Maestría

en Ingeniería
de Petróleos

Ingeniería de Producción
I-Sem 2018 – Semana 1

Enrique Villalobos - MBA

 Rol de la Ingeniería de Producción
• 

La ingeniería de producción se encarga de mover la mayor cantidad de barriles al
costo más eficiente desde la zona del yacimiento cercana a cada pozo hasta los
lugares donde:
–  i). Los productos se convierten en dinero (Puertos, terminales, plantas de proceso refinerías,
etc).
–  ii). Los productos secundarios no deseados se disponen apropiadamente.

•  El ingeniero de producción aporta un valor significativo en la cadena de E&P al

recibir barriles de fluido de yacimiento en el fondo de cada pozo y entregar en
superficie productos en especificaciones de venta que son comercializables en el
mercado.

•  Para ello, determina y diseña los métodos óptimos de producción, los sistemas de
levantamiento artificial, (bombeo neumático, hidráulico, mecánico,
electrosumergible, de cavidades progresivas, etc) las instalaciones de superficie
(separadores, tratadores, válvulas, bombas, tanques, etc) para el tratamiento
primario de hidrocarburos (separación, deshidratación, fiscalización, transporte y
entrega) de sus principales productos (petróleo y gas) y la disposición final de sus
productos secundarios (agua, arena, lodos, borras, etc).
 El Petróleo en el Mundo
•  1. Cuál es el consumo energético anual del mundo? (____________ Million Tonnes Oil Equivalent)
•  2. Que porcentaje de ese consumo corresponde a hidrocarburos (Petróleo + gas)? (_______%)
•  3. Cuánto son las Reservas probadas de petróleo del mundo? (_________ Thousand Million BBLS)
•  4. Cuales son los 5 países con mayores Reservas probadas de petróleo en el mundo?
•  5. Cuánto son las Reservas probadas de Colombia? (___________ Thousand Million BBLS)
•  6. Cuánto es la tasa de producción de petróleo en el mundo? (___________ Thousand BOPD)
•  7. Cuánto es la producción de petróleo de Colombia? (___________ Thousand BOPD)
•  8. Cuánto es el consumo de petróleo en el mundo? (___________ Thousand BOPD)
•  9. Cuánto es el consumo de petróleo en Colombia? (___________ Thousand BOPD)
•  10. Que es la OPEP (or OPEC) y que países la integran?
• 
•  Fuentes recomendadas:
•  https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/en/corporate/pdf/energy-economics/statistical-
review-2017/bp-statistical-review-of-world-energy-2017-full-report.pdf
•  https://www.eia.gov/petroleum/data.php
•  http://www.anh.gov.co/Operaciones-Regalias-y-Participaciones/Sistema-Integrado-de-
Operaciones/Paginas/Estadisticas-de-Produccion.aspx
•  http://www.opec.org/
Volúmenes y Reservas

Reserves: Discovered quantities of Petroleum anticipated to be

commercially recoverable from known accumulations, from a
given date forward and under defined conditions.

Resources: Quantities of petroleum (recoverable and
unrecoverable) naturally occurring on or within the Earth´s crust,
discovered and undiscovered.
Prospective resources evolve into Contingent after a discovery is
declared, some of the Contingent Resources evolve into Reserves
after commerciality is declared and some of the Reserves become
later on Production and sales.
Volúmenes y Reservas

 Volúmenes y Reservas
(Otros conceptos)

•  OOIP:
•  EUR:
•  Recovery Factor:
•  Fiscal Barrels:
•  CAPEX and OPEX:
•  Royalties and Other rights:
 Volúmenes y Reservas

•  http://www.pemex.com/ayuda/preguntas_frecuentes/Paginas/
reservas_hidrocarburos.aspx
•  https://www.sec.gov/divisions/corpfin/guidance/oilandgas-,.htm
•  http://www.spe.org/industry/docs/OGR_Mapping.pdf
•  http://www.spe.org/industry/petroleum-reserves-definitions.php
•  http://media.corporate-ir.net/media_files/irol/12/123846/reports/
PetReserve.pdf

 Propiedades de los fluidos
Reservoir Pressure
•  Conventional hydrocarbon accumulations occur in partially sealed structures where the upward
migration of oil and gas from the source beds is blocked by an impermeable barrier. As hydrocarbon
accumulates, formation water is expelled from the porous reservoir rock.
•  Unless subsequent tectonic movements completely seal the reservoir, the underlying waters are
contiguous and pressures in the aquifer will approximate to some local or regional hydrostatic gradient.
In a water column, the pressure at any depth is approximated to:
•  p = h * Gw Where: h depth Gw pressure gradient
•  Although ground waters are saline, temperatures increasing with depth tend to reduce the water density
and a common “normal” value of Gw is 0.433 psia/ft, which is approximately a fresh water gradient.
Gradients within the range 0.43 to 0.5 psia/ft are considered normal.

G f = 0.052 ρ f ppg
,( psi / ft)

ρw = 8.33 ppg

Gw = 0.052x8.33 ppg

Gw = 0.433 psi/ ft
 Propiedades de los fluidos
•  Pressures at the top of a hydrocarbon bearing structure are
expected to be higher than the hydrostatic gradient
extrapolated from the hydrocarbon/water contact, because of
the lower density of hydrocarbons compared to water. In some
cases during drilling, particularly in thick gas bearing zones, this
deviations from hydrostatic pressure can lead to severe safety
problems (e.g. gas kick).
Abnormal Pressures
•  Under certain depositional conditions or due to tectonic
movements, fluid pressures may depart substantially from the
normal range. Abnormal pressures can occur when some part
of the overburden load is transmitted to the formation fluids.
Abnormal pressures corresponding to gradients of 0.8 to 0.9
pi/ft and approaching the geostatic gradient (generally taken
as approximately equivalent to 1.0 psia/ft) may occasionally be
encountered and can be considered dangerously high. It is for
this reason that reservoir engineers are prepared to spend a
great deal of time and therefore money in defining
•  the hydrostatic pressure regime in a new field. A simple way of
doing this is to run a series of wireline formation testers in the
exploration well usually after logging and prior to setting casing
in which pressures are deliberately measured in water bearing
sands both above and beneath the hydrocarbon reservoir.
 Propiedades de los fluidos
Reservoir Temperature
•  Reservoir temperatures will conform to the regional or local geothermal gradient, a normal value being
1.6 °F/100 ft. Because of the large thermal capacity of the rock matrix, which comprises about 80% of the
bulk reservoir volume, and the very large area for heat transfer, conditions within the reservoir may be
considered isothermal for practical purposes in most cases. considered normal.

Ejercicio: Con gradientes normales de

presión y temperatura, determinar la Py
y Ty iniciales esperadas en el campo
Cusiana (18,000 Ft) y el campo Rubiales
(6,000 ft).
 Propiedades de los fluidos
Oil Density
•  The crude oil density is defined as the mass of a unit volume of
the crude at a specified pressure and temperature. It is usually
expressed in pounds per cubic foot. The specific gravity of a
crude oil is defined as the ratio of the density of the oil to that
of water. Both densities are measured at 60°F and atmospheric
pressure: γ ρo
γ ρo
o= o=
8.33 ppg 62.4 Lb/ ft 3
•  It should be pointed out that the liquid specific gravity is
dimensionless, but traditionally is given the units 60°/60° to
emphasize the fact that both densities are measured at 141.5
standard conditions. The density of the water is approximately API = −131.5
62.4 lb/ft3, or 8.33 lb/Gallon γo

•  Although the density and specific gravity are used extensively

in the petroleum industry, the API gravity is the preferred 141.5
γo =
gravity scale. This gravity scale is precisely related to the 131.5+ API
specific gravity by the following expression:
Ejercicio: Determinar la gravedad
•  The API gravities of crude oils usually range from 47° API for especifica y la densidad del crudo Cusiana
the lighter crude oils to 10° API for the heavier asphaltic crude (40 API) y del Crudo Rubiales (13 API).
oils.
 Propiedades de los fluidos
Gas Solubility • Standing’s correlation
•  The gas solubility Rs is defined as the number of standard cubic
feet of gas which will dissolve in one stock-tank barrel of crude
oil at certain pressure and temperature. The solubility of a
natural gas in a crude oil is a strong function of the pressure, • The Vasquez-Beggs correlation
temperature, API gravity, and gas gravity.

•  For a particular gas and crude oil to exist at a constant

temperature, the solubility increases with pressure until the
• Glaso’s correlation
saturation pressure is reached. At the saturation pressure
(bubble-point pressure) all the available gases are dissolved in
the oil and the gas solubility reaches its maximum value. Rather

than measuring the amount of gas that will dissolve in a given

stock-tank crude oil as the pressure is increased, it is customary
• Marhoun’s correlation
to determine the amount of gas that will come out of a sample
of reservoir crude oil as pressure decreases.

•  A typical gas solubility curve, as a function of pressure for an
undersaturated crude oil, is shown in Figure 2-7. As the • The Petrosky-Farshad correlation
pressure is reduced from the initial reservoir pressure pi, to the
bubble-point pressure pb, no gas evolves from the oil and
consequently the gas solubility remains constant at its
maximum value of Rsb. Below the bubble-point pressure, the
solution gas is liberated and the value of Rs decreases with
pressure. The following five empirical correlations for
estimating the gas solubility are
 Propiedades de los fluidos
Bubble-Point Pressure
•  The bubble-point pressure pb of a hydrocarbon system is • Standing’s correlation
defined as the highest pressure at which a bubble of gas is first
liberated from the oil.
•  This important property can be measured experimentally for a
crude oil system by conducting a constant-composition
expansion test.

•  In the absence of the experimentally measured bubble-point
pressure, it is necessary for the engineer to make an estimate • The Vasquez-Beggs correlation
of this crude oil property
•  from the readily available measured producing parameters.
Several graphical and mathematical correlations for
determining pb have been proposed during the last four
decades. These correlations are essentially based on the
assumption that the bubble-point pressure is a strong function
of gas solubility Rs, gas gravity gg, oil gravity API, and • Glaso’s correlation
temperature T.
•  Several ways of combining the above parameters in a graphical
form or a mathematical expression are proposed by numerous
authors, including:
• Marhoun’s correlation
• The Petrosky-Farshad correlation
 Propiedades de los fluidos
Oil Formation Volume Factor
•  The oil formation volume factor, Bo, is defined as the ratio of
• Standing’s correlation
the volume of oil (plus the gas in solution) at the prevailing

reservoir temperature and pressure to the volume of oil at

standard conditions. Bo is always greater than or equal to

unity. The oil formation volume factor can be expressed

thematically as:



•  Most of the published empirical Bo correlations utilize the • The Vasquez-Beggs correlation
following generalized relationship:









• Glaso’s correlation
• Marhoun’s correlation
• The Petrosky-Farshad correlation
 Propiedades de los fluidos
Viscosity
•  Viscosity is defined as the resistance to flow.
•  Viscosity is often referred to as the thickness of a fluid. You can think of water (low viscosity) and honey (high
viscosity). However, this definition can be confusing when we are looking at fluids with different densities.
•  At a molecular level, viscosity is a result of the interaction between the different molecules in a fluid. This can be
also understood as friction between the molecules in the fluid. Just like in the case of friction between moving
solids, viscosity will determine the energy required to make a fluid flow.
•  To measure Viscosity you can think in terms of different fluids taking different times to, for example, pour out of
a cup. Water will pour out of a glass in a fraction of a second and will take the shape of the receiving container in
just as short of a time. On the other hand, a high viscosity fluid like honey would take minutes to pour out and
the interface between honey and air would take just as long to settle. You might have notice that we have been
talking about time when trying to establish which of those two fluids is more viscous. That's what we refer to as a
measurement of kinematic viscosity or how fast does a fluid flow for a given force applied to it. In this example,
the applied force is gravity.
•  Another way to think about it is using a piston or syringe type of setup. Imagine that you have a very low
viscosity fluid (water) inside a syringe. You can probably push the fluid out using your fingers. On the other hand,
if you have honey inside the syringe, you better have a pretty sturdy syringe and some mechanical system to help
you apply enough force. You might have also noticed that in this case we have been applying and measuring
force to make the fluid flow. If we fix the time we want to take for the injection (or the injection rate) and
measure the force or stress, this is what we will refer to as a measurement of dynamic viscosity.
•  Viscosity measurements are often distinguished as either kinematic or dynamic viscosity. While relative viscosity
can give you a general number, tools that can measure dynamic viscosity or absolute viscosity have been refined
and proven to provide more reliable and accurate measurements. This is because absolute viscosity is given
instead of values that compare fluids to one another.
 Propiedades de los fluidos
Viscosity
•  Dynamic Viscosity: The most commonly used unit for dynamic viscosity is the CGS unit centipoise (cP), which is
equivalent to 0.01 Poise (P). This unit is used in honour of French physicist, Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille
(1797-1869), who worked with Gotthilf Hagen on the widely known Hagen-Poiseuille law which applies to
laminar flow through pipes. It is not a coincidence that the viscosity of distilled water at 20°C was used to define
1 cP!. The SI unit for dynamic viscosity η is the Pascal-second (Pa-s), which corresponds to the force (N) per unit
area (m2) divided by the rate of shear (s-1). Just as in the definition of viscosity! However, since the viscosity of
most fluids is below 1 Pa-s (See Table 1), the millipascal-second (mPa-s) is often used instead. Note that 1 mPa-s
is equivalent to 1 cP.

•  Kinematic viscosity: Kinematic viscosity is often measured in the CGS unit centistokes (cSt), which is equivalent
to 0.01 stokes (St). This one is named after Irish mathematician Sir George Gabriel Stokes (1819-1903) who,
among other contributions to fluid mechanics, helped develop the Navier-Stokes equation for the conservation
of momentum. One stoke is equivalent to one poise divided by the density of the fluid in g/cm3.The SI unit for
kinematic viscosity is square meters per second (m2/s). However, due to the viscosity values of most common
fluids, square centimetres per second (cm2/s) is used more often. Note that 1 cm2/s is equivalent to 100 cSt.

 Propiedades de los fluidos
Crude Oil Viscosity
•  Crude oil viscosity is an important physical property that controls and influences the flow of oil through
porous media and pipes. The viscosity, in general, is defined as the internal resistance of the fluid to
flow.
•  The oil viscosity is a strong function of the temperature, pressure, oil gravity, gas gravity, and gas
solubility. Whenever possible, oil viscosity should be determined by laboratory measurements at
reservoir temperature and pressure. The viscosity is usually reported in standard PVT analyses. If such
laboratory data are not available, engineers may refer to published correlations, which usually vary in
complexity and accuracy depending upon the available data on the crude oil.
•  According to the pressure, the viscosity of crude oils can be classified into three categories:
•  • Dead-Oil Viscosity
•  The dead-oil viscosity is defined as the viscosity of crude oil at atmospheric
•  pressure (no gas in solution) and system temperature.
•  • Saturated-Oil Viscosity
•  The saturated (bubble-point)-oil viscosity is defined as the viscosity of the crude oil at the bubble-point
pressure and reservoir temperature.
•  Undersaturated-Oil Viscosity
•  The undersaturated-oil viscosity is defined as the viscosity of the crude oil at a pressure above the
bubble-point and reservoir temperature.
 Propiedades de los fluidos
Crude Oil Viscosity

Beal´s Correlation Beggs – Robinson Correlation Glasso´s Correlation

 Propiedades de los fluidos
Methods of Obtaining Fluid Properties
•  There are 4 ways to obtain fluid properties:
•  1. Prediction from empirical correlations. 2. On-site measurement of fluid properties.
•  3. Prediction using robust EoS based models. 4. Measuring in a PVT laboratory.
1. Fluid properties from empirical correlations
•  Physical properties may be predicted with a certain degree of accuracy, using one of the several available
black oil correlations (empirical formulas which are functions of pressure, temperature and a few other
properties). Very often, the prediction of the properties of a great number of hydrocarbon systems
•  using this approach is not satisfactory even for calculations needed for practical purposes due the
inherent simplicity of the equations. In addition, the developed correlations are often of only regional
interest as the data sets utilised for their derivation are applicable to fluids of similar origin.
2. On-site Measurement of Fluid Properties
•  Some fluid properties such as the physical properties of the stock tank oil and the produced water
(usually stock tank oil gravity, viscosity and water content -in oil- as well as salinity of water and pH) may
be easily measured on-site using portable laboratory instruments.
•  Fluid properties of the reservoir fluids at high pressures and elevated temperatures are rarely measured
on-site, due to complexities of the PVT equipment involved in such measurements. However, “quick
look” PVT tables are generated from EoS based simulators using the overall reservoir fluid composition
and some key measurements easy to be performed on-site, as input. These compositions are obtained
with portable gas chromatographs. The Oilphase’s on-site fluid properties estimation tool “Fluid
Properties Estimation” (FPE) is based on the approach described above.
 Propiedades de los fluidos
3. Fluid properties prediction using robust EoS based model
•  If the fluid is described by a detailed composition derived from advanced analytical techniques (gas
chromatography, distillation, etc), its phase behaviour and properties can be predicted fairly accurately
using Equation of State (EoS) based models. With the advent of fast desktop computers every engineer
now has the opportunity of using such phase behaviour software packages. Prerequisite for this
approach is a detailed and accurate knowledge of the fluid’s composition. Recent cubic equations of
state belong to the VdW family and the most popular and widely used is the Peng-Robinson’s EoS:

4. Measurement of fluid properties in a PVT laboratory

•  High-pressure laboratory analyses (generally known as PVT analyses) involve costly operations requiring
significant resources and logistics. Long distance transport of pressurised hydrocarbon samples in
approved containers is usually required and due to the fact that often the specialised onshore
laboratories may have a significant backlog and therefore long delays for the delivery of the PVT report
can be expected. Nevertheless, accurate fluid data can provide extremely valuable information, which in
turn leads to efficient reservoir management.
 Propiedades de los fluidos
Applications of Reservoir Fluid Data
•  While reservoir engineers generally have the greatest claim on reservoir fluid data, reservoir fluid
analyses are equally valuable to geologists and production specialists. Reservoir engineers use PVT
properties to calculate the amount of hydrocarbons in place, to evaluate proposals for drilling new wells,
to perform material balance calculations for estimating the recoverable reserves, to simulate the flow of
the different phases inside the porous medium, to design and evaluate well tests, to validate pressure
transient analysis tests and to perform reservoir simulation runs for deciding on production scenario.
Fluid properties are also used for evaluating the potential and for designing enhanced oil recovery
methods.
•  Geologists use the PVT data for well proposal evaluations and they may correlate the fluid properties
from near-by wells to justify further development drilling.
•  Log analysts will apply actual fluid data to refine the evaluation of well logs.
•  An exploration geo-chemist might have an interest in the composition of the oil or of the reservoir water
as they shed light on the origin, maturation and degradation of the oil and they help pointing towards a
better geological interpretation.
•  Production engineers need fluid properties for the well completion design, for the efficient and cost
effective design of the production facilities, for proper interpretation of the production logs and for the
prediction of the expected production schedules.
•  Finally, process engineers require fluid information for determining the commercial value of the
produced crude, to evaluate the commercial products that will be yielded after refining/extraction/
liquefaction as well as for the design and operation of surface separation, treating and pipelines facilities.
•  Petroleum Engineering Handbook, Volumes I-
VII - Print Set. Editor-in-Chief: Larry W. Lake.
2007 ISBN: 978-1-55563-126-0. Society of
Petroleum Engineers
•  http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/
•  http://www.rheosense.com/what-is-viscosity

 Comportamiento de fases
•  Digramas PV, PT
 Comportamiento de Fases
•  Diagrama de fases para aceite de bajo “shrinkage”
 Comportamiento de Fases
•  Diagrama de fases para gas con condensación retrograda
 Comportamiento de Fases
•  Diagrama de fase para un gas húmedo
 Comportamiento de Fases
•  Diagrama de fases para un gas seco
 Tipos de Pozos
Por objetivo Por Ubicación
•  Estratigráficos •  Onshore
•  Exploratorios •  Offshore (Near shore, lakes, ponds,)
•  De delimitación (appraisal)
•  De desarrollo

Por geometría o trayectoria Por Función

•  Vertical •  Productor
•  Direccional (Tipo J y Tipo S, Sidetrack) •  Inyector
•  Horizontal •  Alivio
•  Multilateral •  Otros: Sumidero, Disposal, Almacenamiento.
•  Designer
•  Long reach

•  http://wiki.aapg.org/Well_types
•  https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/MohamedElnagar8/life-cycle-of-oil-gas-wells
•  https://www.netwasgroup.us/oil-well/types-of-horizontal-wells.html
•  http://www.drillingcontractor.org/dcpi/dc-julyaug07/DC_July07_LegacyKnowledge.pdf
•  http://petrowiki.org/Horizontal_wells
•  http://petrowiki.org/Fluid_flow_in_horizontal_wells
Tipos de Pozos
 Pozos Horizontales
Horizontal Oil Wells

•  There are five recognized types of horizontal wells that

have evolved for reasons of hydrocarbon reservoir
requirements or to designate the equipment required to
drill the wells. For example, long-radius wells are drilled
with standard directional equipment while short-radius
wells require an assortment of special equipment. The
types of wells have become known as: Short Radius
2°/3Ft R=29Ft

Medium Radius
14°/100Ft R=409Ft
•  Long-Radius
•  Medium-Radius Long Radius
35°/100Ft R=1637Ft
•  Short-Radius Only went to 79 Deg.
•  Tangent
•  Combination
 Pozos Horizontales
•  The long-radius, medium-radius, and short-radius wells are shown in the figure. The figure contains
their individual attributes. These types have a single build section. It may be noticed that for the same
final departure of the well, the short-radius type of well will intersect more pay formation.
•  However, torque and drag of the drill string may curtail the final departure length of the short-radius
well. The horizontal section will, in most cases, be less than 500 feet.
•  The tangent horizontal well is shown in the figure. Note that the straight section is tangent to both of
the circular sections at each of its ends.
•  The tangent well is popular because it allows the searching of the formation into which the horizontal
section is to be put; that is, the final small turn is not completed until the eminent drilling of the pay
formation is assured.
•  Whereas, the prior three types are a hit or miss proposition once the drill hole is kicked off. However,
the tangent well may have a shorter productive interval than the other types.
•  If a lease boundary or a reservoir terminator exists, the short-radius and the medium-radius wells will
give longer horizontal pay sections.
•  Drilling Tangent
•  The combination horizontal wells usually contain a long-radius in the upper build, a tangent section,
and a medium-radius in the bottom build. The long-radius may reduce costs for the upper and major
build while the tangent section in conjunction with the medium-radius or short-radius bottom build
gives assurance of drilling the horizontal section in the most favorable location in the pay zone.
 Pozos Horizontales
•  Productivity estimates in horizontal wells are subject to more uncertainty than comparable estimates in vertical
wells. Further, it is much more difficult to interpret well test data because of 3D flow geometry. The radial
symmetry usually present in a vertical well does not exist. Several flow regimes can potentially occur and need to
be considered in analysing test data from horizontal wells. Wellbore storage effects can be much more significant
and partial penetration and end effects commonly complicate interpretation.
•  In vertical wells, variables such as average permeability, net vertical thickness, and skin are used. Horizontal wells
need more detail. Not only is vertical thickness important, but the horizontal dimensions of the reservoir, relative
to the horizontal wellbore, need to be known.
•  There are three basic steps in evaluating pressure-transient data from a horizontal well:
•  1. Identify flow regimes: Evaluation of data from a vertical wellbore will generally center on a single flow regime,
such as infinite-acting radial flow, known as the MTR. However, a pressure-transient test in a horizontal well can
involve as many as five major and distinct regimes that need to be identified. These regimes may or may not occur
in a given test and may or may not be obscured by wellbore storage effects.
•  2. Apply the proper procedures: Each flow regime can be modelled by an equation that can be used to estimate
important reservoir properties. At best, only groups of analytical parameters can be determined directly from
equations. It is imperative that the proper analytical and graphical procedures be applied to the data. In many
cases, when solving for specific parameters, the application of these analytical expressions may involve a complex
iterative procedure.
•  3. Evaluate uniqueness and sensitivity: Experience indicates that results of horizontal well test analysis are seldom
unique, so it is important that the uniqueness and sensitivity of the results to assumed properties be evaluated.
Simulation of the test using properties that have been determined from the test can confirm that at least the
analysis is consistent with the test data. A simulator can also determine whether other sets of formation
properties will also lead to a fit of the data.