbkkas, kas Aiârboas,
Aiârboas, bgsorbtas hg hk rhnbstrf mh
ka ofgobhgoba ugbvhrsak ofif ka iás vasta tuija mh kfs `blfs mh
Áerboa sh oujrbhrfg mhk vuhkf mh kfs jubtrhs jkagofs. Kfs ghnrfs
y kfs bgmbfs, sbhgmf véotbias mh ka ofkfgbzaobÿg hurfpha, mhjhg
ugbrsh para rhofgqubstar su `uiagbmam. Tfr ftra parth, ka ihif-
8:
 Nkfmhk.bgmm 8: 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

rba mh ka Bgmba agohstrak sh hxprhsa hg kas gfvhkas mh U._. Gabpauk

ofif hg ‛Xgh iabsfg pfur Ifgsbhur Jbswas’ (1251) y ‛K‒hn-
gbih mh k‒arrbvâh’ (120>). Hstas gfvhkas hvfoag hk mhsarrabnf mh
kfs bgmbfs, ka pârmbma mh sus `fnarhs, ka sbtuaobÿg sfobfhofgÿiboa
iuy mbeéobk hg ka ouak sh hgouhgtrag.

8?
 Nkfmhk.bgmm 8? 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

Ofgokusbÿg

  A kf karnf mh hsta rhhxbÿg, `hifs rhofrrbmf aknugfs as-

 photfs sfjrhsakbhgt
sfjrhsakbhgths
hs mhk mbsoursf oarbjhñf - hg hsphobak, mhk Oarb-
 jh eragoÿefgf-
eragoÿefgf- hg kf tfoagth a ka bmhgtbmam oukturak ofg rhsphotf
rhsphotf a
kas `hrhgobas oukturakhs aerboagas. _h puhmh vhr quh hsta ouhstbÿg
rhvbsth ofgohptuakbzaobfghs
ofgohptuakbzaobfghs y thfrbzaobfghs mbehrhgths hg eugobÿg
mh kfs autfrhs y mhk ifihgtf hg quh mbjulag su `frbzfgth mh ofi-
 prhgsbÿg mh ka
ka rhakbmam
rhakbmam oukturak oarbjhña. A mbehrhgoba mh Aiârboa
Katbga, ka prfjkhiátboa mh ka bmhgtbmam gf sh pkagtha hg hk sbnkf
PBP sbgf ak tragsoursf mhk sbnkf PP. Hk bgmbnhgbsif `abtbagf y
ka ghnrbtum sfg mfs pfsturas quh mag ka prbfrbmam a kas `hrhgobas
htgfoukturakhs aerboagas hg ka mhthribgaobÿg y ka oaraothrbzaobÿg
mh ka bmhgtbmam oukturak oarbjhña. Euhrfg orbtboamas ofif pfsbobf-
ghs hshgobakbstas quh gf tbhghg hg ouhgta ka `bstfrba, kfs oaijbfs
quh sh `bobhrfg a kf karnf mhk prfohsf sfobfpfkétbof mh ka rhnbÿg.
Hg ouagtf a kfs hgefquhs mh ka agtbkkagbmam f mh orbfkkbzaobÿg,
sh rhhrh a ka `bstfrba ofkfgbak, kfs mbvhrsfs oruohs oukturakhs y
obvbkbzatfrbfs quh tuvbhrfg kunar hg ka rhnbÿg, kf ouak `aoh quh
rho`azag hk mhthribgbsif raobak y hk hshgobakbsif mh ka ghnrbtum y
mhk bgmbnhgbsif. Hsta pfsbobÿg mhla vhr quh ka bmhgtbmam oukturak
mhk Oarbjh gf sh mhjh pkagthar hg târibgfs mh `hrhgobas htgfouk-
turakhs aerboagas sbgf a partbr mh kas mbehrhgths trambobfghs ouktu-
rakhs quh hgtrhoruzag hg ka rhnbÿg. _bg hijarnf, mhgtrf mh hsta
 pfsbobÿg, ug obhrtf
obhrtf hshgobakbsif
hshgobakbsif hg kf rhehrhgth ak ifvbibhgtf
ifvbibhgtf mh
ka ‛orâfkbtâ’, quh pfstuka quh ka bmhgtbmam oarbjhña sh la mhspuâs
mhk prfohsf mh tragsoukturaobÿg, ibhgtras ka pfsbobÿg mh Nkbssagt
gfs parhoh ihlfr pfrquh hk târibgf mh orbfkkbzaobÿg supfgh ug
 prfohsf bgaoajamf. R Nkbssagt
Nkbssagt ma uga mbihgsbÿg ugbvhrsak
ugbvhrsak a hsta
mbgáiboa mh bgthraoobfghs oukturakhs.
  _bg hijarn
hijarnf,
f, hstas pfsbobfghs thÿrboas tbhghg aknugfs ké-
ibths sb tfiaifs hg ofgsbmhraobÿg ka sbtuaobÿg ghf-ofkfgbak mh ka
rhnbÿg. Iuo`fs mh kfs paéshs mhk Oarbjh sh hgouhgtrag hg uga sb-
tuaobÿg mfgmh ka prhshgoba mh kas agtbnuas pfthgobas ofkfgbakhs hs
iuy vbsbjkh. Ka prfjkhiátboa mh ka bmhgtbmam tak ofif sh pkagtha
gf tfia hg ouhgta ka mhphgmhgoba mh iuo`fs paéshs mh ka rhnbÿg.
8=
 Nkfmhk.bgmm 8= 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1
 

Nkfmhk Ihzbkas ÁEZBOA R MB_OXZ_F MH BMHG]BMAM HG HK OAZBJH 

Iuo`as mh hstas bskas sfg mhpartaihgtfs mh uktraiar mh aknugas

 pfthgobas ofkfgbakhs hurfphas, kf ouak
ouak sbngboa
sbngboa quh ka ouhstbÿg mh
ka bmhgtbmam oarbjhña hgerhgta ug mhsaÿ pfkétbof. Gf sh puhmh
`ajkar mh uga bmhgtbmam ofkhotbva euhra mhk áijbtf pfkétbof. _h
fjshrva quh, hg hk Oarbjh, iuo`fs paéshs sfg suoursakhs nhfnrá-
oas ghf-ofkfgbakhs mh aknugfs paéshs hurfphfs. Khs eakta a kfs
 puhjkfs mh hsta rhnbÿg uga ofgobhgoba mh bmhgtbmam ofkhotbva. A
gbvhk thÿrbof, kfs bgthkhotuakhs tratag mh ofgstrubr uga vbsbÿg ofg-
 lugta mhk Oarbjh, phrf hg hk pkagf sfobak, pfkétbof y hofgÿibof,
kfs puhjkfs hstág khlfs mh thghr uga ofgobhgoba mh phrthghgoba a
uga ouktura, ugas `bstfrbas ofiughs. Kas `hrhgobas htgfoukturakhs
htgfoukturakhs
ofiughs sfg ihgfsprhobamas y iarnbgiarnbgakbzamas.
akbzamas. Hsta rhakbmam kkh-
va Xrbo` Ekhbso`iag, ug nrag hsphobakbsta akhiág mhk Oarbjh, a
ghnar ka hxbsthgoba mh uga bmhgtbmam ofkhotbva hg ka rhnbÿg.
  A phsar mh varbfs iatbohs hg hstfs pkagthaibhg
pkagthaibhgtfs,
tfs, ga-
mbh puhmh ghnar ka hxbsthgoba mh uga `bstfrba, mh trambobfghs, mh
kuo`as ofiughs mh kfs puhjkfs oarbjhñfs. Akhlf Oarphgtbhr mblf
a Nkbssagt quh kfs oarbjhñfs tbhghg hk ibsif khgnualh, phsh a
quh hsorbjhg hg mbehrhgths khgnuas. Ofiparthg ug ugbvhrsf mh
séijfkfs ofiughs. Kf quh aihgaza ka rhnbÿg hs kf quh Nkbssagt
kkaia ‛ka jakoagbzaobÿg `bstÿrboa mh kas bskas’. Ka kuo`a ofgtra
hsta jakoagbzaobÿg mhjh `aohr hg iuo`fs pkagfs< pfkétbof, hofgÿ-
iboa, sfobak y oukturak. Mh a`é, ka ouhstbÿg mh ka bmhgtbmam gf mhjh
 pkagthar sfkaihgth hg kf oukturak sbgf taijbâg hg kf pfkétbof, kf
hofgÿibof y kf sfobak.

88
 Nkfmhk.bgmm 88 10/4=/:415 1:<:8<?1