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Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
A WORW OF OBSIDIAN:
THE MINING AND TRADE OF A VOLCANIC GLASS
IN ANCIENT MEXICO
Robert H. Cobean
University of Pittsburgh
2002
Arqueolog[a de Mexico
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Cobean, Robert H.
Un mundo de obsidiana : mineria y comercio de un vidrio volcE'mico en
el Mexico antiguo = A world of obsidian : the mining and trade of a
volcanic glass in ancient Mexico I Robert H. Cobean.
p. em.- (Arqueologia de Mexico)
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 970182508X
1. Indians of Mexico-Commerce. 2. Indians of Mexico-Implements. 3.
Indians of Mexico-Industries. 4. Stone implements-Mexico. 5.
Obsidian-Mexico-Analysis. 6. Obsidian mines and
mining-Mexico-History. 7. Mexico-Antiquities. I. Title: World of
obsidian. II. Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia (Mexico)
III. University of Pittsburgh. Dept. of Anthropology. IV. Title. V.
Series.
ISBN 970-18-2508-X
List of figures 9
List of tables 17
Preliminary note 19
1. Introduction 23
5. Conclusions 197
Appendix 2. A Summary of Elemental Concentration Data for the Obsidian Source Groups in Mexico 239
Michael D. Glascock and Robert H. Cobean
Bibliography 277
CONTENTS 7
CONTENIDO
Lista de figuras 10
Lista de tablas 18
Nota preliminar 20
1. Introduccion 24
5. Conclusiones 198
Bibliografia 277
8 CONTENIDO
LIST OF FIGURES
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1. The distribution of Mesoamerican obsidian 27
1.2. The distribution of recent volcanic rock formations in Mexico 28
1.3. Obsidian sources within Cenozoic igneous formations in Mexico 30
1.4. The geography of Mexican obsidian sources 32
1.5. Some Mesoamerican archaeological sites mentioned in the text 35
LIST OF FIGURES 9
LlSTA DE FIGURAS
Capitulo 1. Introduccion
1.1. Distribuci6n de yacimientos de obsidiana 27
1.2. Distribuci6n de formaciones recientes de roca vo!c{mica en Mexico. 28
1.3. Yacimientos de obsidiana dentro de las formaciones igneas del Cenozoico en Mexico 30
1.4. Geografia de los yacimientos de obsidiana en Mexico 32
1.5. Algunos sitios arqueol6gicos mesoamericanos mencionados en el texto 35
10 LISTA DE FIGURAS
2.40. The main plaza of Huapalcalco 86
2.41. Fragments of typical bifaces from a workshop at El Pizarrin 87
2.42. Tulancingo: close-up of obsidian blocks exposed along Federal Highway 130 87
2.43. Rancho Tenango, Hidalgo: La Esperanza dam 88
2.44. Rancho Tenango, Hidalgo: the valley east of the La Esperanza dam 88
2.45. Rancho Tenango, Hidalgo: volcanic ash formation 89
2.46. Rancho Tenango, Hidalgo: obsidian flow 89
2.47. Rancho Tenango, Hidalgo: scrapers, macroflake fragment and biface fragments 90
2.48. The town of Tepalzingo, Hidalgo 90
2.49. Tepalzingo, Hidalgo: natural obsidian blocks 91
2.50. Tepalzingo, Hidalgo: natural deposits of obsidian blocks 91
2.51. View of Tepalzingo, Hidalgo 92
2.52. Debitage on the surface of a hilltop workshop about 200 m southeast of Tepalzingo, Hidalgo 92
2.53. Tepalzingo, Hidalgo. Typical crude flakes from the hilltop workshop. 92
2.54. The El Pared6n Source System. 93
2.55. El Pared6n: a massive obsidian flow exposed in a barranca 94
2.56. Typical deforested, eroded countryside of the El Pared6n region 94
2.57. El Pared6n: workshop debitage 95
2.58. El Pared6n: blocks of an obsidian flow 95
2.59. El Pared6n (Lomas locality): zone of obsidian outcrops and workshop debitage 96
2.60. El Pared6n: a "field dump" (Healan 1997: 85) of obsidian blocks 96
2.61. El Pared6n: macrocore 97
2.62. Lomas locality, El Pared6n: basalt hammerstone 98
2.63. Lomas locality, El Pared6n: views of a crested ridge flake 98
2.64. Lomas locality, El Pared6n: unifacially worked flakes 99
2.65. Tres Cabezas locality, El Pared6n: barranca with massive obsidian flow 100
2.66. Tres Cabezas locality, El Pared6n: massive formation of volcanic ash and obsidian in barranca 100
2.67. El Pared6n: debitage from the obsidian workshop on the west side of Tres Cabezas 101
2.68. El Pared6n: debitage, Tres Cabezas workshop. 101
2.69. El Pared6n: small cores 102
2.70. El Pared6n, Tres Cabezas workshop: crested ridge flake 102
2.71. El Pared6n, Tres Cabezas workshop: macroflakes 103
2.72. El Pared6n, Tres Cabezas workshop: scrapers 103
2.73. El Pared6n, Tres Cabezas workshop: biface fragment 104
2.74. El Pared6n, Tres Cabezas workshop: basalt hammerstones 104
2.75. The Otumba, State of Mexico, source system 105
2.76. The Barranca de los Estetes in the Otumba region 106
2.77. Otumba, State of Mexico: grotto-like looted pre-Hispanic mine complex 106
2.78. Otumba region: the entrance of the "La Cueva de Ia Tarasca" mine 107
2.79. Otumba region: massive obsidian flow exposed inside the "La Cueva de Ia Tarasca" mine 108
2.80. Otumba region: discoidal basalt hammerstone 108
2.81. Malpais, Hidalgo: the southeast slope of Lorna Buenavista 109
2.82. Malpais, Hidalgo: the valley between the towns of Emiliano Zapata and Calpulalpan 109
2.83. Malpais, Hidalgo: workshop debitage 109
2.84. Malpais, Hidalgo: Lorna Buenavista workshops - Cores 110
2.85. Malpais, Hidalgo: Lorna Buenavista workshops - Biface fragments 110
2.86. Malpais, Hidalgo: entrance to a probable pre-Hispanic mine 110
2.87. The Zacualtipcin-Metzquititlan, Hidalgo, source system 111
2.88. Huastec-related (Period Vl: 1300-1500 A. D.) ceramics at a site on the northern edge 112
2.89. The system of great barrancas which begin south of Metzquititlan, Hidalgo 112
2.90. Strata of compacted volcanic ash on a roadcut between Metzquititlan and Zacualtipan 113
2.91. Zacualtipan: a trench mine at El Enzuelado 113
2.92. Zacualtipan: debitage surrounding circular pit mines at Centro Forestal 114
LIST OF FIGURES 11
2.40. Plaza principal de Huapalcalco 86
2.41. Fragmentos de bifaciales tipicos, de un taller en El Pizarrin 87
2.42. Tulancingo: acercamiento de bloques de obsidiana expuestos a lo largo de Ia carretera 130 87
2.43. Rancho Tenango, Hidalgo: presa La Esperanza 88
2.44. Rancho Tena:1go, Hidalgo: el valle a! este de Ia presa La Esperanza 88
2.45. Rancho Tenango, Hidalgo: formacion de ceniza volcanica 89
2.46. Rancho Tenango, Hidalgo: afloramiento de obsidiana 89
2.47. Rancho Tenango, Hidalgo: raspadores, fragmento de macrolasca y fragmentos bifaciales de un taller 90
2.48. Pueblo de Tepalzingo, Hidalgo . 90
2.49. Tepalzingo, Hidalgo: bloques naturales de obsidiana 91
2.50. Tepalzingo, Hidalgo: depositos naturales de bloques de obsidiana 91
2.51. Vista de Tepalzingo, Hidalgo 92
2.52. Desechos de talla en Ia superficie de un taller ubicado en Ia cima de una colina, a unos 200 m
a! sureste de Tepalzingo, Hidalgo 92
2.53. Tepalzingo, Hidalgo. Lascas burdas tipicas del taller localizado colina arriba 92
2.54. El Sistema de yacimientos de El Paredon 93
2.55. El Paredon: flujo masivo de obsidiana expuesto en una barranca 94
2.56. Paisaje erosionado, tipicamente deforestado, de Ia region de El Paredon 94
2.57. El Paredon: desechos de talla del taller 95
2.58. El Paredon: bloques de un flujo de obsidiana 95
2.59. El Paredon (localidad de Lomas): Zona de flujos de obsidiana y escombro de taller 96
2.60. El Paredon: un "campo de desecho" de bloques de obsidiana 96
2.61. El Paredon: un macronucleo 97
2.62. Localidad de Lomas, El Paredon: percutor de basalto 98
2.63. Localidad de Lomas, El Paredon: Iasca de cresta 98
2.64. Localidad de Lomas, El Paredon: lascas trabajadas unifacialmente 99
2.65. Localidad de Tres Cabezas, El Paredon: barranca con filon masivo de obsidiana 100
2.66. Localidad de Tres Cabezas, El Paredon: formacion masiva de ceniza volcanica
y obsidiana en Ia barranca 100
2.67. El Paredon: el escombro del taller de obsidiana localizado a! poniente de Tres Cabezas 101
2.68. El Paredon: el escombro del taller de Tres Cabezas 101
2.69. El Paredon: nucleos pequeiios 102
2.70. El Paredon, taller de Tres Cabezas: una Iasca de cresta 102
2.71. El Paredon, taller de Tres Cabezas: macrolascas 103
2.72. El Paredon, taller de Tres Cabezas: raspadores 103
2.73. El Paredon, taller de Tres Cabezas: fragmento de bifacial 104
2.74. El Paredon, taller de Tres Cabezas: percutores de basalto 104
2.75. El Sistema de yacimientos de Otumba, Estado de Mexico 105
2.76. La Barranca de los Estetes en Ia region de Otumba 106
2.77. Otumba, Estado de Mexico: complejo minero prehispanico saqueado, en forma de gruta 106
2.78. Region de Otumba: entrada de Ia mina Hamada "La Cueva de Ia 'farasca" 107
2.79. Region de Otumba: filon masivo de obsidiana expuesto dentro de Ia mina "La Cueva de Ia Tarasca" 108
2.80. Region de Otumba: percutores discoidales de basa!to 108
2.81. Malpais, Hidalgo: ladera sureste de Lorna Buenavista 109
2.82. Malpais, Hidalgo: el valle entre los pueblos de Emiliano Zapata y Calpulalpan 109
2.83. Malpais, Hidalgo: desechos del taller 109
2.84. Malpais, Hidalgo: talleres de Lorna Buenavista 110
2.85. Malpais, Hidalgo: Talleres de Lorna Buenavista: bifaciales 110
2.86. Malpais, Hidalgo. Entrada a una probable mina prehispanica 110
2.87. El Sistema de yacimientos de Zacualtipan - Metzquititlan, Hidalgo 111
2.88. Ceramica relacionada con Ia region huasteca (Periodo VI: 1300-1500 d.C.)
en un sitio en el extrema norte del Valle de Metzquititlan 112
12 LISTA DE FIGURAS
2.93. Zacualtipan: flakes from a core-blade workshop at La Mojonera 115
2.94. Zacualtipan: macrocore from La Mojonera 116
2.95. Views of an improvised core which still has natural cortex: Zacualtipan quarries 116
2.96. Zacualtipan: prismatic blade core from Centro Forestal 117
2.97. Zacualtipan: basalt hammerstones from El Enzuelado workshops 117
2.98. Northern Hidalgo and the northern Gulf Coast 118
2.99. Central Michoacan and Southern Guanajuato 119
2.100. The Ucareo-Zinapecuaro, Michoacan, source system 120
2.101. Shallow doughnut quarry west of Ucareo 122
2.102. Small trench quarry northeast of Ucareo 123
2.103. A "field dump" on the western edge of Ucareo 123
2.104. A macrocore from Healan's survey of the Ucareo quarries 124
2.105. A polyhedral core from a workshop on the western edge of Ucareo 124
2.106. The Zinaparo-Prieto, Michoacan, source area 125
2.107. The Penjamo-Abasolo, Guanajuato, area 126
2.108. The artificial lake of the La Golondrina dam 2.5 km west of Penjamo 128
2.109. Penjamo, Guanajuato: obsidian flow with nodules up to 10 em long in a roadcut 128
2.110. Penjamo, Guanajuato: unworked nodules, discoidal scrapers, flakes and orange-brown sherd 129
2.111. Region of Penjamo, Guanajuato: flows of obsidian and volcanic ash 129
2.112. Northern central Mexico: eastern Guanajuato, Queretaro, southern San Luis Potosi 130
LIST OF FIGURES 13
2.89. Sistema de grandes barrancas que comienza a! sur de Metzquititlan 112
2.90. Estratos de ceniza volcanica compactada en el corte de una carretera
entre Metzquititlan y Zacualtipan 113
2.91. Zacualtipan: cala de una mina en El Enzuelado 113
2.92. Zacualtipan: desechos de talla alrededor de minas en el Centro Forestal 114
2.93. Zacualtipan: lascas de un taller de nucleos y navajas de La Mojonera 115
2.94. Zacualtipan: macronucleo de La Mojonera 116
2.95. Vistas de un nucleo improvisado que aun tiene el cortex natural: Zacualtipan 116
2.96. Zacualtipan: nucleo de navajas prismaticas del Centro Forestal 117
2.97. Zacualtipan: percutores de basalto de los talleres de El Enzuelado 117
2.98. Asentamiento contemporaneo del norte de Hidalgo y del norte de Ia Costa del Golfo 118
2.99. Asentamientos contemporaneos del centro de Michoacan y del sur de Guanajuato 119
2.100. El Sistema de yacimientos Ucareo-Zinapecuaro, Michoacan 120
2.101. Mina en forma de dona a! poniente de Ucareo 122
2.102. Mina de Ia Cala Pequefla al noreste de Ucareo 123
2.103. Un "campo de desecho" en el extrema poniente de Ucareo 123
2.104. Macronucleo de las minas de Ucareo 124
2.105. Nucleo poliedrico procedente de Ucareo 124
2.106. El area de yacimientos de Zinaparo-Prieto, Michoacan 125
2.107. El area de Penjamo-Abaso!o, Guanajuato 126
2.108. Ellago artificial de Ia presa La Golondrina, a 2.5 km a! poniente de Penjamo 128
2.109. Penjamo, Guanajuato: flujo de obsidiana con nodulos de basta 10 em de largo
en un corte de carretera 128
2.110. Penjamo, Guanajuato: nodulos sin trabajar, raspadores discoidales, lascas
y tepalcate naranja-cafe 129
2.111. Region de Penjamo, Guanajuato: filones de obsidiana y ceniza volcanica 129
2.112. Norte del centro de Mexico: este de Guanajuato, Queretaro, sur de San Luis Potosi 130
Capitulo 3. Yacimientos de obsidiana en o cerca de las faldas del volcan Pico de Orizaba
3.1. El oriente del Altiplano Central y Ia costa central del Golfo 133
3.2. Yacimientos de obsidiana en Ia region del volcan Pica de Orizaba 134
3.3. Laderas orientales del volcan Pica de Orizaba 138
3.4. La sierra y los bosques de pino del Valle del Ixtetal 140
3.5. Desechos de minas de mas de 100m de anchura en el Talud 4, minas del Valle dellxtetal 141
3.6. Mapa de las Minas del Valle del Ixtetal 143
3.7. Mina encima del Talud 2, Valle del Ixtetal 144
3.8. Mina encima del Talud 5, Valle del Ixtetal 145
3.9. El Pica de Orizaba vista desde las minas del Valle del Ixtetal 147
3.10. La sierra de riolita de las minas del Valle del Ixtetal 149
3.11. Minas del Valle del Ixtetal: Talud 2 151
3.12. Minas del Valle dellxtetal: Talud 3 152
3.13. Minas del Valle del Ixtetal: Talud 4 153
3.14. Valle del Ixtetal: entrada de Ia mina 154
3.15. Valle dellxtetal: entrada de Ia mina 156
3.16. Minas del Valle del Ixtetal: nucleo grande para laminas 157
3.17. Fragmentos de "pedaceria" de los taludes del Valle del Ixtetal 157
3.18. Lascas de cresta: minas del Valle del Ixtetal 158
3.19. Bifaciales hallados en las minas del Valle del Ixtetal 158
3.20. Nucleos poliedricos agotados y navajas prismaticas de Calcahualco, Veracruz 159
3.21. Edificio de piedra en Ia entrada a Ia mina que se halla encima del Talud 5, minas del Valle del Ixtetal 160
3.22. La meseta que se halla debajo de los taludes de las minas del Valle del Ixtetal 161
3.23. Ceramica de las excavaciones y del recorrido de superficie de las minas del Valle del Ixtetal 162
3.24. Minas del Valle del Ixtetal: ceramica Azteca III negro sabre naranja 163
14 LISTA DE FIGURAS
3.31. Zaragoza, Puebla: crude flakes with cortex from a cobble workshop 176
3.32. Zaragoza, Puebla: macrocore 177
3.33. Zaragoza, Puebla: basalt hammerstone 177
3.34. Oyameles, Puebla: interior of a mine 178
3.35. Oyameles, Puebla: conical cores 178
3.36. Oyameles, Puebla: macroflakes 179
3.37. Oyameles, Puebla: basalt hammerstones 179
3.38. Oyameles, Puebla: a volcanic ash formation containing obsidian flows 179
3.39. Oyameles, Puebla: obsidian flow on the southern edge of the barranca 180
3.40. The site of Cantona 180
3.41. Volcanic ash formation with obsidian flows in the Barranca "El Diablo" 181
3.42. High quality obsidian blocks in the Barranca "El Diablo" south of Oyameles, Puebla 181
3.43. Debitage on the surface of an obsidian workshop south of Oyameles, Puebla 182
3.44. Altotonga, Veracruz: volcanic ash formation containing small obsidian cobbles 182
LIST OF FIGURES 15
3.25. Minas del Valle lxtetal: fragmentos de incensario azteca, Postclasico Tardio 165
3.26. El monumento de La Yerbabuena 168
3.27. Yacimientos de obsidiana al poniente y al norte del Pico de Orizaba 171
3.28. El Pico de Orizaba visto desde el extrema sureste de Guadalupe Victoria, Puebla 173
3.29. El sistema de yacimientos Zaragoza - Oyameles, Puebla 174
3.30. El puente sabre el Rio Acuaco, a un kil6metro al oeste de Zaragoza, Puebla 175
3.31. Zaragoza, Puebla: lascas burdas, con cortex, de un taller de guijarros 176
3.32. Zaragoza, Puebla. Macronucleo 177
3.33. Zaragoza, Puebla. Percutor de basalto 177
3.34. Oyameles, Puebla. Interior de una mina 178
3.35. Oyameles, Puebla. Nucleos c6nicos 178
3.36. Oyameles, Puebla. Macrolascas 179
3.37. Oyameles, Puebla. Percutores de basalto 179
3.38. Oyameles, Puebla: formaci6n de ceniza volcanica que contiene flujos de obsidiana 179
3.39. Oyameles, Puebla: flujo de obsidiana en el extrema sur de Ia barranca 180
3.40. El sitio de Cantona 180
3.41. Formaci6n de ceniza volcanica con flujos de obsidiana en Ia barranca El Diablo 181
3.42. Bloques de obsidiana de alta calidad en el arroyo de Ia barranca El Diablo,
a! sur de Oyameles, Puebla 181
3.43. Desechos en Ia superficie de un taller de obsidiana a! sur de Oyameles, Puebla 182
3.44. Altotonga, Veracruz: formaci6n de ceniza volcanica que contiene pequeiios
cantos de obsidiana expuestos 182
16 LISTA DE FIGURAS
LIST OF TABLES
Appendix 1
Al.l. Eigenvalues and Percentage Variance Explained by Principal Components 232
A1.2. Eigenvectors for the First Six Principal Components 233
A1.3. Posterior classification matrix 234
A1.4. Posterior classification matrix 235
A1.5. Average probabilities for group membership 236
A1.6. Posterior classification matrix 237
Appendix 2
List of geological samples 239
A2.1. Descriptive statistics for Altotonga, Veracruz 257
A2.2. Descriptive statistics for Zaragoza, Puebla 258
A2.3. Descriptive statistics for Pico de Orizaba, Veracruz 259
A2.4. Descriptive statistics for Guadalupe Victoria, Puebla 260
A2.5. Descriptive statistics for Derrumbadas, Puebla 261
A2.6. Descriptive statistics for Paredon, Puebla 262
A2.7. Descriptive statistics for Otumba, State of Mexico 263
A2.8. Descriptive statistics for Malpais, Hidalgo 264
A2.9. Descriptive statistics of Tulancingo, Hidalgo 265
A2.10. Descriptive statistics for Tepalzingo, Hidalgo 266
A2.11. Descriptive statistics for Zacualtipan, Hidalgo 267
A2.12. Descriptive statistics for Sierra de Pachuca-1, Hidalgo 268
A2.13. Descriptive statistics for Sierra de Pachuca-2, Hidalgo 269
A2.14. Descriptive statistics for Sierra de Pachuca-3, Hidalgo 270
A2.15. Descriptive statistics for Ucareo, Michoacan 271
A2.16. Descriptive statistics for Cruz Negra, Michoacan 272
A2.17. Descriptive statistics for Zinapecuaro, Michoacan 273
A2.18. Descriptive statistics for El Paraiso, Queretaro 274
A2.19. Descriptive statistics for Penjamo-1, Guanajuato 275
A2.20. Descriptive statistics for Penjamo-2, Guanajuato 276
UST OF TABLES 17
LISTA DE TABLAS
Aplmdice 1
Al.l. Valores eigen y variancia porcentual explicada por componentes principales 232
A1.2. Vectores eigen para los seis primeros componentes principales 233
Al.3. Matriz de clasificaci6n posterior 234
A1.4. Matriz de clasificaci6n posterior 235
Al.5. Probabilidades promedio de Ia membresia de grupo 236
Al.6. Matriz de clasificaci6n posterior 237
Aplmdice 2
Lista de muestras geol6gicas 239
A2.1. Descripcl6n estadistica para Altotonga, Veracruz 257
A2.2. Descripci6n estadistica para Zaragoza, Puebla 258
A2.3. Descripci6n estadistica para Pico de Orizaba, Veracruz 259
A2.4. Descripci6n estadistica para Guadalupe Victoria, Puebla 260
A2.5. Descripci6n estadistica para Derrumbadas, Puebla 261
A2.6. Descripci6n estadistica para Pared6n, Puebla 262
A2.7. Descripci6n estadistica para Otumba, Estado de Mexico 263
A2.8. Descripci6n estadistica para Malpais, Hidalgo 264
A2.9. Descripci6n estadistica para Tulancingo, Hidalgo 265
A2.10. Descripci6n estadistica para Tepalzingo, Hidalgo 266
A2.1l. Descripci6n estadistica para Zacualtipan, Hidalgo 267
A2.12. Descripci6n estadistica para Sierra de Pachuca-1, Hidalgo 268
A2.13. Descripci6n estadistica para Sierra de Pachuca-2, Hidalgo 269
A2.14. Descripci6n estadistica para Sierra de Pachuca-3, Hidalgo 270
A2.15. Descripci6n estadistica para Ucareo, Michoacan 271
A2.16. Descripci6n estadistica para Cruz Negra, Michoacan 272
A2.17. Descripci6n estadistica para Zanapecuaro, Michoacan 273
A2.18. Descripci6n estadistica para El Paraiso, Queretaro 274
A2.19. Descripci6n estadistica para Penjamo-1, Guanajuato 275
A2.20. Descripci6n estadistica para Penjamo-2, Guanajuato 276
18 LISTA DE TABLAS
PREUMINARY NOTE
This volume reports the results of several investigation projects which extend over more than
two decades starting in 1969. In the surveys of obsidian quarries, I was helped in fundamental
ways by scores of people. It was the idea of Michael D. Coe that I do a preliminary program of
surveys and trace element analyses of ancient Mesoamerican obsidian sources for my under-
graduate thesis at Yale. Prof. Coe's wonderful teaching and his encouragement through the
years always have inspired me as has his extraordinarily encyclopedic knowledge of anthropol-
ogy. Karl K. Turekian of Yale's Geology and Geophysics Department trained me in key aspects
of doing trace element analyses and carefully improved the quality of the results for the chemi-
cal studies of the original geological samples which included sources from both Mexico and
Guatemala and obsidian artifacts.
Initially the majority of the information used to locate and sample obsidian sources came from
publications of Robert Heizer (especially Heizer et at. 1965) and interviews with Jose Luis Lo-
renzo, Francisco Beverido P., Zoltan de Cserna and Edwin Shook. Texts kindly sent by Thomas
Hester helped us locate additional flows in several major source areas. During the 1970's I began
collaborating with Terrance. L. Stocker who mapped and excavated the well preserved ancient
obsidian mines at Pico de Orizaba, Veracruz, and did archaeological and technological studies of
quarries in several parts of Central Mexico. In the early 1970's Richard A. Diehl and Eduardo
Matos Moctezuma helped me get permits and obtain research time to do more source surveys.
In the mid-1970's, I started working with James R. Vogt of the University of Missouri Research
Reactor (MURR) who began an intensive neutron activation analysis project for Mesoamerican
obsidians which was the forerunner of the Missouri Reactor archaeometry program. Jim Vogt's
enthusiasm was the chief factor keeping the Missouri obsidian project going during its early
stage, and it is very sad that he died just as its principal publications began appearing. Robert
M. Brugger, the Director of the MURR during the beginning of the Missouri obsidian program,
helped us in many ways to get funding and continue our analyses.
A more intensive survey and sampling program for obsidian sources was planned and initially
documented during a six month fellowship at the Instituto de Investigaciones Antropol6gicas
of the Universidad Nacional Aut6noma de Mexico during 1979, which was made possible by
Jaime Litvak King, Luis Vargas and Evelyn Rattray. During this fellowship, I began collaborat-
ing with Fernando L6pez Aguilar and Rosalba Nieto Calleja of INAH who did surveys of several
Central Mexican sources, which greatly helped the subsequent trace element sampling pro-
gram. Dolores So to de Arechavaleta of UNAM also supplied me with important information from
her studies ofWest Mexican obsidian sources, and Gianfranco Cassiano of the Escuela Nacional
de Antropologia e Historia began educating me concerning Mesoamerican and Old World lithic
technology. During the UNAM fellowship, Evelyn Rattray permitted me to participate in her
excavations of an Epiclassic obsidian biface workshop at Teotihuacan which was an elightening
experience concerning both lithic technology and rigorous excavation techniques.
In late 1979, Jim Vogt and I received funding from the NSF for a two year Mesoamerican obsid-
ian trace element analysis program. I spent most of 1980 in Mexico surveying and sampling
quarries, obtaining over BOO samples from 25 source areas. Dan Healan, who had begun his
excavations in Tula's ancient obsidian workshops, was a central inspiration in the survey
program, and also gave me space in his project lab to store and process hundreds of source
samples. The state of Hidalgo probably possesses more obsidian flows than any other region in
Mexico, and I spent several months based in Pachuca working with Fernando L6pez, Rosalba
PREUMINARY NOTE 19
NOTA PREUMINAR
A mediados de los aiios setenta, comence a trabajar con James R. Vogt del Reactor de Investi-
gacion de la Universidad de Missouri (MURR), quien inicio un proyecto intensivo de analisis de
activacion de neutrones para obsidianas mesoamericanas, trabajo pionero en el programa de
arqueometria del Reactor de Missouri. El entusiasmo de Jim Vogt fue el factor principal que
mantuvo vivo el proyecto de obsidiana en su primera etapa, y es muy triste que el muriera
jus to en el momenta en que sus primeras publicaciones aparecieron. Robert M. Brugger, direc-
tor del MURR durante el inicio de este programa, ayudo a Vogt y ami de muchas maneras en
la obtencion de fondos para continuar con los analisis.
Una etapa intensiva de documentacion e investigacion de gabinete fue posible gracias a una
estancia de seis meses como becario eri el Instituto de Investigaciones Antropologicas de la
Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, en 1979, gracias al apoyo de Jaime Litvak King,
Luis Vargas y Evelyn Rattray. Durante el periodo de esa beca empece a colaborar con Fernan-
do L6pez Aguilar y Rosalba Nieto Calleja, del INAH, quienes hicieron investigaciones de diversas
fuentes en el centro de Mexico, y cuya ayuda fue muy valiosa en el programa subsecuente de
reconocimientos y muestreo. Dolores Soto de Arechavaleta, de la UNAM, tambien me ofrecio
informacion importante derivada de sus estudios sobre fuentes de obsidiana del Occidente de
Mexico. Asi tambien Gianfranco Cassiano, de la Escuela Nacional de Antropologia e Historia
me documento acerca de la tecnologia litica en Mesoamerica y el Viejo Mundo. Durante la beca
en la UNAM Evelyn Rattray me permiti6 participar en sus excavaciones de un taller de obsidiana
del epiclasico en Teotihuacan, que constituy6 una iluminadora experiencia tanto por lo que se
refiere a tecnologia litica como por las rigurosas tecnicas de excavaci6n de Evelyn.
A finales de 1979, Jim Vogt y yo recibimos fondos de la NSF para un programa de dos aiios de
analisis quimico de obsidiana. Asi, pase casi todo el aiio de 1980 en Mexico en un programa
20 NOTA PREUMINAR
Nieto, Margarita Gaxiola, Raziel Mora and Rafael Abascal of cation of the Missouri obsidian program results, and James
the Centro INAH-Hidalgo. Maureen Ransom ofTulane Univer- Vogt's subsequent death nearly ended the project. During the
sity greatly helped the fieldwork in the Sierra the Pachuca late 1980's most of the survey samples were analyzed or re-
and several other Hidalgo sources. Michael Spence and Thomas analyzed by Michael Glascock, who in a very real way saved
Charlton kindly provided unpublished fieldnotes and maps the Missouri obsidian program and later founded the MURR
from their own investigations which aided the sampling of Archaeometry Program which has been very productive in
sources in Hidalgo and nearby areas of Central Mexico. analyzing a wide variety of archaeological materials in recent
years. Mike Glascock greatly improved the quality and preci-
Most of the sources outside Hidalgo were surveyed in collabo- sion of the trace element analyses presented here and in other
ration with Terrance Stocker who previously had done field- reports of this project. His energy and scientific rigor are con-
work at many sources as part of a University of Illinois Ph. D. tinually impressive.
dissertation project. Terry was a tower of strength and enthu-
siasm who practically dragged me up mountainsides to study This book was written in brief periods during my almost non-
mines and flow systems which were already old friends of his. existent "free time" between fieldseasons and teaching during
His ability to start field days at 5 AM and continue working 1991-1997. During these years I learned considerably more
and driving until after dark was the main reason why key parts concerning the lithic technology and mining techniques of
of the project were completed. In the latest surveys of sources ancient Mesoamerican quarries from colleagues at the ENAH
near Pica de Orizaba, important geographic information con- (especially Gianfranco Cassiano) and from Dan Healan who in
cerning flow systems was provided by Alejandro Pastrana (INAH) 1990 began the most thorough multidisciplinary project ever
and Felipe Bate (ENAH). Pastrana's subsequent investigations done for a Mesoamerican obsidian source system (at Ucareo-
at Pica de Orizaba and the Sierra de Pachuca have helped Zinapecuaro, Michoacan) which of course fits in wonderfully
greatly our understanding of key mine complexes. with the research that Dan did previously excavating obsidian
workshops at Tula. Dan Healan is "Mr. Obsidian" for our
Most of 1981 was spent at MURR collaborating in the prelimi- generation.
nary neutron activation analyses of geological source samples
and obsidian artifacts from several regions of Mesoamerica, Finally this book exists thanks to my wife Alba Guadalupe
which were done by James Vogt, Michael D. Glascock and Mastache, who has helped me in infinite ways over the years,
Christopher Graham. During this period Alice Benfer and and has had the patience to accompany me in revisiting heaps
Margaret Mandeville had important roles in the project, espe- of ancient quarry flakes in many parts of Mexico.
cially in the selection of specific source samples and artifacts
for analysis. Robert Benfer made major contributions in the I wish to thank Prof. Robert D. Drennan of the University of
statistical analyses of the chemical concentrations for sources. Pittsburgh for his valuable support in the editing process of
this book. I also greatly appreciate the efforts of the INAH
My decision to return to Mexico in 1982 to work on the INAH publications staff, especially Sr. Hector Curiel and also of
Tula project and teach at the ENAH frankly delayed the publi- Arqlgo. Antonio Benavides for his excellent translation.
Robert H. Cobean
PREUMINARY N01E 21
intensivo de reconocimiento y muestreo durante el cual tome Benfer y Margaret Mandeville tuvieron un importante papel
mas de 800 muestras de 25 distintos yacimientos. Dan Healan, en este proyecto, especialmente en Ia se!eccion de muestras
quien habia empezado sus excavaciones en Tula en antiguos geologicas y de artefactos para su ancilisis. Robert Benfer hizo
talleres de obsidiana, fue una fuente central de inspiracion en una gran contribucion en analisis estadisticos de las concen-
este programa, e incluso me ofrecio un Iugar en su laboratorio traciones quimicas de yacimientos.
para almacenar y procesar cientos de muestras. El estado de
Hidalgo es probablemente Ia entidad con mas flujos de Mi decision de regresar a Mexico en 1982 para trabajar en el
obsidiana en Mexico, asi que pase varios meses en Pachuca proyecto INAH-Tula y ensenar en Ia ENAH retraso Ia publica-
trabajando con Fernando Lopez, Rosalba Nieto, Margarita cion de los resultados del Proyecto de Obsidiana de Missouri
Gaxiola, Raziel Moray Rafael Abascal, del Centro INAH-Hidal- y Ia muerte de James Vogt casi da por terminado el proyecto.
go. Maureen Ransom, de Ia Universidad de Tulane, apoyo el A finales de los ochenta Ia mayoria de las muestras fueron
trabajo de campo en Ia Sierra de Pachuca y en varias otras analizadas y reanalizadas con mas detalle por Michael
zonas hidalguenses. Michael Spence y Thomas Charlton me Glascock, quien mantuvo vivo el proyecto y mas tarde fundo
ofrecieron amablemente sus notas de campo ineditas y rna- el programa de arqueometria del MURR, que ha sido muy pro-
pas de sus propias investigaciones, lo cual facilito mi trabajo ductivo. Mike Glascock incremento enormemente Ia calidad y
de reconocimiento y muestreo en Hidalgo y areas cercanas. precision de los analisis de elementos presentados aqui y en
otras publicaciones del proyecto. Su energia y rigor cientifico
La mayoria de los flujos de obsidiana fuera de Hidalgo fueron son notables.
investigados en colaboracion con Terrance Stocker, quien pre-
viamente habia hecho trabajo de campo en diversos yacimien- Este libro fue escrito en breves periodos durante mi casi inexis-
tos como parte de un proyecto de tesis de doctorado en Ia tente ((tiempo libre» entre los trabajos de campo y Ia labor como
Universidad de Illinois. Terry fue una torre de fuerza y entu- maestro que desarrolle entre 1991 y 1997. Durante estos anos
siasmo, y practicamente me arrastro a las laderas de las mon- aprendi considerablemente mas acerca de Ia tecnologia litica y
tanas para estudiar minas y sistemas de flujos que le eran ya tecnicas mineras en los antiguos yacimientos mesoamericanos,
familiares. Su habilidad para comenzar el trabajo de campo a gracias a mis colegas de Ia ENAH (principalmente Gianfranco
partir de las cinco de Ia manana y continuar hasta despues Cassiano) y a Dan Heal an, qui en en 1990 inicio el mas completo
de obscurecer fue una razon porIa que varias etapas clave del proyecto multidisciplinario hecho hasta ahora en un sistema
proyecto fueron completadas. Para Ia ultima etapa de investi- mesoamericano de obsidiana (Ucareo-Zinapecuaro, Michoacan),
gacion sobre fuentes de obsidiana cercanas al Pico de Orizaba, que complementaba su investigacion previa de talleres en Tula.
Alejandro Pastrana (INAH) y Felipe Bate (ENAH) ofrecieron impor- Dan Healan es el "Senor Obsidiana" de nuestra generacion.
tante informacion para ubi car algunos flujos. Las subsecuentes
investigaciones de Pastrana en el Pico de Orizaba y Ia Sierra Finalmente, este libro existe gracias ami esposa Alba Guadalupe
de Pachuca, han ayudado a nuestro conocimiento de comple- Mastache, quien me ha ayudado de muchas maneras a lo largo
jos de minas. de anos, y quien ha tenido Ia paciencia para acompanarme a
visitar yacimientos y minas en muchas partes de Mexico. Quie-
Gran parte de 1981lo pase en el MURRcolaborando con James ro agradecer al Prof. Robert D. Drennan de Ia Universidad de
Vogt, Michael D. Glascock y Christopher Graham en los ana- Pittsburgh por su valioso apoyo durante el proceso de edicion
lisis preliminares de activacion de neutrones de muestras de de este libro, asi como al personal de publicaciones del INAH,
los yacimientos y de artefactos de obsidiana provenientes de especialmente a! Sr. Hector Curiel y alArqlgo. Antonio Benavides
varias regiones de Mesoamerica. Durante este periodo, Alice por su excelente labor como traductor.
Robert H. Cobean
22 NOTA PRELIMINAR
1. INTRODUCTION
Obsidian mining* along with the production and trade of obsidian tools, constituted important
processes in the economies of ancient Mexican peoples. The great quarry complexes in the
Sierra de Pachuca (Hidalgo), Ucareo (Michoacan), and others source areas were fundamental
components of the productive forces which produced Mesoamerican civilization, and are key
testimonies concerning pre-Hispanic economic and social structures. These quarries possess
a similar value as cultural patrimony for the understanding of ancient Mexico, as that of the
major palace complexes, markets, residential zones, pyramids and other public works of great
cities such as Teotihuacan and Tenochtitlan. Despite decades of investigations, archaeologists
are only beginning to understand the specific political, economic, social and technological
functions of the ancient obsidian quarries. As will be documented here, thorough studies are
urgently needed because many mining areas are being destroyed by looting, deforestation,
mechanized agriculture and others types of damage.
This report attempts to investigate some of the key economic roles played by obsidian mining
and trade in the development and functioning of Mesoamerican civilization. The main purpos
of this text, however, is more modest, and consists of providing atlas-like descriptions of major
• Obsidian is a naturally occuring glass formed when lavas are cooled so rapidly that they do
not crystallize (Cann et al., 1969: 580, Ericson et al. 1975). By far the most common type of
obsidian is rhyolitic, with high silicon contents of as much as 75% (Friedman, Smith and
Clark, 1963). Low silica (trachytic) obsidian occurs only very rarely. Most obsidians contain
large amounts (at least several per cent) of 0, A1 and K besides Si. Sodium is also common in
obsidian but it often occurs in small enough concentrations to be considered a trace element.
The trace elements which have proven to be useful or diagnostic in previous provenience re-
search include Mn, Zr, Rb, Sr, Y, La, Ba, Sc, Sm, Fe, U, As, Ln, Nb, Na, Ti, Ca, Mg, Th, Ce, Cs,
Gd, Hf, Nd, Zn, Dy, Eu, Hg, Sb, Ta, Tb, Yb, Lu, Li, Mo, Ga, V, Pb, Sn, and Co among others. See
tables in Appendix. The concentrations of these trace elements fluctuate greatly between dif-
ferent sources (sometimes over 1000% between two nearby obsidian flows). The trace element
concentrations within individual obsidian flows, however, generally appear to vary less than
40% between different parts of the same flow (Cann et al., 1969: 582 and Sayre, 1972: 165),
but there are known exceptions to this (cf. Bowman et al., 1973; Zeitlin and Heimbuch, 1978).
The apparent uniformity or proportional correlations in the amounts of trace elements within
a given source is the basis for most methods of associating obsidian artifacts with specific
ancient quarries.
Some provenience studies have been carried out on obsidians which were based on properties
other than trace element chemistry, but these efforts generally have met with very limited suc-
cess (Cann, Dixon, Renfrew, 1969: 578-582). Ordonez (1892) was doing systematic petrographic
analyses of Mexican obsidians late in the nineteenth century. Most standard petrographic
analysis techniques including thin section studies, however, are not capable of distinguishing
between many of the obsidians for a region having as many different sources as Mesoamerica.
Color sometimes provides a fairly diagnostic source Identification trait for obsidian, but most
of the world's major obsidian producing areas including Mesoamerica possess only a few sources
with exotic colored obsidians, such as green or red, while the vast majority of the sources
contain relatively indistinguishable gray or black obsidian (Fuller, 1927; Glascock et al., 1994).
Microscopic analyses of obsidians in thin section or otherwise are generally not helpful in
provenience determination because the high quality obsidians normally used by ancient peoples
for tool malting do not contain enough structural anomalies or crystalline inclusions to allow
for identifications on the basis of their presence. One of the few successful fine scale obsidian
source differentiations which has been done employing some methods other than trace ele-
ment chemistry is the separation of various Mediterranean obsidians by Durrani, Khan, Taj
and Renfrew (1972) by means of the fission track dating technique. This separation, however,
is dependent on trace element chemistry for part of its methodology because fission track
dating requires that the concentrations of uranium in the samples be measured accurately.
INTRODUCTION 23
1. 1NTRODUCCI6N
" La obsidiana es un vidrio natural que se forma cuando Ia lava se enfria tan rapidamente que
no puede cristalizar (Cann et al., 1969: 580; Ericson et al. 1975). El tipo mas comun de obsidiana
es riolitica, con un alto contenido de silicio, que puede llegar a 75o/o (Friedman, Smithy Clark,
1963). La obsidiana con bajo contenido de si!ice (traquitica) se encuentra raramente. La mayo-
ria de las obsidianas contiene grandes cantidades (a! menos cierto porcentaje) de oxigeno,
aluminio y potasio, ademas de si!icio. El sodio tambien es comun en Ia obsidiana, pero a
menudo aparece en pequefias concentraciones de manera suficiente para considerarse como
un elemento traza. Los elementos traza que han probado ser utiles o diagnosticos en los estu-
dios de procedencia son: Mn, Zr, Rb, Sr, Y, La, Ba, Sc, Sm. Fe, U, As, Ln, Nb, Na, Ti, Ca, Mg,
Th, Ce, Cs, Gd, Hf, Nd, Zn, Dy, Eu, Hg, Sb, Ta, Tb, Yb, Lu, Li, Mo, Ga, V, Pb, Sn, y Co, entre
otros. Veanse las tablas del Apendice. Las concentraciones de esos elementos -traza fluctuan
en gran medida entre los distintos yacimientos (algunas veces en mas de 1000o/o entre dos
flujos cercanos de obsidiana). No obstante, las concentraciones de elementos traza en flujos
individuales de obsidiana par lo general parecen variar menos de 40o/o entre distintas partes de
Ia misma veta (Cann et al., 1969: 582 y Sayre, 1972: 165), pero se sabe de excepciones a esta
generalidad (vease Bowman et al., 1973; Zeitlin y Heimbuch, 1978). La uniformidad aparente o
las correlaciones proporciona!es en Ia cantidad de elementos traza de un yacimiento dado es la
base de Ia mayo ria de los metod as para asociar artefactos de obsidiana con yacimientos anti-
guos especificos.
Algunos estudios de procedencia de obsidiana han sido efectuados basandose en otras propie-
dades distinta a Ia quimica de los elementos traza, pero tales esfuerzos par lo general han
tenido un exito muy limitado (Cann, Dixon, Renfrew, 1969: 578-582). A fines del siglo XIX
Ordonez (1892) realizo analisis petrograficos sistematicos de las obsidianas mexicanas. Empe-
ro, Ia mayoria de las tecnicas comunes de analisis petrografico, que incluyen los estudios de
seccion delgada, no permiten distinguir entre las obsidianas de una region con tantos yaci-
mientos como Mesoamerica. En ocasiones el color proporciona un rasgo diagnostico de identi-
ficacion del yacimiento de obsidiana, pero Ia mayoria de las areas proveedoras de obsidiana del
mundo (incluyendo Mesoamerica) solo cuenta con algunos yacimientos de obsidiana con colo-
res exoticos, como verde o rojo, mientras que la gran mayoria de yacirnientos presenta obsidianas
negras o grises dificiles de distinguir entre si (Fuller, 1927; Glascock et al., 1994). Los analisis
microscopicos de la obsidiana en seccion delgada par lo general no son utiles para determinar
Ia procedencia debido a que las obsidianas de alta calidad normalmente usadas par los pue-
blos antiguos para elaborar herramientas no contienen suficientes anomalias estructurales o
inclusiones cristalinas que permitan su identificacion. Una de las pocas diferenciaciones exitosas
de yacimientos de obsidiana a escala fina que se ha logrado, empleando metodos distintos a Ia
quimica de elementos traza, es la separacion de varias obsidianas mediterraneas efectuada
24 INTRODUCCI6N
obsidian sources in several areas of Mexico. These sources tude to that of steel for economies of modern industrial na-
were analyzed by the most rigorous trace element character- tions. Despite this early recognition of the importance of ob-
ization program done to date for Mesoamerican obsidians, sidian mining and trade for ancient Mesoamerican peoples,
which was sponsored by the University of Missouri Research nearly seven decades passed before archaeologists began do-
Reactor Center (Cobean and Vogt, 1979, Cobean et al., 1991, ing much systematic fieldwork investigating pre-Hispanic ob-
Glascock et al. in press). This program has produced many sidian quarries and workshops (Charlton and Spence 1982,
investigations of ancient obsidian trade for specific regions: Cobean 1991).
For example, Braswell and Glascock 1992; Co bean 1991;
Cobean et al., 1991; Darling 1993; Elam 1993; Elam et al. This chapter will discuss briefly key problems involved in the
1990; Garcia et al. 1990; Glascock et al. 1988; 1994, in press; definition and study of Mexican obsidian sources. A disturb-
Healan 1997; Joyce et al. 1995; Stark et al 1992; Trombold et ing aspect of obsidian source studies during the "recent" pe-
al. 1993; and Vogt et al. 1989. The following chapters docu- riod (the last three decades) of archaeological investigation, is
ment the specific proveniences of the obsidian source samples that few long-term projects involving intensive surveys and
analyzed in these investigations. Information also is provided excavations along with systematic trace element sampling pro-
from the Yale Mesoamerican obsidian program, which did the grams have been done. Most Mexican obsidian sources have
first surveys and trace element analyses for some sources not been adequately mapped or defined in terms of basic ar-
(Cobean et al. 1971). chaeological and geological features; nor have they been
sampled with sufficiently systematic methods to permit a thor-
Obsidian mines were among the first archaeological sites in ough trace element characterization (Glascock et al. in press.).
Mexico to be studied by scholars. Humboldt (1814) and Tylor
(1861) both investigated the Siena de Pachuca, Hidalgo quar- THE DEFINITION OF OBSIDIAN SOURCES
ries. Ordonez (1892, 1900) over a century ago produced some
of the best geological analyses of Mexican obsidian flows done Most Mesoamerican obsidian sources are located in two large
to date. During the same period, Holmes (1900, 1919) made regions of volcanism (see fig. 1.1). One region runs east to
the first detailed archaeological survey and excavation of a west from north-central Veracruz through all of Central Mexico
Mexican obsidian mining complex, on the southern slopes of and continues essentially unbroken through the Bajio (of
the Sierra de Pachuca, and in a companion report MacCurdy Queretaro and Guanajuato) and northern Michoacan to the
(1900: 418-419), proposed that the importance of obsidian for Pacific coasts of Jalisco and Nayarit (figs. 1.2, 1.3, 1.4). The
the economies of the ancient Mexicans was similar in magni- other volcanic region is located almost 900 kilometers farther
This study ultimately found that when uranium content was included as a variable, all the sources in the study were distin-
guishable (Perlman et al. 1972: 393).
Obsidian also contains fairly large amounts of water that was trapped during the rapid cooling process and exists within
obsidian almost as a separate chemical entity. This water content helps make obsidian a fairly unstable substance which is
gradually being hydrated into a crystalline material (perlite) over the passage of thousands of years. This unstable nature is the
basis of the obsidian hydration dating technique (Friedman and Smith, 1960; Michels and Tsong, 1980; Ericson, 1988; Garcia-
Barcena, 1974; Meighan, 1976; Freter, 1993). The gradual destruction of obsidians through hydration considerably limits the
number of volcanic regions in the world which are potential sources of obsidian. In general, only lavas that formed sometime
since the beginning of the Tertiary can still possibly contain relatively unaltered obsidian flows (Cann, Dixon and Renfrew,
1969).
Like any other glass, obsidian has a non-crystalline, nearly random molecular structure which causes it to have almost no
jointing or planes of cleavage, and to produce conchoidal fractures when broken (ibid., Crabtree, 1968). Some obsidians contain
inherent flaws, such as crystalline inclusions or interior stresses which make them unsuitable for artifact manufacture, but
when obsidian is relatively free of such defects, it is one of the finest toolmaking materials known to man, producing extremely
sharp i!Jlplements that are not excessively brittle for doing many kinds of utilitarian tasks. Obsidian is generally easier to work
than most kinds of chert and other toolmaking stones, and in regions containing obsidian sources, obsidian is usually by far
the most common material in the lithic inventories of local prehistoric populations.
The pre-Hispanic peoples of Mesoamerica made one of the most extensive uses of obsidian as a material for making both tools
and decorative objects known for any part of the world. Often, the overwhelming majority of the nonceramic artifacts at
Mesoamerican sites are made of obsidian. Obviously, the major reason for the massive exploitation of obsidians by ancient
Mesoamerican peoples is that Mexico and Central America contain some of the largest and most numerous obsidian deposits
of any part of the world.
INTRODUCTION 25
Esta publicaci6n se refiere en parte a algunos de los procesos Las minas de obsidiana fueron algunos de los primeros sitios
econ6micos centrales que desempefiaron la mineria y el inter- arqueol6gicos de Mexico que interesaron a diversos investiga-
cambia y comercio de obsidiana en el desarrollo y el funciona- dores. Humboldt (1814) yTylor (1861) estuvieron en las minas
miento de la civilizaci6n mesoamericana. Pero su prop6sito de la Sierra de Pachuca, Hidalgo: y hace mas de un siglo Ordo-
primordial es proporcionar descripciones basicas de los prin- nez (1892, 1900) elabor6 algunos de los mejores analisis
cipales yacimientos de obsidiana en varias regiones de Mexi- geol6gicos de flujos de obsidiana mexicana realizados hasta
co. Esas fuentes mesoamericanas de abastecimiento de hoy. Durante el mismo periodo, Holmes (1900, 1919) hizo los
obsidiana fueron analizadas como parte del programa de ana- primeros reconocimientos arqueol6gicos detallados y las pri-
lisis de elementos traza mas riguroso que se conoce hasta la meras excavaciones de un complejo minero de obsidiana en
fecha, el estudio fue patrocinado por el Centro de Investiga- las laderas sureflas de la Sierra de Pachuca. En un reporte
ciones del Reactor de la Universidad de Missouri (Cobean y adjunto Mac Curdy (1900: 418-419) plante6 que la importan-
Vogt, 1979: Cobean et al., 1991: Glascock et al., en prensa). cia de la obsidiana para las economias de los antiguos mexica-
Este programa de investigaci6n ha realizado hasta !a fecha nos era de magnitud similar a la del acero para las economias
numerosos estudios relacionados con el intercambio antiguo de las naciones industriales modernas. A pesar de ese tem-
de obsidiana de ciertas regiones, por ejemplo: Braswell y prano reconocimiento de la importancia de la mineria y del
Glascock, 1992: Cobean, 1991: Cobean etal., 1991: Darling, intercambio de obsidiana para los antiguos pueblos mesoa-
1993: Elam, 1993: Elam et al., 1990: Garcia et al., 1990: mericanos, pasaron casi siete decadas antes de que los arque6-
Glascock et al., 1988, 1994, en prensa: Healan, 1997: Joyce logos hicieran trabajo de campo sistematico en la investigaci6n
et al., 1995: Stark et al., 1992: Trombold et al., 1993: y Vogt de las minas y los talleres prehispanicos de obsidiana (Charlton
et al., 1989. Los capitulos siguientes documentan la proce- y Spence, 1982: Cobean, 1991).
dencia especifica de las muestras geol6gicas de los yacimientos
de obsidiana que sirvieron de base para esas investigaciones. Un aspecto preocupante en los estudios de las fuentes de
Tambien me referire al programa de estudio de la obsidiana obsidiana durante las ultimas tres decadas es que se han plan-
denominado "Yale" que realiz6 los primeros reconocimientos teado pocos proyectos a largo plazo que completen levanta-
y analisis de elementos traza de algunos de los yacimientos de mientos, excavaciones intensivas y programas de muestreo
obsidiana que aqui se tratan (Cobean et al., 1971). sistematicos de elementos traza. De gran parte de los yaci-
por Durrani, Khan, Taj y Renfrew (1972) mediante la tecnica de fechamiento de huellas de fision. No obstante, esa separacion
depende de !a quimica de e!emento traza para una parte de su metodologia porque el fechamiento por huella de fision requiere
que !a concentracion de uranio en las muestras pueda medirse con precision. Finalmente, este estudio determino que cuando el
contenido de uranio se incluia como una variable, todas las fuentes analizadas podian distinguirse (Perlman et al., 1972: 393).
La obsidiana tam bien contiene grandes cantidades de agua que quedo atrapada a! tiempo del proceso de nipido enfriamiento y
existe dentro de !a obsidiana casi como una entidad quimica separada. Ese contenido de agua permite que la obsidiana sea una
sustancia muy inestable que gradualmente va hidratandose para transformarse en un material crista!ino (perlita) con el paso
de miles de afi.os. Esta naturaleza inestable es !a base de !a tecnica de fechamiento de hidratacion de la obsidiana (Friedman y
Smith, 1960; Michels y Tsong, 1980; Ericson, 1988; Garcia-Barcena, 1974; Meighan, 1976; Freter, 1993). La destruccion
gradual de las obsidianas a traves de !a hidratacion limita considerablemente el numero de regiones volcanicas del mundo en
el que existen yacimientos potencia!es de obsidiana. Por lo general, solo las lavas que se formaron al comenzar el Terciario a tin
pueden contener flujos de obsidiana relativamente no alterados (Cann, Dixon y Renfrew, 1969).
Como cualquier otro vidrio, !a obsidiana tiene una estructura molecular no crista!ina que hace que casi no tenga pianos de
union ode escision y que produzca fracturas concoidales a! romperse (Crabtree, 1968). Algunas obsidianas contienen imper-
fecciones inherentes, como las inclusiones cristalinas o las fracturas internas que no las hacen adecuadas para la manufactu-
ra de artefactos, pero cuando !a obsidiana esta relativamente !ibre de tales defectos, es uno de los materiales mas finos
conocidos por el hombre para elaborar herramientas. De ella pueden producirse artefactos muy agudos que son resistentes
para realizar muchos tipos de labores. La obsidiana por lo general es mas facil de trabajar que la mayoria de los pedemales y
otras piedras para manufacturar herramientas y en regiones que cuentan con yacimientos, la obsidiana es el material mas
comun en los inventarios liticos de las poblaciones prehistoricas locales.
Los pueblos prehispanicos de Mesoamerica efectuaron a nivel mundial uno de los usos mas extensivos de la obsidiana, tanto
para hacer herramientas como para elaborar objetos decorativos. Es com tin que la enorme cantidad de artefactos no cenimicos
de los sitios mesoamericanos esten hechos de obsidiana. Obviamente, !a razon principal de la exp!otacion masiva de obsidiana
hecha por los pueblos mesoamericanos es que Mexico y America Central cuentan con algunos de los depositos mas abundantes
de obsidiana que existen en cualquier parte del mundo.
26 INTRODUCCI6N
......:· ....' I) 51 I so CE SA ES
.-... {"···· ~:--~"\ II
: :..·:: ')I
EXICO
;·-·
.. "\
r'
.· :. \\
_::;'·····_f~.......... •.
_..,J ··.......--~.;::fJ'·\,., ;~
_._... } 09 :······ ·······r;10
___,.,-'
'7o 0 /11- o...?
i. _,./
·.y/.--·
·...\
'--'Z. '·. ___ ,/\./'=\~~~)----- _Lf
···-.'";..
-~
Figure 1-1. The distribution of Mesoamerican obsidian sources analyzed by the University of Missouri Research Reactor Program.
Figura 1.1. Distrlbucion de yacimientos mesoamericanos de obsidiana anaHzados por el Programa de Reactor de la Universidad de Missouri.
\
•
SIMBOLOGiA
CENOZO/CO
SUPERIOR
VOL CAN/CO
'0 CENOZOICO
MED/0
VOLCANI CO
Figure 1.2. The distribution of recent volcanic rock formations in Me:x::ico. Most major obsidian sources
are in the Late Cenozoic igneous formations.
Figura 1.2. Distribuci6n de formaciones recientes de roca volclinica en Me:x::ico. La mayoria de los
principales yacimientos de obsidiana se encuentra en formaciones igneas del Cenozoico Tardio.
28 INTRODUCCI6N
::·:!:. t~
'•('
INTRODUCTION 29
rnientos de obsidiana no se han elaborado todavia rna pas ade- coy Nayarit en el Pacifico (figs. 1.2, 1.3, 1.4). La otra region
cuados ni se han definido sus caracteristicas geologicas y ar- volcanica se localiza casi 900 kilo metros al sur y corre de este
queol6gicas. Tarnpoco se han tornado rnuestras con rnetodos a oeste desde el extrema occidental de Honduras hasta la cos-
lo suficienternente sisternaticos como para perrnitir una arn- ta del Pacifico de Guatemala y El Salvador. Son pobrernente
plia caracterizacion de elementos traza (Glascock et al., en conocidas tanto la arqueologia como la geologia de buena parte
prensa). Esta introducci6n abordara brevernente los proble- de las regiones de la cordillera a lo largo de la costa del Paci-
mas vinculados con la definicion y el estudio de los yacirnien- fico rnexicano entre arnbas "franjas volcanicas" que tiene flu-
tos rnesoarnericanos de obsidiana. jos de obsidiana y es posible que existan varios yacirnientos
de obsidiana aun desconocidos en las zonas rnontafiosas de
LA DEFINICI6N DE LOS YACIMIENTOS DE OBSIDIANA · Oaxaca, Guerrero y Chiapas (Cobean et al., 1991).
La rnayoria de los yacirnientos de obsidiana rnesoarnericanos Los investigadores han utilizado cuando rnenos tres rnetodos
se localiza en dos grandes regiones volcanicas (ver la fig. 1.1). para definir los yacirnientos de obsidiana de Mesoamerica:
Una region se extiende de oriente a poniente desde el centro- estudios geologicos de la distribucion de aflorarnientos y de
norte de Veracruz, a traves de todo el centro de Mexico y con- depositos de guijarros: estudios arqueol6gicos de minas anti-
tinua de rnanera ininterrurnpida a traves del Bajio (Queretaro guas y analisis quirnicos (principalrnente espectroscopia fluo-
y Guanajuato) y del norte de Michoacan a las costas de Jalis- rescente de rayos X o bien analisis de activacion de neutrones)
CENOZOICO
MED/0
VOL CAN/CO
30 INTRODUCCI6N
south and runs east-west from the western edges of Hondu- The lack of sufficiently detailed geological reports for most
ras to the Pacific coast of Guatemala and El Salvador. Both Mexican obsidian source areas makes it necessary for archae-
the archaeology and the geology of much of the cordillera re- ologists studying ancient obsidian quarries to collaborate with
gions along the Pacific coast of Mexico between these two obsid- geologists. As will be illustrated in the discussions of the Si-
ian-bearing "volcanic strips" are poorly known. Possibly there erra de Pachuca and Ucareo-Zinapecuaro sources, it is very
are a number of unknown obsidian sources in mountainous common that obsidian outcrops are much more extensive than
zones of Oaxaca, Guerrero, or Chiapas (Cobean et al. 1991). the areas of pre-Hispanic obsidian mines and workshops within
them. Another important geological factor in source definition
Scholars have used at least three methods to define obsidian is that a specific volcanic region often contains distinct nearby
sources in Mesoamerica: geological studies of the distribution obsidian flows, which correspond to several eruptions during
of flows and cobble deposits, archaeological investigations of different periods (Cann et al. 1969; Taylor 1976; Ward 1974:
ancient mines, and chemical analysis (mainly via X-ray fluo- Ferriz 1985; Nelson and Healan 1995). It is thus crucial for
rescence spectroscopy or NM neutron-activation analysis) of geologists to define the geographic limits and volcanic history
quarries and artifacts. Using these techniques, over 40 obsid- of obsidian flows in a source area, as part of the archaeologi-
ian sources have been identified in Mexico (including North cal study of the associated pre-Hispanic quarries.
and West Mexico), and at least 12-15 sources are known for
Central Mexico (Ordonez 1892, 1900; Holmes 1900; Breton Problems concerning the archaeological study of obsidian
1905; Heizer et al. 1965; Cobean et al. 1971, 1991; Spence sources will be discussed in more detail in Chapters 3 and 4.
and Parsons 1972; Ramirez 1976; Pastrana 1981, 1996; Ga- The pre-Hispanic exploitation of the principal Mexican obsid-
xiola (ed.) 1981; Charlton and Spence 1982; Nieto and L6pez ian sources lasted thousands of years, and the sequences of
1990; Healan 1991, 1997; Joron et al. 1990; Weigand and associated mines, workshops and habitation sites are so com-
Spence 1982; Soto 1982; Darling 1993; Trombold etat 1993; plex that they only can be investigated by intensive programs
Shackley et al. 1996). of excavations and settlement pattern surveys (Cobean 1991).
Some archaeologists still define obsidian sources as if they
Some of the best geological studies of Mexican obsidians still were islands of mines and workshops isolated in the land-
are the classic works of Ezequiel Ordonez (1892, 1900). An- scape without taking into account their geological contexts or
other pioneer geological report is the study of the Otumba their roles in pre-Hispanic settlement systems. Only five Mexi-
obsidian source by Diaz Lozano (1922) as part of Manuel can source areas possess maps and archaeological surveys
Gamio's multidisciplinary project "La Poblacion del Valle de for significant portions of their flow systems and mines: the
Teotihuacan". Probably the first general summary of geologi- Ixtetal Valley, on the north slope of Pico de Orizaba Volcano,
cal data concerning Mesoamerican obsidian sources is Heizer, Veracruz (Cobean et al. 1971, 1991; Pastrana 1981; Pastrana
Williams and Graham (1965). Recent investigations of Mexi- and Gomez 1988; Stocker and Cobean 1984): the southern
can obsidian quarries done by archaeologists but having a sector of the Sierra de Pachuca, Hidalgo (Holmes 1900, 1919;
strong emphasis on geological features include: Garcia-Bar- Spence and Parsons 1972: Garcia-Barcena 1975: Charlton and
cena (1975); Taylor (ed.) 1976: Pastrana 1981, 1996; Charl- Spence 1982; Nieto and L6pez 1990; Pastrana 1989, 1996;
ton and Spence 1982; Granados Vazquez et al. 1991; Darling Cruz 1994); Ucareo-Zinapecuaro, Michoacan (Healan 1991,
1993, and Healan 1997. A number of contemporary reports 1997): the Tequila Volcano area, in Jalisco (Weigand and
by geologists on rhyolites and other igneous rock formations Spence 1982: Soto 1982; Trombold et al. 1993), and the
provide key information on obsidians for archaeologists: for Huitzila-La Lobera region in Southern Zacatecas (Darling 1993;
example Mooser (1968), Ramirez (1976), Mahood (1981), Ferriz Darling and Hayashida 1995). Of these only Healan's work at
(1985), Seibe and Verma (1988), Joron et al. (1990), Nelson Ucareo-Zinapecuaro, Michoacan, includes an intensive settle-
and Hegre (1990), and Nelson and Healan (1995). In addition, ment pattern survey with a site excavation program for the
the publication since the 1970's by the Mexican government's entire source area.
Direccion General de Estudios del Territorio Nacional
(DETENAL) -and more recently by the Instituto Nacional de Trace element analysis generally can distinguish between
Estadistica, Geografia e Informatica (!NEG!)- of geological nearby obsidian flows that are geologically related, and thus
maps for many regions has aided greatly the study of obsidian is necessary for an adequate definition and study of a source
flow systems. Despite the just cited investigations, it is worth area. To characterize an obsidian source with a high degree of
noting that most purely geological studies do not consider the precision, numerous samples from different flows and other
presence of obsidian as an important phenomenon in the de- geological contexts need to be analyzed for 10-20 trace ele-
scription of rock formations. Rhyolite and other igneous for- ments. The most rigorous chemical analyses in Mesoamerica
mations are described and mapped in detail in these reports, have been done for some obsidian sources in Guatemala
but obsidian flows are seldom considered. (Hurtado de Mendoza and Jester 1978: Asaro et al. 1978: Stross
INTRODUCTION 31
Figure 1.4. The geography of Mexican obsidian sources in relation to major volcanoes, mountain ranges and valleys
(Source: Raisz 1959 with modifications).
Figura 1.4. Geografia de los yacimientos de obsidiana en Mexico en relacion con los principales volcanes, sistemas
montaiiosos y valles (Fuente: Raisz 1959, con modificaciones).
32 INTRODUCCI6N
INTRODUCTION 33
de canteras y de artefactos. Estas tecnicas han permitido iden- cercanos que corresponden a erupciones de periodos diferen-
tificar mas de 40 yacimientos de obsidiana en Mexico (incluyen- tes (Cann etal., 1969; Taylor, 1976; Ward, 1974: Ferriz, 1985;
do el norte y el occidente del pais) y cuando menos se conocen Nelson y Healan, 1995). Para los geologos es crucial definir los
entre 12 y 15 fuentes para el centro de Mexico (Ordonez, 1892, limites geograficos y Ia historia volcanica de las vetas de obsi-
1900: Holmes, 1900; Breton, 1905: Heizer etal., 1965; Cobean diana en una zona como parte del estudio arqueologico de las
et al., 1971, 1991; Spence y Parsons, 1972; Ramirez, 1976; minas prehispanicas asociadas.
Pastrana, 1981, 1996; Gaxiola (ed.), 1981: Charltony Spence,
1982: Nieto y Lopez, 1990; Healan, 1991, 1997; Jom et al., Los problemas que se relacionan con el estudio arqueologico
1990; Weigand y Spence, 1982; Soto, 1982; Darling, 1993; de los yacimientos de obsidiana se discutiran con mayor de-
Trombold et al., 1993; Shackley et al., 1996). talle en los capitulos sobre los yacimientos de obsidiana en
las faldas de volcan Pico de Orizaba y los del occidente de
Algunos de los mejores estudios geologicos de las obsidianas Mexico. La explotacion prehispanica de los principales yaci-
mexicanas son los trabajos clasicos de Ezequiel Ordonez (1892, mientos de obsidiana tuvo Iugar durante miles de aii.os y las
1900). Otro reporte geologico pionero es el estudio del yacimien- secuencias de minas asociadas, talleres y sitios de habitacion
to de obsidiana de otumba elaborado por Diaz Lozano (1922) son tan complejas que solo pueden investigarse mediante pro-
como parte del proyecto multidisciplinario La Poblacion del gramas intensivos del patron de asentamiento y de excava-
Valle de Teotihuacan de Manuel Gamio. Posiblemente el primer cion (Cobean, 1991). Algunos arqueologos todavia definen los
sumario general de informacion geologica relativo a los yaci- yacimientos de obsidiana como si se trataran de minas y talle-
mientos de obsidiana mesoamericana es el de Heizer, Williams res aislados en el paisaje, sin considerar su contexto geologico
y Graham (1965). Investigaciones recientes, con un acentuado o su papel en los sistemas de asentamiento precolombino. Dni-
enfasis en las caracteristicas geologicas de las minas de obsi- camente cinco yacimientos mexicanos cuentan con mapas y
diana mexicanas, efectuadas por arqueologos son las siguien- reconocimientos arqueologicos de extensicines significativas
tes: Garcia-Barcena, 1975: Taylor (ed.), 1976; Pastrana, 1981, de sus minas y sistemas de afloramiento: el Valle de lxtetal en
1996; Charltony Spence, 1982; Granados Vazquez etal., 1991: Ia ladera norte del volcan Pico de Orizaba, Veracruz (Cobean
Darling, 1993, y Healan, 1997. Por su parte, algunos geologos et al., 1971, 1991; Pastrana, 1981; Pastrana y Gomez, 1988:
contemporaneos hicieron varios reportes sobre riolitas y otras Stockery Co bean, 1984): el sector sur de Ia Sierra de Pachuca,
formaciones rocosas igneas que brindan informacion clave a Hidalgo (Holmes, 1900, 1919; Spencey Parsons, 1972: Garcia-
los arqueologos acerca de las obsidianas, por ejemplo: Mooser Barcena, 1975: CharltonySpence, 1982; NietoyL6pez, 1990;
(1968), Ramirez (1976), Mahood (1981), Ferriz (1985), Seibe y Pastrana, 1989, 1996; Cruz, 1994): Ucareo-Zinapecuaro,
Verma (1988), Joron et al., (1990), Nelson y Hegre (1990) y Michoacan (Healan, 1991, 1997): Ia region del volcan Tequila,
Nelson y Healan (1995). Ademas, Ia publicacion de mapas Jalisco (Weigand y Spence, 1982: So to, 1982; Trombold et al.,
geologicos de diversas regiones a partir de los 70, por Ia Di- 1993), y Ia region de Huitzila-La Lobera en el sur de Zacatecas
reccion General de Estudios del Territorio Nacional (Detenal) (Darling, 1993; Darling y Hayashida, 1995). De estos trabajos
y, en Ia actualidad, por el Instituto Nacional de Estadistica, solamente el de Healan en Ucareo-Zinapecuaro, Michoacan,
Geografia e Informatica (INEGI) ha ayudado en gran medida al incluye un reconocimiento intensivo del patron de asentamiento
estudio de los sistemas de flujos de obsidiana. A pesar de las y un programa de excavacion de sitios en Ia zona circundante.
investigaciones arriba citadas, cabe seii.alar que los estudios
geologicos mas especializados no consideran Ia presencia de Generalmente, el analisis de elementos traza permite distin-
obsidiana como un fenomeno importante en Ia descripcion de guir entre flujos cercanos geologicamente relacionados, lo cual
las formaciones rocosas. La riolita y otras formaciones igneas es necesario para Ia apropiada definicion y estudio de un ya-
son descritas y ubicadas en detalle en esos textos, pero los cimiento. Para caracterizar un yacimiento de obsidiana con
yacimientos de obsidiana rara vez son tornados en cuenta. un alto grado de precision se requiere analizar de 10 a 20
elementos traza de numerosas muestras de distintos flujos y
La ausencia de reportes geologicos detallados de Ia mayoria de otros contextos geologicos. Los analisis quimicos mas rigu-
de los yacimientos mexicanos de obsidiana hacen necesario rosos que se han hecho basta Ia fecha en Mesoamerica co-
que los arqueologos que estudian minas antiguas de este ma- rresponden a algunos yacimientos de obsidiana de Guatemala
terial colaboren con los geologos. Como se ilustrara en Ia ex- (Hurtado de Mendozay Jester, 1978; Asaro etal., 1978; Stross
posicion de los yacimientos de Ia Sierra de Pachuca y de et al., 1983; Glascock et al., en prensa) y a los yacimientos de
Ucareo-Zinapecuaro, es muy comun que los flujos o vetas de Ia region del Pico de Orizaba en Veracruz y Puebla (Cobean et
obsidiana sean mas extensos que las minas y talleres al., 1991).
prehispanicos de obsidiana. Otro factor geologico importante
en Ia defmicion de los yacimientos es que una region volcani- Un problema aun sin resolver implica desarrollar amplias es-
ca especifica a menudo contiene distintos filones de obsidiana trategias de muestreo y que sean suficientemente representa-
34 INTRODUCCI6N
et al. 1983; Glascock et al. in press) and the flows in the re- to make possible mapping the total extension of flows and
gion of Pico de Orizaba in Veracruz and Puebla (Cobean et al. plotting the specific contexts of samples. The absence of com-
1991). plete geological and archaeological surveys to define obsidian
sources means that many sampling programs for trace ele-
A problem that remains to be resolved involves developing ment analyses are incomplete because the limits and internal
sufficiently representative and thorough sampling strategies structure for the "universe" of the source area being sampled
for large source areas, which sometimes extend for more than were never determined. The use by Charlton and Spence (1982)
100 square kilometers. The Mesoamerican obsidian program, of the fable "Blind Men and Elephants", to describe the igno-
at the University of Missouri Research Reactor Center, is us- rance of archaeologists concerning obsidian sources is very
ing a systematic methodology for chemical analysis which in- appropriate. Many Mesoamerican obsidian sources only have
cludes plotting the analyzed samples with coordinates on low been "defined" by brief visits of archaeologists or geologists
scale maps (Glascock et al. in press), but many previously lasting less than one day. For one of the best studied source
sampled sources in Mesoamerica lack sufficient information areas (Ucareo-Zinapecuaro, Michoacan), several months of
• Cholchihuites
J
• Lo Quemado
•Uxmol
Poe hue
I '
Zinopecuoro Tulo'
Teotihuocon
Apotzingon I
Bes;on
' Xochicolco ' • Cnolulo
Cholcotzingo
Totumulco
El, Choyol ·Copan
INTRODUCTION 35
tivas de yacimientos que en algunos casos se extienden por geologicas y de elementos traza permiten obtener definiciones
mas de 100 kilometros cuadrados. EI proyecto de Obsidiana validas de yacimientos de obsidiana.
Mesoamericana del Centro de Investigacion del Reactor, de Ia
Universidad de Missouri, utiliza una metodologia sistematica EL PROYECTO DE LA UNIVERSIDAD DE MISSOURI
para efectuar analisis quimicos que incluye Ia ubicacion de
las muestras geologicas analizadas mediante coordenadas en En 1979, el Centro de Investigacion del Reactor de Ia Univer-
mapas a pequetia escala (Glascock et al., en prensa), pero sidad de Missouri inicio un programa de investigacion a largo
muchos yacimientos de Mesoamerica previamente muestrea- plazo de las obsidianas mesoamericanas. El objetivo principal
dos carecen de Ia informacion que se requiere para elaborar el de ese proyecto es definir y diferenciar con mayor precision
mapa de Ia extension total de los flujos y Ia ubicacion de los los principales yacimientos mesoamericanos de obsidiana
contextos especificos de las muestras. La ausencia de recono- mediante el analisis de activacion de neutrones (NAA) de un
cimientos arqueologicos y geologicos completos que permitan gran numero de muestras para mejorar de manera significati-
definir los yacimientos de obsidiana significa que muchos pro- va y definir con mayor precision las minas a que pertenecen
gramas de muestreo para analisis de elementos traza estan determinados artefactos. Como parte de este programa, Co bean
incompletos porque los limites y Ia estructura interna del "uni- trabajo Ia mayor parte de 1980 en Mexico para localizar yaci-
verso" de Ia zona de abastecimiento de donde proviene Ia mues- mientos, colectar muestras y efectuar reconocimientos en co-
tra no ha sido determinada. El uso que Charlton y Spence laboracion con Terrance Stocker y miembros del proyecto de
(1982) hicieran de Ia fabula de "Los hombres ciegos y el ele- Recorrido de Minas y Talleres de Obsidiana del Centro INAH
fante" para describir Ia ignorancia de los arqueologos con re- Hidalgo: Margarita Gaxiola, Rafael Abascal Macias, Fernando
lacion a los yacimientos de obsidiana es muy apropiada. LOpez Aguilar, Rosalba Nieto Calleja y Raziel Mora L6pez. Es-
Muchos yacimientos mesoamericanos de obsidiana solo han tos reconocimientos de campo permitieron obtener 818 mues-
sido "definidos" a traves de breves visitas de arqueologos o de tras (con un peso total de 710 kg) procedentes de mas de 20
geologos con menos de un dia de duracion. Para lograr uno de yacimientos del centro y del oriente de Mexico (vease el Apen-
los mejores estudios de yacimientos (Ucareo-Zinapecuaro, dice 2). Informacion adicional sobre 15 yacimientos fue obte-
Michoacan) se requirio de varios meses de reconocimientos nida previamente por Cobean en reconocimientos que realizo
geologicos y arqueologicos, ademas de un intensivo analisis en 1969 como parte del proyecto de Ia Universidad de Yale
de elementos traza antes de poder determinar que esa region que investigaba el comercio de obsidiana olmeca de San Lo-
contiene un minimo de 'tres fuentes geologicas distintas de renzo Tenochtitlan, Veracruz (Cobean et al., 1971; Cobean,
diversa importancia arqueologica (He alan, 1991, 1997; Nelson 1972, Coe y Diehl, 1980). La procedencia especifica de las
y Healan, 1995; Glascock et al., en prensa). Es obvio que solo muestras de los yacimientos obtenidas para Yale y Missouri
tales combinaciones de investigaciones arqueologicas, sera presentada en los capitulos 2 a 4 yen el Apendice 2.
36 INTRODUCCI6N
archaeological and geological surveys plus an intensive trace racy with which artifacts can be attributed to specific quar-
element analysis program were necessary before it was deter- ries. As part of this program, Cobean spent most of 1980 in
mined that this region contains at least three geologically dis- Mexico collecting source samples and doing surveys in col-
tinct sources of varying archaeological importance (Healan laboration with Terrance Stocker and members of the obsid-
1991, 1997; Nelson and Healan 1995; Glascock et al. in press). ian mine and workshop survey project at the Centro Regional
Obviously, only such combinations of archaeological, geologi- Hidalgo of Mexico's Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e
cal and trace-element investigations make possible valid defi- Historia: Margarita Gaxiola, Rafael Abascal Macias, Fernando
nitions of obsidian source areas. LOpez Aguilar, Rosalba Nieto Calleja, and Raziel Mora LOpez.
This fieldwork obtained 818 samples (weighing a total of 710
THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI PROJECT kilograms) from more than 20 source areas in central and
eastern Mexico (Please see Appendix 2). Additional informa-
In 1979, the Research Reactor Facility of the University of tion concerning 15 sources was obtained in surveys done by
Missouri began a long-term research program for Mesoamer- Cobean in 1969, as part of the Yale University project investi-
ican obsidians. The primary goal of this project has been to gating Olmec obsidian trade at San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan,
define and differentiate better the major Mesoamerican obsid- Veracruz (Cobean et al. 1971, Cobean 1972, Coe and Diehl
ian sources by performing instrumental neutron activation 1980). The specific proveniences of the Yale and Missouri
analyses (INM) on large numbers of source samples. By ful- sources samples, will be presented in chapters 2-4 and in
filling this objective, we hope to improve significantly the accu- Appendix 2.
INTRODUCI'ION 37
2. THE CENtRAL MEXICAN OBSIDIAN SoURCES
At least six major obsidian sources areas have been defmed for Central Mexico: Otumba, Estado
de Mexico; Pared6n (Hidalgo-Puebla); Tulancingo, Hidalgo; Sierra de Pachuca, Hidalgo;
Zacualtipan, Hidalgo; and Ucareo-Zinapecuaro, Michoacan. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 show the ap-
proximate limits of these areas which correspond to the distributions of obsidian flows and
deposits that cover regions much larger than the known extensions of pre-Hispanic quarries in
each source. This definition of the source areas is based on many investigations, including
I
I
I
La Murolla
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
\
\'',Oueri!:toro
\
0 30 40 50
Kilometers
Figure 2.1. Map of sampled obsidian source systems in and near Central Mexico: Michoaciin,
Guanajuato and Queretaro.
Figura 2.1 Mapa de los sistemas de yacimientos de obsidiana muestreados en el centro de Mexico:
Michoaciin, Guanajuato y Queretaro.
En el centro de Mexico se han definido, cuando menos, seis grandes yacimientos de obsidiana:
Otumba, Estado de Mexico; Paredon, Hidalgo-Puebla; Tulancingo, Hidalgo; Sierra de Pachuca,
Hidalgo; Zacualtipan, Hidalgo; y Ucareo-Zinapecuaro, Michoacan. Las figuras 2.1 y 2.2 muestran
los Iimites aproximados de esas areas que corresponden a los afloramientos y depositos de
obsidiana, los cuales cubren regiones mas extensas que las superficies de minas prehispanicas
conocidas en cada yacimiento. Esta definicion de las areas de abastecimiento se basa en diversas
investigaciones entre las que se incluyen: Charlton y Spence, 1982; Cobean y Vogt, 1979;
Figure 2.2. Map of sampled obsidian source systems in and near Central Mexico: Wdalgo and the
State of Mexico. (Partially based on Charlton and Spence 1982: Figure 1, with modifications). Same
scale and symbols as in Figure 2.1.
Figura 2.2. Mapa de los sistemas de yacimientos de obsidiana muestreados en el centro de Mexico:
Hidalgo y el Estado de Mexico. (Parcialmente basado en Charlton y Spence 1982: Figura 1, con
modificaciones.) La escala y los simbolos son los mismos de la Figura 2.1.
What probably is the largest obsidian flow system in Central Humboldt (1814) studied parts of the Sierra de Pachuca obsid-
Mexico is located in the Sierra de Pachuca, approximately 50 ian mines in 1803, and the anthropologist Edward Tylor (1861)
kilometers northeast of Mexico City (fig. 2.2). This was the from a visit he made in 1856 describes them. Until the work of
most important obsidian source in northern Mesoamerica Charlton and Spence (1982) and Pastrana (1989, 1996) and
during pre-Hispanic times and has been known as an archaeo- Cruz (1994), the most thorough investigations of the Pachuca
logical attraction for at least 200 years. Most of the obsidian obsidian mines were those done in the late nineteenth and
in this flow system is a bright green, that appears to be a early twentieth centuries byW. H. Holmes (1900, 1919) of the
unique color among Central Mexican obsidians, most of which Bureau of American Ethnology (fig. 2.6). Ordonez (1900) and
are gray or black. Very smooth translucent green obsidian Breton (1905) present other turn of the century descriptions
predominates in most areas of the Sierra de Pachuca, but of this source. Additional studies of specific mining areas within
coarser varieties of a cloudy, gold-tinted variant, are common the Sierra de Pachuca flow system include Spence and Parsons
in most of the mining complexes surveyed. For decades (1972), Garcia-Barcena (1975), and Nieto and L6pez (1990).
archaeologists have assumed that most green obsidian arti-
facts found in Mesoamerican sites are made from Pachuca Even though there have been archaeological investigations in
obsidian (Vaillant 1935: Table 20; Kidder 1947). the Sierra de Pachuca for over a century, no detailed survey
and excavation program has been done in most areas of the
From Early Formative times (circa 1,200 B. C.) or earlier, Sie- obsidian flow system. The only mining complex which has been
rra de Pachuca obsidian was traded throughout much of mapped in detail is the large zone (nearly 3 square kilometers)
Mesoamerica. It was an important source for prismatic blades on the south flank of the Sierra called El Durazno (Pastrana
in Formative trade networks, although during the Early Form- 1989, 1996; Cruz 1994; fig. 2.5). The map done by Pastrana and
ative the volume of prismatic blade production appears to have Cruz is digitalized for computer analyses and is of excellent
been even higher for the Ucareo-Zinapecuaro and the Pared6n quality, constituting a model for future topographic surveys
sources (Boksenbaumeta!., 1987, CobeanetaL, 1971; Healan, of obsidian quarries.
1997). The Sierra de Pachuca was the principal obsidian source
for most of the major pre-Hispanic Central Mexican states; FLoW SYSTEMS AND QUARRIES
especially Teotihuacan (Spence 1981), Tula (Pastrana 1990;
Healan 1989, Healan et aL 1983) and Tenochtitlan (Charlton Most of the Sierra de Pachuca is so heavily forested and topo-
and Spence 1982; Cassiano 1991). In southern Mesoamerica, graphically complex that it is not surprising so few attempts
archaeological investigation and trace element analyses have have been made to map this region. Based on published reports
produced evidence that the presence ofPachuca obsidian cor- and my own surveys, it appears that obsidian flows extend
relates with the political expansion or "economic imperialism" almost continuously over the entire region in fig. 2.5. The out-
of Central Mexican states (Santley et aL, 1986; Zeitlin 1982; lined zones on this map are where the University of Missouri
Charlton 1978). For example, during the Early Classic apogee project collected geological samples and are not intended to
ofTeotihuacan (ca. A.D. 300-650), there is a marked increase be limits of obsidian outcrops or flows. Most areas between
in the quantity of Pachuca and other Central Mexican obsid- these collection zones also possess obsidian outcrops or flows
ian artifacts at Tikal and other major Lowland Maya centers. and some pre-Hispanic mines.
This correlates with other Teotihuacan influences in ceramic
styles and architecture (Moholy-Nagy etaL 1984; Moholy-Nagy Three zones with large concentrations of pre-Hispanic mines
and Nelson 1987; Spence 1996; Rice etaL 1985; Nelson 1985; are El Durazno, Oyametal, and San Lorenzo Zembo (fig. 2.5).
Vail1988; Dreiss and Brown 1989). DuringTula's Early Post- There are intermittent concentrations of mines on the eastern
classic (A. D. 900-1 ,200) rise, there is an increase in Pachuca edges of the Valle de Ia Hacienda Guajolote (fig. 2.1 0), and
obsidian in northern Yucatan (Kepecs et aL 1994), as docu- fairly dense mining complexes throughout the Zona Central
mented by the recent analyses of Andrews et aL (1989) for the Oeste. The Zona Este collection zone on the eastern edges of
island of Cerritos, which \vas the principal port for the Toltecs the Sierra de Pachuca near the Tulancingo Valley, is a mixture
at Chichen Itza. When the Soconusco region of Chiapas and of very eroded and heavily forested areas where no pre-Hispanic
Figure 2.3. Central Mexico: contemporary settlements, road systems, and some major archaeological sites.
Figura 2.3. Centro de Mexico: Asentamientos contemporaneos, carreteras, y algunos sitios arqueologicos impor-
tantes.
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Figure 2.4. Contemporary towns and villages in the Sierra de Pachuca, Hidalgo.
Figura 2.4. Poblados y comunidades contemporfmeos de Ia Sierra de Pachuca, Wdalgo.
Figure 2.5. Areas within the Sierra de Pachuca where the Missouri Project obtained geological obsidian samples.
Figura 2.5. Areas de Ia Sierra de Pachuca las muestras geo16gicas de obsidiana se obtuvieron para el proyecto de Ia
Universidad de Missouri.
~--------~------- --==-----
Figure 2.6. Drawing published by W. H. Holmes (1900: Fig. 42) of an obsidian mine talus in the Sierra de Pachuca.
(Redrawn by Evidey Castro.)
Figura 2.6. Dibujo publlcado por W. H. Holmes (1900: fig. 42) de un talud minero de obsidiana en Ia Sierra de
Pachuca. (Redibujado por Evidey Castro.)
Charlton and Spence (1982) and Nieto and LOpez (1990) de- The specific chronology for Otumba mines and workshops is
scribe mines and workshops at the Otumba source. Shallow difficult to establish, but most appear to be Late Postclassic
mine pits ranging between 3-15 meters in diameter and 1-2 because the principal associated pottery consists of Late Az-
meters deep occur on ridge tops and along the walls of can- tec types. During the Late Postclassic Otumba may have been
yons surrounding the Soltepec volcano. On some slopes there devoted mainly to biface production, as Clark (1979) has pos-
are shallow horizontal excavations into the flows, which look tulated, but the previously cited trace element analysis along
like rock shelters. The southwest side of the Barranca de los with studies by Spence (1981, 1984) and Ruiz (1981) of the
Estetes has several large mines with cave-like chambers up to Teotihuacan obsidian industry, make it clear that Otumba
4 meters in diameter and with horizontal tunnel systems over obsidian was used extensively to produce prismatic blades
10 meters long. In addition, there are narrow vertical tunnels during the Formative and Classic. Prismatic blades made from
Figure 2.7. Drawing ofmacrocores from the Sierra de Pachuca published by W. H. Holmes (1900: Fig. 45).
(Redrawn by Evidey Castro.)
Figura 2. 7. Dibujo de macronucleos de Ia Sierra de Pachuca publicado por W. H. Holmes (1900: fig. 45).
(Redibujado por Evidey Castro.)
a
'
From HOLMES 1900 Fig. 4 6
Figure 2.8. Reconstruction of the production of obsidian prismatic blades published by W. B. Holmes (1900: Fig.
46). (Redrawn by Evidey Castro.)
Figura 2.8. Reconstrucci6n de la producci6n de navajas prlsmaticas de obsidiana publicada por W. B. Holmes
(1900: fig. 46). (Redibujado por Evidey Castro.)
Figure 2.9. The southwest sector of the Sierra de Pachuca. Looking northwest near
El Durazno.
Figura 2.9. Sector suroeste de Ia Sierra de Pachuca. Mirando bacia el noroeste
cerca de El Durazno.
Figure 2.11. Sierra de Pacbuca: A modern volcanic-ash mine in an ejido on the north-
central edge of El Durazno. The major obsidian-bearing strata begin between 6 and 10
meters below the surface and continue for at least 30 meters farther down. Obsidian
occurs as flows and large (over 1 meter wide) blocks embedded in the ash. Pastrana
(1996: 9 -18, Fig. 6) presents a synthesis of the geology of the Sierra de Pachuca.
Figura 2.11. Sierra de Pachuca: Mina de ceniza volclinica de un ejido moderno en el
e:x:tremo norte - centro de El Durazno. El estrato con mayor cantidad de obsidiana
comienza entre los seis y diez metros debajo de Ia superftcie y continUa bacia abajo
cuando menos por espacio de 30 metros. La obsidiana aparece como filones y como
grandes bloques (de mils de un metro de ancbura) en una matriz de ceniza. Pastrana
(1996: 9 -18, fig. 6) presenta una sintesis de Ia geologia de Ia Sierra de Pacbuca.
Figure 2.12. Sierra de Pachuca: Cruz del Milagro, a mountain on the northeast
edge of El Durazno, the summit of which is covered with shallow conical pit mines
which probably date to before the Postclassic era.
Figura 2.12. Sierra de Pachuca, Cruz del Milagro, en el ex:tremo noreste de El
Durazno. La cima se encuentra cubierta de pozos mineros conicos, de poca profun-
didad, que posiblemente datan de tiempos previos al periodo Postclasico.
\
''
( J
{
Figure 2.29. El Durazno, Sierra de Pachuca: common form of cylindrical basalt hammerstones
with two parallel grooves (probably for the knapper's fingers) in the center of the cylinder.
Figura 2.29. El Durazno, Sierra de Pachuca: forma comfm de los percutores cilindricos de
basalto con dos estrias paralelas (probablemente para los dedos del artesano) al centro del
cilindro.
Figure 2.37. Looted pre-Hispanic Mines on the northern slopes of the Sierra de
Pachuca approximately 1.5 km south of San Lorenzo Zembo, Hidalgo, photo-
graphed in 1969. Surveys in 1980 failed to relocate these quarries, which
probably have been covered by erosion and tree growth.
Figura 2.37. Minas prehisplinicas saqueadas en las laderas norteiias de Ia Sierra
de Pachuca, aprox:imadamente a kil6metro y medio al sur de San Lorenzo
Zembo, Hidalgo, fotografiadas en 1969. Los recorridos de 1980 no permitieron
relocalizar esas zonas de ex:tracci6n, probablemente cubiertas por Ia erosi6n y
el crecimiento de arboles.
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Fuente: INEGI. TULANCINGO F14D82 y HUACHINANGO F14D83 0 2 4km. V~6-: Evidey C~-tro- L
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Figure 2.38. The Tulancingo Source System.
Figura 2.38. El sistema de yacimientos de Tulancingo.
Figure 2.40. The main plaza of Huapalcalco (Late Classic), Valley of Tulancingo, Hidalgo.
Figura 2.40. Plaza principal de Huapalcalco (Cllisico Tardio), Valle de Tulancingo, Hidalgo.
Figure 2.46. Rancho Tenango, Hidalgo: obsidian flow exposed in a barranca about
1.2 km northeast of the La Esperanza dam. The largest obsidian blocks in the flow
measure between 30 and 50 em in diameter.
Figura 2.46. Rancho Tenango, Hidalgo: Afloramiento de obsidiana expuesto en una
barranca a 1.2 kilometros al noreste de Ia Presa La Esperanza. Los bloques de
obsidiana mas grandes del flujo miden de 30 a 50 em de diametro.
Figure 2.50. Tepalzingo, Hidalgo: natural deposits of obsidian blocks (up to 35 em in diameter)
exposed in a roadcut on the northwest edge of the town.
Figura 2.50. Tepalzingo, Hidalgo: Depositos naturales de bloques de obsidiana (basta 35 em de
diametro) expuestos en el corte de una carretera en el e::rtremo noroeste del pueblo.
~------------~~~~----~~~------~~~~~--~----~---.?
... Sn. Apori~!~.:·. ·~-
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fuenti: INE61. CHI6NAHUAPAN E14813.
Figure 2.58. El Pared6n: blocks of an obsidian flow exposed on the surface of the
Lomas locality.
Figura 2.58. El Pared6n: Bloques de un fl.16n de obsidiana expuesto en la superfl.cie
de la localidad de Lomas.
Figure 2.60. El Paredon: a "field dump" (Healan 1997: 85) of obsidian blocks and workshop
debitage at the Lomas locality which was produced by modern farmers when they cleared
obsidian fragments off s~ounding fields.
Figura 2.60. El Paredon: Un "campo de desecho" (Healan, 1997: 85) de bloques de obsidiana y
sobrantes de talla en Ia localidad de Lomas que fue producido por campesinos modemos al
retirar los fragmentos de obsidiana de los campos circundantes.
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 2.64. Lomas locality, El Paredon: Dorsal and ventral views of unifacially
worked flakes.
Figura 2.64. Localidad de Lomas, El Paredon: Vistas dorsal y ventral de lascas
trabajadas unifacialmente.
Figure 2. 72. El Pare don, Tres Cabezas workshop: dorsal views of scrapers.
Figura 2.72. El Paredon, taller de Tres Cabezas: Vistas dorsales de raspadores.
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Figure 2.93. Zacualtiplin: dorsal and ventral views of flakes from a core-blade
workshop at La Mojonera.
Figura 2.93. Zacualtiplin: vistas dorsal y ventral de lascas de un taller de nticleos y
navajas de La Mojonera.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.95. Views of an improvised core which still has natural cortex on its dorsal side, with several flake scars on
its ventral side. Unifacial flake cores worked on fragments still having cortex are common in the Zacualtipan
quarries.
Figura 2.95. Vistas de un nucleo improvisado ailn con el recubrimiento natural en su lado dorsal y varias lineas de
lasqueado en el lado ventral. Nucleo.s de lascas unifaciales trabajados sobre fragmentos con c6rtex son comunes en
las canteras de Zacualtiplin.
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Figure 2.98. Northern Hidalgo and the northern Gulf Coast: contemporary settlement, road systems, and some major
archaeological sites.
Figura 2.98. Asentamiento contemporaneo del norte de Hidalgo y del norte de Ia Costa del Golfo: carreteras y
algunos sitios arqueologicos principales.
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Oibuj6: Evidey Castro Lainez
Figure 2.99. Central Michoacan and Southern Guanajuato: contemporary settlements, road systems, and some major
archaeological sites.
Figura 2.99. Asentamientos contemporaneos del centro de Michoacan y del sur de Guanajuato: carreteras y algunos
sitios arqueologicos principales.
119
TilE CENTRAL MEXICAN OBSIDIAN SOURCES
100.55'
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Fuente: DETENAL, Geol6gica. MARAVAT[O E14A15. Oibuj6:
0 5Km.
~e 2.103. A "field dump" on the western edge of Ucareo (Healan 1997: 87): a pile
of quarry debitage created by modern farmers clearing their fields of pre-Hispanic
materials.
Figura 2.103. Un "campo de desecho" en el e:z:tremo poniente de Ucareo (Healan,
1997: 87): Amontonamiento del desecho de una mina creado por agricultores
modernos a1 retirar los materiales prehisplinicos de sus campos de cultivo.
Figure 2.105. A polyhedral core from a workshop on the western edge of Ucareo.
Figura 2.105. Un nucleo polledrico procedente de un taller del extremo poniente de
Ucareo.
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Fuente:CETENAL,Geol6gica. "PENJAMO" F 14 C 71 D/buj6. Evidey Castro L
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Fuente:CETENAL, Geol6gica."ABASOL0" F 14 C 72 Dibuj6: Evidey Castro L. 5
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+ +
Estado de
GUANAJUATO
Figure 2.112. Northern central Mexico: eastern Guanajuato, Queretaro, southern San Luis Potosi.
Figura 2.112. Norte del centro de Mexico: Este de Guanajuato, Queretaro, sur de San Luis Potosi.
Pico de Orizaba volcano, at 5,700 meters, is the third highest mountain in North America and
the highest peak in Mexico. The Aztecs called it Citlaltepetl, "Mountain of the Star." It is capped
by glaciers and covered by snow year round. Orizaba volcano is located 200 kilometers southeast
of Mexico City and is situated almost exactly on the border between the states of Veracruz and
Puebla. The borderline bisects the volcano and its slopes into eastern (Veracruz side) and west-
em (Puebla side) sectors (fig. 3.3). At least six obsidian outcrops of varying extensions have been
reported in areas on or near the slopes of Pico de Orizaba, and these outcrops probably are part
of 2-3 chemically and geologically different source systems. Most areas on the slopes of all sides
of the volcano possess intermittent concentrations of obsidian cobbles, the majority of which
have not been mapped or sampled thoroughly. Although two important quarry areas have been
studied (the Ixtetal Valley mines and the region around Guadalupe Victoria, Puebla), nearly all
other sectors of Pico de Orizaba have not been surveyed for archaeological sites.
The only extensive pre-Hispanic obsidian mines which have been located near Pico de Orizaba
are on the north slope of the volcano, in a valley which farmers in the nearest settlements call
the "Valle del Ixtetal", the Valley of Obsidian. This valley lies about 20 kilometers northwest of
Coscomatepec, Veracruz, near the Puebla border. The obsidian mines in the Valle del Ixtetal
are often called "Cerro Minas" by people in the nearest communities down slope.
The Ixtetal Valley mines are situated in a densely forested region about 3,500 meters above sea
level (fig. 3.4). They correspond to the "Pico de Orizaba, Veracruz" source reported by the Yale
(Cobean et al, 1971) and Missouri (Cobean et al, 1991) trace element analysis projects. This
quarry area also probably corresponds to the "Pico de Orizaba" source cited by Hester et al.
(1971: fig. 10) and the "Cerro de Minas" source cited by Stross et al. (1976). The Ixtetal Valley
quarry possesses a special importance for the study of ancient Mesoamerican obsidian exploi-
tation for at least four reasons:
1) The lxtetal Valley contains some of the best preserved pre-Hispanic mines in the New World.
No part of them has been damaged by looters, unlike the obsidian quarries of Central Mexico
(especially in the Sierra de Pachuca, Hidalgo and at Otumba, Estado de Mexico) which have
been extensively destroyed by local people seeking obsidian to make souvenirs for tourists.
2) Due to the unlooted nature of the Pico de Orizaba mines, they provide a highly detailed
record of ancient technology in Mexico. Many components of the pre-Hispanic quarrying oper-
ation are still preserved in place where the miners left them at least five centuries ago: There
are at least four unblocked prehistoric mine shafts, most of which contain the original wooden
ladders used by the miners along with stacks of processed high quality obsidian and some
mining tools in place. Near the mine shafts there are standing walls and foundation stones for
buildings where the miners lived and worked. Great amounts of obsidian flakes and other
quarrying and knapping debitage form large taluses below each mine entrance (fig. 3.5, 3.6).
3) The mines are among the few pre-Hispanic obsidian quarries, which can be at least partially
dated with considerable confidence. As will be described below, significant amounts of Late
El volcan Pico de Orizaba, con 5 700 metros de altura, es Ia tercera montana mas alta de
America del Norte y Ia mayor elevacion de Mexico. Los aztecas lo llamaban Citlaltepetl o Mon-
tana de Ia Estrella. Esta coronado por glaciares y cubierto de nieve todo el ano, se localiza a
200 kilometros a! sureste de Ia Ciudad de Mexico y se ubica casi exactamente en los limites de
los estados de Puebla y Veracruz. La linea divisoria separa a! volcan y sus laderas en los
sectores orientales (!ado de Veracruz) y occidentales (!ado de Puebla) (fig. 3.3). Se han reportado
cuando menos seis yacimientos de obsidiana de diversas dimensiones en las zonas que seen-
cuentran en o cerca de las laderas del Pico de Orizaba, esos afloramientos posiblemente forman
parte de dos o tres sistemas de yacimientos geologica y quimicamente diferentes. La mayor
parte de las zonas de las laderas de todos los !ados del volcan tienen concentraciones intermi-
tentes de guijarros de obsidiana y Ia mayoria no han sido registradas en mapas ni se han
tornado muestras suficientes. Si bien se han estudiado dos importantes zonas de extraccion
(las minas del Valle dellxtetal y Ia region alrededor de Guadalupe Victoria, Puebla). casi todos
los demas sectores del Pico de Orizaba no han sido recorridos en busca de sitios arqueologicos.
Las (micas minas de obsidiana prehispanicas grandes que se han localizado cerca del Pico de
Orizaba se encuentran en Ia ladera nmie del volcan, en un valle al que los agricultores de los
poblados mas proximos denominan Valle dellxtetal, el Valle de Ia Obsidiana. Este valle se
halla a unos 20 kilometros al noroeste de Coscomatepec. Veracruz. cerca de los limites con
Puebla. A menudo, las minas de obsidiana del Valle dellxtetal son llamadas Cerro Minas por
habitantes de las comunidades mas cercanas que se localizan ladera abajo.
Las minas del Valle dellxtetal se encuentran en una region densamente arbolada a unos 3 500
metros sobre el nivel del mar (fig. 3.4). Corresponden al yacimiento "Pico de Orizaba, Veracruz".
reportado por los proyectos de analisis de elementos traza de las universidades de Yale (Co bean
et al, 1971) y de Missouri (Cobean et al, 1991). Esta zona de minas posiblemente tambien
corresponde a! yacimiento Pico de Orizaba citado por Hester et al. (1971: fig. 10) y al yacimien-
to Cerro de Minas mencionado por Stross et al. (1976). Las minas del Valle dellxtetal tienen
una importancia especial para el estudio de Ia explotacion de obsidiana mesoamericana cuan-
do menos por cuatro razones:
1) El Valle del Ixtetal contiene algunas de las minas prehispanicas mejor conservadas del
Nuevo Mundo. Ninguna parte de elias ha sido danada por saqueadores. a diferencia de las
minas de obsidiana del centro de Mexico (especialmente en Ia Sierra de Pachuca, Hidalgo y en
Otumba, Estado de Mexico) que han sido afectados vastamente por habitantes locales en bus-
ca de obsidiana para elaborar articulos artesanales para el turismo.
2) La naturaleza intacta de las minas del Pico de Orizaba permite obtener un registro suma-
mente detallado de Ia tecnologia antigua de Mexico. Muchos componentes de Ia operacion
minera precolombina a(m se encuentran in situ en ellugar en donde los dejaron los mineros
hace cuando menos. cinco siglos. Existe un minimo de cuatro tiros de mina prehispanicos no
bloqueados que en su mayoria contienen las escaleras originales de madera usadas por los
mineros junto con los amontonamientos de obsidiana procesada de alta calidad y algunas
Tlachlchuca
Picode
Orizaba
Ciudad Sardan
Figure 3.1. The eastern central Mexican highlands and the central Gulf Coast: contemporazy settlements, road
systems, and some major archaeological sites.
Figura 3.1. Asentamientos contempor{meos, sistemas carreteros y algunos sitios arqueologicos importantes del
oriente del Altiplano Central y de la costa central del Golfo.
II
A
Site arcfratofooica{
0 Modern Town
~
~
Modern City
........, .._ . . /"- State Border
I ZARAGOZA
Cantorta II
I
\
I
\
\
I
I
I
\
I
\
50
Kilometers
THE MINE TUNNELS AND AssOCIATED ARCHITECTURE The Valle de lxtetal taluses and mine shafts are located in the
central portion of a steep canyon wall about 3,500 meters above
The principal mines consist of quarry shafts and debitage ta- sea level on the northern slopes of Orizaba volcano. This can-
luses placed along a steep canyon wall at the base of a cliff. yon is oriented northwest-southeast. The mines and taluses
Seven of the debitage taluses are well preserved, containing are on the northern side of the canyon. The southern side of
hundreds of thousands of obsidian fragments (fig. 3.6). Some the canyon is the primary slope of Orizaba volcano. On clear
of the taluses are as much as 120 meters long and fifty meters days the cone of the volcano is visible directly across the can-
wide. At the top of each talus is a horizontal mine shaft going yon from the mines, with the snow line starting several hun-
into the base of the cliff. At least four of these shafts are rela- dred meters above the level of the tunnel entrances (fig. 3.9).
tively free of rubble and contain extensive tunnel systems
carved into an enormous obsidian flow inside the canyon wall. The north side of the canyon is a narrow ridge (probably less
than two kilometers wide at its base) running northwest-south-
We have found two badly damaged taluses on the mountainside east across the slope of the volcano. Most of the ridge appears
above the seven principal ones (fig. 3.6). These upper taluses to be composed of rhyolite formations and one or more mas-
appear to be older than the seven lower ones. The ob~idian sive flows of obsidian. The top of this ridge above Taluses 1-4
flakes in the upper taluses often are very weathered. Soil and (fig. 3. 1O) consists of column-like masses of rhyolite which
vegetation cover much of the original surface of the taluses. form extensive cliffs. Much of the interior of the ridge beneath
Antes de describir los tuneles de las minas vale la pena pres en-
tar algunos aspectos de su contexto geologico en el Valle del
Olbuj6:
138
YACIMIENTOS DE OBSIDIANA DEL OCCIDEN1E DE MeXICO
An aspect of this reconstruction of techniques, used by the into the rhyolite formation, which composes the bulk of the
pre-Hispanic miners, which will be important in our discus- ridge on the north side of the Ixtetal Valley. Only small patches
sion of the lithic technology of the Ixtetal Valley quarries, is of obsidian are exposed in the rhyolite matrix outside the mine
that a substantial proportion of the debris in the mine taluses entrances. Within a few meters of the entrances inside the
is merely "shatter" or waste fragments oflow quality obsidian, mines, however, the tunnels enter zones of nearly pure obsid-
produced while the miners were excavating tunnels and cham- ian. The obsidian flow system inside the mines contains ex-
bers in the flow (fig. 3.17). A key problem in analyzing the tensive fractures, which probably formed as the flows cooled.
lithic technology of these mines is trying identify which frag- The patterns of these fractures very likely determined many
ments in the taluses are shatter and which are flakes made aspects of how the mines were constructed. The plans of the
while forming macrocores and other products that eventually four explored mines are different in many ways. Apparently
were turned into artifacts (Stocker n. d.). the miners did not have a pre-determined "standard plan" for
excavating the chambers and tunnels, but instead constructed
"High quality" Ixtetal Valley obsidian still contains defects. In the mines according to the specific nature of the obsidian flow.
particular, it almost always possesses tiny crystalline inclu- Tunnels generally appear to follow large fractures within the
sions dispersed throughout its glassy matrix. Cobean (et aL flow. As suggested above, it is probable that the miners' chief
1971: 668) suggested that these inclusions probably made reason for carving out a chamber was to exploit a zone of un-
Orizaba volcano obsidian unsuitable for making prismatic usually high quality obsidian.
blades. This is not true. The workshop, which Stocker found at
Calcahualco, Veracruz (about 15 kilometers downslope from THE MINE ABOVE TALUS 5 (FIG. 3.8)
the Ixtetal Valley mines) contains thousands of prismatic blades
made from Orizaba volcano obsidian (Stocker and Cobean 1984). The entrance of this mine is about 1.5 meters high and 1 meter
Most of the obsidian which we have seen on Orizaba volcano wide. It is at the top of a vertical shaft 2.5 meters deep. At the
(including both the !xtetal Valley mines and the Guadalupe bottom of the shaft is the upper part of a steep talus of obsid-
Victoria, Puebla, outcrops) is cloudy gray with numerous fine ian fragments. This talus goes down another 2.5 meters. Be-
dark gray or black bands running throughout its glassy ma- yond the base of the talus are the entrances to two separate
trix. The Ixtetal Valley obsidian generally appears to be slightly passages. The passage to the west ends within 17 meters.,
more transparent (less cloudy) than the Guadalupe Victoria, but the passage to the east is the beginning of a system of
Puebla, obsidian. Probably in part due to the inclusions, Orizaba tunnels and chambers extending over 70 meters into the mas-
volcano obsidian tends to have a relatively coarse texture when sive obsidian flow at the center of the ri~ge. This system in-
compared with obsidian from some of the major Central Mexi- volves a total descent from the level of the mine entrance of
can sources, such as the Sierra de Pachuca, Hidalgo. Orizaba nearly 14 meters by the time final chamber is reached.
volcano obsidian, however, is not as brittle as the fine textured
"bottle green" Sierra de Pachuca obsidian. The ceiling of the first part of the long tunnel system is low: 70
centimeters or less in most areas. The floor is covered with
THE FOUR SURVEYED MINE TuNNELS small thin fragments of obsidian. The walls are composed of
fractured segments of the obsidian flow exposed by the min-
The data from our explorations of four mine tunnels is pre- ers' levers and hammer-stones. This initial passage is approxi-
liminary and incomplete. We spent only three days exploring mately 14 meters long. It ends in a narrow chamber about 2.5
the tunnels. Pastrana (1981) and Pastrana and Gomez (1988) meters wide, which has a shaft cut into its floor that leads to
published surveys of two other mine tunnels. All seven of the the lower sections of the mine.
lower mine taluses in the Ixtetal Valley have at least one tun-
nel entrance excavated into the hillside above them. It is likely The vertical shaft is about two meters deep. Resting against
that all the tunnel systems are in good enough condition to be its south wall is a pre-Hispanic ladder, which probably is in
explored. The major criteria for deciding to explore the four place where the miners left it at least 500 years ago. The lad-
mines reported here, is that their entrances were relatively der is hewn from a single pine log about 20 centimeters in
free of rubble and other debris. Entrances for additional mine diameter and 2.5 meters long. Groove-like steps for the min-
shafts possibly are buried beneath piles of obsidian fragments ers' feet were carved on one side of the log. All the ancient
in the taluses. The entrance of a mine about 30 meters east of ladders found inside the Ixtetal eal!ey mines are made from
Talus 3 has been blocked by a large boulder, which fell from single pine logs in this simple fashion.
the cliffs above sometime in the past.
At the bottom ofthe ladder is a narrow (1.5 meters wide) pas-
Most of the mine entrances are small, usually about 1 meter sage about 6 meters long, which leads to a small irregularly
wide and 1.5 to 2 meters high (fig. 3.14). They are cut directly shaped chamber about 6 meters long and 2.5 to 3 meters wide
with a ceiling between 1.7 to 2.5 meters high. Along the walls The next chamber is reached through a passage about 3.5
of this chamber are neatly stacked piles ofblocks of high quality meters long and 2 meters wide. There is a 1.7 meter drop at
obsidian. These blocks generally are roughly rectangular in the end of the passage which leads directly into the cham-
shape and measure between 15 to 30 centimeters long and 10 ber. This is the largest room in the mine. It is roughly circu-
to 15 centimeters wide. They probably are the chief products lar with a 3.3 meter diameter and a ceiling 3.3 meter high in
of the mining operation. Normally, the miners eventually would most areas. There are a number of grotto-like sub-chambers
have removed the blocks from the mine so that they could be cut into the walls of this room, some of which are nearly 2
transformed into macrocores for making prismatic blades and meters in diameter. The miners probably were exploiting a
other artifacts. In many areas of the chamber, the stacks of particularly high-grade vein of obsidian in these recessed
obsidian blocks reach the ceiling. areas.
The obsidian exposed in the walls of this chamber appears to Beyond this large chamber there is only one small room be-
be of high quality, much better than the obsidian occurring in fore the tunnel system ends. It is reached through a narrow
the preceding tunnels, which often contains bands of crystal- passage about 2.5 meters long, which starts at the north end
line inclusions and other defects. One wall of this chamber of the large chamber. This passage drops about 2 meters be-
has a completely smooth surface consisting of a band of high fore entering the small room, which is about 2.2 meters wide
quality obsidian nearly 1 meter thick. and 2.5 meters long with a 1.3 meter ceiling.
~· Architecture
Figure 3.6. Map of the Ixtetal Valley mines (based on Stocker and Cobean 1984: Fig. 8.1).
Figura 3.6. Mapa de las minas del Valle del Ixtetal (basado en Stocker y Cobean, 1984: fig. 8.1).
Section A-A
6.1 m. Drop to of
interior Talus
\ 2.4 m.
\.
'\\
1.8 m.
2.1 m. Indicates
'I\ ceiling height
I
I
I
10
meters
Figure 3.7. Mine above Talus 2, Ixtetal Valley (based on Stocker and Cobean 1984: Fig. 8.3).
Figura 3.7. Mina encima del Talud 2, Valle del Ixtetal (basado en Stocker y Cobean, 1984: fig. 8.3).
2.1 m .. Indicates
ceiling height
Pile of
obsidian
blocks Talus
Entrance
(4.3 m. Drop)
Figure 3.8. Mine above Talus 5, Il::tetal Valley (based on Stocker and Cobean 1984: Fig. 8.2). .
Figura 3.8. Mina encima del Talud 5, Valle del Il::tetal (basado en Stocker y Cobean, 1984: fig. 8.2).
Figure 3.9. Pico de Orizaba seen from the Ixtetal Valley mines (looking south).
Figura 3.9. El Pico de Orizo.ba visto desde las minas del Valle del Ixtetal. Mirando bacia el sur.
No hay un mapa de esta mina, solo contamos con algunas Sobre el primer talud hay una pequefla oquedad circular cor-
anotaciones acerca de su sistema de tuneles, que es mucho tada en la pared del tunel, que parece literalmente tallada en
menos extenso que el de lamina que se halla encima delTa- la veta de obsidiana, con los extremos presentando huellas de
lud 5. La primera camara de esta mina contiene una pila de la extraccion de lascas similares a las que observamos en los
bloques de obsidiana de alta calidad amontonados sobre una bifaciales grandes de obsidiana. Ese acceso conduce a un pe-
de las paredes. En la segunda camara encontramos el tronco queflo tiro de unos cuantos metros de largo que corre paralelo
de pino afilado en un extremo, antes descrito, que segura- al tunel principal.
mente fue utilizado como ban·eta y palanca para romper el
flujo de obsidiana y excavar los tuneles. La tercera (y ultima) Tras el segundo talud interior, el tD.nel principal continua as-
camara esta parcialmente inundada. cendiendo hasta finalizar en otro gran talud de fragmentos de
obsidiana. A un lado de ese talud registramos un pequeflo
LA MINA ENCIMA DE LA MITAD OCCIDENTAL percutor de piedra dejado por los mineros.
DEL TALUD 2 (FIG. 3.7)
Es sorprendente que no hayamos encontrado vestigios de an-
La entrada de esta mina esta formada por un tiro vertical de torchas prehispanicas o de otros implementos de iluminacion
unos siete metros de profundidad y al fondo del tiro hay una dentro de las minas, pues los mineros necesitaban de algun
escalera prehispanica apuntalada contra la pared en posicion tipo de iluminacion para trabajar dentro de los tuneles. Segu-
original, labrada en un solo tronco de pino como la escalera ramente cuando las minas sean estudiadas con mayor inten-
hallada en la mina del Talud 5. La camara principal de esta sidad se encontraran antorchas u otros tipos de equipo y
mina comienza junto ala base del tiro. Tiene diez metros de herramientas.
largo, de cuatro a seis metros de ancho y entre 1. 70 y 2. 70
metros de alto. La mayor parte del piso de ese espacio presenta COMENTARIOS
una inclinacion de aproximadamente 45 grados. Hay un talud
de fragmentos de obsidiana de unos cinco metros de largo en El yacimiento del Valle del Ixtetal cuenta con algunos de los
la parte superior de la camara que comienza en la base de la sistemas de tuneles mas extensos que se conocen en minas
escalera prehispanica. En la pared oriente de la camara prin- prehispanicas de obsidiana en Mesoamerica. Los unicos tune-
cipal hay un angosto pasaje cortado junto a la base del tiro de les de minas de obsidiana que posiblemente son mas grandes
entrada, que tiene de uno a 1.30 metros de ancho y unos diez son aquellos de la Sierra de Pachuca, en Hidalgo (Holmes,
metros de largo. Conduce a una pequefla subcamara de unos 1900; Spence y Parsons, 1972; Garcia Barcena, 1975; Pastra-
2. 70 metros de diametro por 70 centimetros de altura. na, 1996). El antiguo sistema de extraccion usado en la Sierra
de Pachuca parece ser distinto del de las minas del Valle del
Ixtetal ya que los tiros de entrada a las minas hidalguenses
at its entrance and continuing for about 15 meters. At the After the second interior talus, the main tunnel continues to
bottom of the shaft is a small hole less than 50 centimeters climb until it terminates in another large talus of obsidian
high, which leads to the rest of the mine. It is strange that the fragments. At one side of this talus, there is a small hammer-
miners never widened this low passage area, which must have stone left by the miners.
hindered considerably the removal of obsidian from the mine.
It is surprising that we did not find remains of pre-Hispanic
The low crawlway extends for several meters, after which a torches or other illumination devices inside the mines. The
large straight tunnel begins, which has a ceiling nearly 2 meters miners needed some kind of lighting device to work inside the
high. At various points along the tunnel are neatly stacked tunnels. It is likely that when the mines are surveyed more
piles containing blocks of high quality obsidian. Most of this thoroughly, torches and other kinds of equipment and tools
tunnel inclines upward. At two places along it, there are steep will be recovered.
taluses of obsidian flakes and debris, with the passage con-
tinuing at the top of each talus. COMMENTS
Above the first talus there is a small circular hole cut into the The Ixtetal Valley quarry has some of the most extensive tun-
tunnel wall. This small entrance appears to be literally knapped nel systems known for pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican obsidian
into the obsidian flow, with its edges having flake scars similar mines. The only obsidian mine tunnels that probably are sub-
to those found on large obsidian bifaces. It leads to a small stantially larger than these are in the Sierra de Pachuca,
shaft a few meters long, which goes parallel to the main tunnel. Hidalgo (Holmes 1900; Spence and Parsons 1972; Garcia
The ridge flakes (fig. 3.18) at the lxtetal Valley quarries were Most cores are between 7-12 centimeters long, with some rare
formed during core manufacture in order to facilitate the pro- examples over 20 centimeters long (figs. 3.16). They generally
duction ofblades with straight edges. They probably often were are between 6-8 centiemeters in diameter, but cores with di-
the first large flake removed from the quarried block of obsid- ameters in excess of 10 centimeters occur occasionally. Most
ian in the process of forming a large blade core. The ancient cores are roughly cylindrical in shape but some, especially
knappers made a straight ridge along the length of the quarry the smaller ones, are conical. Most cores possess between 7-
block by removing a series of small flakes to form two nearly 10 longitudinal flake scars. Most of these scars are irregular
parallel narrow facets, which intersect at an acute angle lon- in outline, and often only one or two of them extend the entire
gitudinally along the block's surface. The knappers then struck length of the core. Many of the cores are "bipolar" in that one
the upper surface of the block (which was going to be used as or two of the flakes were struck off their distal ends. Their
a platform) at a point slightly behind the upper part of the platforms generally are multifaceted, with at least 3.6 flake
ridge (Sanger 1968: 197). This removed the ridge flake and scars. "Natural surfaces" unaltered by flaking often occur on
left a straight flake scar along the length of the block, which 1I 4 to 1/2 of the surface of the cores.
could be used to produce a series, successively straighter flakes
in forming the large blade core. The ridge flakes have a trian- Most of the cores found at the lxtetal Valley mines probably are
gular transverse cross-section. At the lxtetal Valley mines they not representative of the large blade cores, which were the chief
generally have many small flake scars perpendicular to their products of the quarrying operation. The majority of the cores
length on both their dorsal facets, but there are occasional recovered have major defects, such as step fractures or other
examples which possess flake scars on only one dorsal facet. knapping errors, or extensive bands of crystalline inclusions.
They probably are rejects that were discarded by the ancient
We believe that the "ridge flake technique" was one of the ma- knappers. Cores also are much rarer than ridge flakes. We found
jor methods which the knappers at the lxtetal Valley mines between 120-150 blade cores at the mines, while there are thou-
employed to produced large blade cores. The mine taluses sands of ridge flakes in the taluses (Stocker and Cobean 1984).
contain thousands of ridge flakes, which probably constitute Cores are relatively rare at the mines because they probably
Only 3 eroded unidentifiable surface sherds were recovered The excavations did not produce much information concern-
from the excavations in structures No. 2 and 3, which were ing the functions of the structures associated with the lxtetal
terminated at a depth of 70 em. The fill of both these test pits Valley mines. Most of the ceramics recovered, including the
consisted almost entirely of obsidian debitage (Stocker n. d.). Aztec sherds, are from utilitarian or "domestic" vessels that
En 1973 Stocker excav6 cuatro pozos de un metro cuadrado Los pozos practicados en la estructura 4, sabre la meseta,
en estructuras de las minas del Valle dellxtetal (fig. 3.6). Esas produjeron 47 tiestos, la mayor parte muy erosionados. Estas
exploraciones fueron practicadas con niveles de diez centime- excavaciones fueron suspendidas a los 80 centimetros de pro-
tros. El Pozo 1 fue excavado en la esquina sureste de la es- fundidad porque habia ceramica solo en los primeros 30 cen-
tructura numero 2 sabre el talud 2; y el Pozo 2 fue realizado timetros y porque no se hallaron vestigios liticos debajo de los
en la esquina suroeste de la estructura numero 3, sabre el 50 centimetros. Ademas de la ceramica recuperada en las
talud 5. Dos pozos mas fueron hechos en la estructura nume- excavaciones de esta estructura, habia mas de un centenar
ro 4 sabre la meseta que se halla debajo de las minas: el Pozo de tiestos en la superficie o cerca de los siete taludes princi-
3 en la esquina noroeste y el Pozo 4 al centro del inmueble pales de las minas.
(Stocker, Cobean y Swibel, 1974; Stocker y Cobean, 1984).
La mala condici6n de la maymia de la ceramica recuperada
De las excavaciones de las estructuras 2 y 3, que alcanzaron en superficie y en las excavaciones impidieron identificar con
una profundidad de 70 centimetros, s6lo se recuperaron tres certeza la filiaci6n cultural de los pueblos que construyeron
tiestos de superficie erosionados y no identificables. El relle- las minas del Valle del Ixtetal. Con base en los resultados del
Figure 3.21. Stone building at the entrance of the mine above Talus 5, b::tetal Valley mines. Looking north.
Figura 3.21. Edificio de piedra en Ia entrada a Ia mina arriba del Talud 5, minas del Valle del Ixtetal. Vista bacia el
norte.
probably were employed for cooking and serving food. The two regional center near Coscomatepec. Aztec control of the mines
excavated structures above the taluses contained large could not have lasted very long, however, because their con-
amounts of obsidian knapping debris, while the building on quest of this part of Veracruz came late. Aztec tribute records
the plateau contained only small quantities of debitage. It is indicate that the region containing Coscomatepec and the
likely that the structures above the taluses were used as knap- Ixtetal Valley was not conquered until the reign of Axayacatl:
ing areas to process obsidian. We do not know if all the struc- circa 1469-1481 A. D. (Gibson 1971: 379-381).
tures functioned as living places for the miners. The scarcity
of pottery in the two buildings located above Taluses 2 and 5, We possess limited data concerning who controlled the Ixtetal
suggests that they may not have been used as living areas. Valley mines before the Aztec conquest of the area, but we
The major residences for the miners may have been the two assume that mainly local Gulf Coast people worked them.
large structures on the plateau below the taluses (fig. 3.22). Ceramics from the Calcahualco obsidian workshop (fig. 3.3)
indicate a sequence of occupations by local Gulf Coast people
On the basis of the ceramic data, we postulate that during the spanning from the Middle Formative to the Late Postclassic
Late Postclassic the Ixtetal Valley mines were exploited by (Professor Alfonso Medellin Zenil personal communication
people who had ties with the Aztec state. The mines may have 1973). It is very likely that much of the obsidian being worked
been under direct Aztec control. Sixteenth century Spanish at Calcahualco came from the Ixtetal Valley and that local
Relaciones Geograjicas indicate that there was an Aztec impe- people controlled the obsidian production system on the east-
rial garrison and granary complex near Coscomatepec, only ern slopes of Orizaba volcano for centuries. It is ironic that
20 kilometers downslope from the mines (Gerhard 1972: 83). before the Aztec horizon, the period having the best evidence
Pastrana (1991, 1994), on the basis of Aztec tribute records for the political structure of obsidian exploitation in this area,
and other ethnohistorical sources, places the granary at is the Middle Formative over 2,000 years earlier: This conclu-
Coscomatepec (Cuexcomatepec which means "place of the sion is based on trace element analyses and the recent dis-
granary" in mihuatl) and the garrison in the town oflxtayucan covery of a probable Olmec regional center at La Yerbabuena
(Itzteyocan: "place where obsidian is worked") three kilome- (Municipio de Tomatlfm) about 7 kilometers southeast of
ters southeast of Coscomatepec (fig. 3.3). It may well be that Coscomatepec and 25 kilometers east of the Ixtetal Valley
the Aztecs administered the Ixtetal Valley mines from their mines (fig. 3.22, Castro and Cobean 1996).
The site of La Yerbabuena was first identified in 1995, when THE OBSIDIAN WORKSHOP
Evidey Castro, a student at Mexico's Escuela Nacional de
Antropologia e Historia began investigating the provenience of In the eastern periphery of the ceremonial precinct there is an
a fragmentary Olmec monument on display in the main plaza obsidian workshop covering at least 1.5 hectares, which seems
ofTomatlan, Veracruz. Local people told him that the monu- to have produced mainly irregular modified flake tools, simi-
ment had been removed from the base of a pyramid approxi- lar to the ones published by Coe and Diehl (1980: 247-253),
mately 700 meters east of Tomatlan. In June 1996, Castro from Early and Middle Formative occupations at San Lorenzo
and Cobean visited the site and began a preliminary study of Tenochtitlan, Veracruz. The major technique for producing
the monument, which was published the same year. these flake tools, both at La Yerbabuena and at San Lorenzo,
appears to have been "nodule smashing" (Boksenbaum 1980,
La Yerbabuena covers approximately 112 hectares. The cer- Rojas 1990), and many of the flakes at La Yerbabuena are
emonial precinct consists of at least ten large mounds (be- similar to the "obsidian chips", which Lewenstein and Walker
tween 30-50 meters in diameter) and platforms (between 40-80 (1984) studied from a series of Formative cultures in south-
meters long). We located the pyramid where the monument ern Mesoamerica. Some evidence for the production of pris-
was found, and local people told Castro that two fragments of matic blades has been found at the La Yerbabuena workshop.
the monument are still buried at the eastern edge of the pyra- All of the obsidian at this workshop appears to have "cloudy
mid. The surface of the site has fairly dense concentrations of gray banded" coloring typical of the Pico de Orizaba flows.
ceramics, most Middle to Late Formative (circa 600-400 B. C.).
Figure 3.24. Ixtetal Valley mines: Aztec III Black on Orange pottery from the surface survey.
Figura 3.24. Minas del Valle del Ixtetal: Ceramica Azteca Ill negro sobre naranja del reconocimiento de
superficie.
Figure 3.25. b:tetal Valley mines: Late Postclassic Aztec incense-burner fragments from the surface
survey.
Figura 3.25. Minas del Valle del b:tetal: Fragmentos de incensario azteca, Postclasico Tardio, del recono-
cimiento de superficie.
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DibojO: Evidey Castro Lainez
variety of flakes and blades (figs. 3.35/3.36). Some of the eroded blocks of obsidian nearly 1 meter long are common in
larger blades probably are from macrocores. An obsidian flow the stream bed at the bottom of the barranca (fig. 3.42). About
several meters thick is exposed in the sides of the barranca 1. 5 kilometers south of Oyameles we found a biface workshop
running east-west 100 meters north of Oyameles (figs. 3.38/ covering less than one hectare on a small mesa, on the east
3.39). More mines and workshops probably exist on the sides side of the Barranca El Diablo (figs. 3.43). The surface of this
of this barranca for more than 100 meters northeast and zone has moderate densities ofbiface thinning flakes. The only
northwest of Oyameles, but the pine forest is so dense in pottery identified at the workshop was one sherd of probable
these areas that excavations would be necessary to locate Thin Orange (Early Classic). which is surprising because Thin
quarry remains. Orange is rare at nearby Cantona, which had its apogee dur-
ing the Late Classic circa 700-950 A. D. (Garcia Cook and
SOUTH OF 0YAMELES TOWARDS THE SITE Merino 1996: 76, personal communication 1997).
OF CANTONA
The city of Cantona has an area of at least 12 square kilome-
Another enormous obsidian flow exists at the bottom of the ters (ibid: 61), containing many hectares of obsidian workshops.
Barranca "El Diablo", which extends 5 to 7 kilometers south Garcia Cook and Merino currently are surveying workshop com-
of Oyameles towards the plain where the ancient city of plexes within the city and in its immediate area. They repott
Cantona is located (figs. 3.29 /3.40). The existence of obsidian obsidian outcrops south of Cantona at Cerro Pizarro and Cerro
flows in barrancas both north and south of Oyameles, indi- Pinto (fig. 3.29) which have not been analyzed chemically.
cates that the flow system probably exists beneath the sur-
face for many square kilometers in this region, which is what EAST OF ZARAGOZA AND OYAMELES
Ferriz (1985: 367) postulates in his reconstruction of the
Xaltipan Ignimbrite. Most of the obsidian flow occurs below Directly east of the Zaragoza-Oyameles region is the still vol-
formations of volcanic ash often over 15 meters deep (fig. 3.41). canically active Los Humeros Caldera (fig. 3.29). which occu-
The flow varies between about 1.5 and 3.0 meters wide, and pies the center of the Xaltipan Ignimbrite (Ferriz 1985: 367,
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Figure 3.35. Oyameles, Puebla: conical cores (8 em in diameter) from the mines
north of the village.
Figura 3.35. Oyameles, Puebla. Nftcleos conicos (8 em de dilimetro) de las minas al
norte del poblado.
Figura 3.38. Oyameles, Puebla: a volcanic ash formation (over 15 m thick) containing obsidian
flows in the barranca that starts 100 m north of the village.
Figura 3.38. Oyameles, Puebla: Formacion de ceniza volciinica (de mas de 15 m de espesor)
que contiene filones de obsidiana en Ia barranca que comienza a 100 m al norte del poblado.
Figure 3.40. The site of Cantona in 1990 before the extensive excavations of Garcia
Cook and Merino (1996). Looking southeast.
Figura 3.40. El sitio de Cantona en 1990 antes de las excavaciones extensivas de
Garcia Cooky Merino (1996). Vista bacia el sureste.
Breton (1905: 267 -268) based on fieldwork in 1896-1897 describes 4-5 different localities
around Tequila Volcano having obsidian flows or workshops. She also provides an early report
of the great pre-Hispanic center Guachimont6n ("Huaerchi Manton") east ofTeuchitlan on the
south slopes of the volcano (figs. 4. 1I 4.2). She briefly describes three obsidian workshops at
Guachimont6n and another important core workshop on an island on Lake Magdalena, which
probably corresponds to the Las Cuevas island workshop investigated by Weigand and Spence
(1982: 182). Breton reports obsidian flows near the towns ofTequila, Teuchitlan, and possibly
Etzatlan (fig. 4. 1).
The most thorough archaeological investigation of obsidian exploitation in this region is the
project of Weigand and Spence (1982) and Soto (1982) who have located at least 14 obsidian
deposits (many which are chemically unique), mapped mine complexes, and excavated work-
shops. Weigand (1985) has an important long-term project concerning the Teuchitlan cultural
tradition in West Mexico (which peaked around A. D. 500-900). This project is investigating the
socioeconomic institutions of obsidian mining and trade in this culture. Trombold (et al. 1993:
257) summarizes the geological investigations ofTequila Volcano, which span nearly 60 years
since the 1930's. The most useful geological study for obsidian investigations is a recent thesis
by Harris (1986), who identified and did XRF analyses on 12 different rhyolitic flows at Tequila
Volcano, eight of which contain obsidians: Tequila, Santa Teresa, Magdalena, Teuchitlan,
AmatitlAn, Los Sandovales, Los Saavedra, and Balvaneda (Trombold et al. ibid.: figure 1). These
flows have distinct trace element compositions.
Here are brief descriptions of the flows (fig. 4.2) sampled by the Yale project (Cobean et al.
1971, 1991):
TEQUILA, JALISCO
Four kilometers southeast of Tequila, Jalisco, along the highway to Guadalajara, there is a
system of obsidian flows exposed covering several square kilometers (Breton 1905; Ericson and
Aqui solo nos referiremos brevemente a algunos de los principales yacimientos de obsidiana
del occidente y del noreste de Mexico. No obstante que muchas minas de esas regiones fueron
estudiadas desde hace mas de un siglo por Breton (1905) y otros pioneros, aun quedan por
investigarse muchos yacimientos pobremente conocidos o incluso desconocidos. La geologia
de buena parte del occidente de Mexico es muy compleja, constituye una region literalmente
separada porIa Sierra Madre Occidental y el cinturon neovolcanico transmexicano. Incluso las
formaciones geologicas de los sistemas de yacimientos de obsidiana mas intensamente estu-
diados, como el volcan Tequila, en Ia region de Jalisco, son tan complejos que solo hasta
tiempos recientes se ha logrado conciliar las posturas de arqueologos, geologos y cientificos
nucleares con relacion a Ia definicion de yacimientos especificos. Los artefactos del occidente
de Mexico que han sido analizados quimicamente y que presentan composiciones de yacimien-
tos "desconocidos" indican que cuando menos existen entre 20 y 25 yacimientos de obsidiana
en el occidente y noroeste de Mexico (A. Darling, comunicacion personal ). El proyecto de Ia
Universidad de Yale de 1969 solamente efectuo breves recorridos de tres yacimientos de
obsidiana en Jalisco (Tequila, Teuchitlan, y Magdalena) que estan asociadas con el volcan
Tequila (Cobean et aL, 1971). El reconocimiento de 1980 de Ia Universidad de Missouri no
tomo muestras del occidente de Mexico pero en fechas mas recientes el programa de
arqueometria de dicha institucion analiza importantes grupos de muestras de yacimientos de
obsidiana y de artefactos del occidente y del noroeste de Mexico (M. Glascock, comunicacion
personal; Trombold et al., 1993; Darling, 1993; Darling y Hayashida, 1995).
Al tamar como base el trabajo de campo realizado en 1896-1897, Breton (1905: 267-268)
describe de cuatro a cinco distintas localidades alrededor del volcan Tequila que tienen yaci-
mientos de obsidiana o talleres. Tambien proporciona uno de los primeros reportes del gran
centro prehispanico de Guachimont6n ("Huaerchi Manton"), a! oriente de Teuchitlan, en las
laderas sureiias del volcan (figs. 4.1, 4.2). Brevemente describe tres talleres de obsidiana en
Guachimonton y otro importante taller de nucleos en una isla del Lago Magdalena que posible-
mente corresponde a! taller de Ia isla Las Cuevas estudiado por Weigand y Spence (1982: 182).
Breton reporta yacimientos de obsidiana cerca de los poblados de Tequila, Teuchitlan y posi-
blemente Etzatlan (fig. 4.1).
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Figure 4.2. Some obsidian source areas near Tequila Volcano, Jalisco.
Figura 4.2. Algunas areas con yacimientos de obsidiana cerca del volcan Tequila, en Jalisco.
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Sigue: AIIIIECA rl3D63
Figure 4.2. Some obsidian source areas near Tequila Volcano, JaUsco.
Figura 4.2. Algunas areas con yacimientos de obsidiana cerca del volctin Tequila, en JaUsco.
, \
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Figure 4.2. Some obsidian source areas near Tequila Voleano, JaUsco.
Figura 4.2. Algunas areas con yacimientos de obsidiana cerca del volcan Tequila, en JaUsco.
gjiTADO D~
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DIBUJ6: EVIDEY CASTRO LAIHfZ
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ISITIO ARQUEOLOGIC
LOS TORILES
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The majority of the obsidian sources and source systems described here have been defined
principally on the basis of preliminary archaeological surveys, along with limited geological
and chemical investigations. Very few systematic investigations of ancient Mexican obsidian
quarries (involving detailed archaeological, geological and trace element studies) have been
published. In contrast, great numbers of trace element analyses of obsidian artifacts, from
specific sites or regions investigating Mesoamerican trade systems, have been done during the
last three decades (Skinner and Tremaine 1993).
The trace element analyses have documented striking changes in quarry exploitation and trade
for specific obsidian sources through time. These changes often have little to do with the geo-
graphic proximity of specific sources to the sites being studied: Recent surveys of obsidian
trade in key regions of Mesoamerica, such as the Maya Lowlands (Nelson and Clark in press).
the Valley of Oaxaca (Elam 1993) and the Basin of Mexico (Charlton and Spence 1982, Co bean
1991). generally identify different groups of sources being the main providers of obsidian for
each area during different periods. It is especially common that the obsidian sources used by
the peoples of these areas differ greatly between the Formative and Classic periods, and often
also between the Classic and Postclassic. Economic and political processes in the development
and expansion of major Mesoamerican states caused these changes in obsidian trade systems
and source utilization patterns.
The first clearly identified period of wide-ranging long distance trade of obsidian in Mesoamerica
was the Early Formative (1300-900 B. C.), coinciding with the development of the first strati-
fied society in Mesoamerica: the Olmec (Covarrubias 1946, Bernal1968, Coe and Diehl1980,
Clark and Suarez 1994). The principal obsidian quarries used by the Gulf Coast Olmec cen-
ters, such as San Lorenzo Tenochtitlcin, Tres Zapotes and La Venta, were from two source
systems in the Pico de Orizaba region: the Guadalupe Victoria and the Zaragoza-Oyameles
systems in Puebla (Cobean et al. 1971, 1991: Hester et al. 1971: Ferriz 1985). Other quarries
with significant quantities of obsidian traded to the Gulf Coast Olmec include El Chayal and
Ixtepeque, in Guatemala, and four Central Mexican sources: Sierra de Pachuca, Pared6n,
Otumba and Ucareo-Zinapecuaro.
An unexpected technological correlation, which is present in the trace element analysis re-
sults for the Early and Middle Formative, is that most of the earliest prismatic blades in the
Gulf Coast Olmec centers (and in Highland Olmec sites) are made of obsidian from Ucareo, El
Pared6n or Otumba, instead of material from sources closer to Veracruz and Tabasco. Pris-
matic blade technology apparently was an innovation of Formative peoples in the Central
Highlands and not of the Olmec (Boksenbaum et al. 1987). Similarly, Grove (1974) has shown
that some of the cultural elements of the "Highland Olmec" were of local origin or were re-
sults of contacts with West Mexican peoples and not the Gulf Coast Olmec. In the case of
prismatic blades, it appears that the Gulf Coast Olmec soon were exporting a technology that
they did not invent, because as Clark (1987) has suggested in Early and Middle Formative
Southern Mesoamerica, there is a probable correlation between the spread of prismatic blade
technology, the appearance of Gulf Coast Olmec-style ceramic complexes and the rise of
social stratification. The social and economic contexts of the Formative spread of prismatic
blade technology now is being investigated and debated in detail (Jackson and Love 1991,
Awe and Healy 1994).
CONCWSIONS 197
5. CONCLUSIONES
La mayo ria de los yacimientos de obsidiana y sistemas de flujos aqui descritos han sido defini-
dos principalmente con base en reconocimientos arqueologicos preliminares y en escasos es-
tudios quimicos y geologicos. Se han publicado muy pocas investigaciones sistematicas de las
minas antiguas de obsidiana de Mexico en las que se incluyan estudios detallados de canicter
arqueologico, geologico o de elementos traza. En contraste, durante las ultimas tres decadas se
ha efectuado un gran numero de anaJisis de elementos traza de artefactos de obsidiana proce-
dentes de sitios o regiones especificos para investigar con base en la obsidiana la estructura de
los sistemas mesoamericano de comercio (Skinner y Tremaine, 1993).
El primer periodo claramente identificado de amplia variacion del comercio de obsidiana a gran
distancia en Mesoamerica fue el Formativo Temprano (1300-900 a.C.) que coincidio con el desa-
lTollo de la primera sociedad estratificada de Mesoamerica: los olmecas (Covarrubias, 1946;
Bernal, 1968; Coe y Diehl, 1980; Clark y Suarez, 1994). Las principales minas de obsidiana que
usaron los centros olmecas de la costa del Golfo como San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan, Tres Zapotes y
La Venta fueron dos yacimientos de la region del Pico de Orizaba: los sistemas de Guadalupe
Victoria y de Zaragoza-Oyameles, en Puebla (Cobean et at, 1971; 1991; Hester et at, 1971;
Ferriz, 1985). Otras minas con importantes cantidades de obsidiana obtenida por comercio con
los olmecas de la costa del Golfo incluyen El Chayal e Ixtepeque en Guatemala, y cuatro yaci-
mientos del centro de Mexico: la Sierra de Pachuca, Paredon, Otumba y Ucareo-Zinapecuaro.
Una inesperada correlacion tecnologica presente en los resultados de los analisis de elementos
traza de mater.iales del Formativo Temprano y Medio, muestra que la mayoria de las primeras
navajas prismaticas de los centros olmecas de la costa del Golfo (y en los sitios olmecas de las
tierras altas) estan hechas con obsidiana de Ucareo, El Paredon u Otumba, en lugar de haber-
se usado material de yacimientos mas cercanos a Veracruz y Tabasco. Aparentemente la tec-
nologia de las navajas prismaticas fue una innovacion de pueblos del Formativo del centro de
las tierras altas y no de los olmecas (Boksenbaum et at, 1987). De manera similar, Grove
(1974) ha demostrado que algunos de los elementos culturales de los "olmecas de las tierras
altas" fueron de origen local o bien resultado de los contactos con pueblos del occidente de
Mexico y no de los olmecas de la costa del Golfo. En el caso de las navajas prismaticas, parece
ser que los olmecas de la costa del Golfo pronto estuvieron exportando una tecnologia que no
habian inventado, porque como Clark (1987) ha sugerido para el Formativo Temprano y Medio
198 CONCWSIONES
More obsidian artifact trace element analyses have been pub- material (Healy et al. 1984, Gudeijan et at 1989, Vail 1988).
lished for the Lowland Classic Maya than for any other Even though detailed trace element analyses exist for some
Mesoamerican people. The principal source systems that sup- Guatemalan obsidian quarries (Asaro et at 1978, Stross et at
plied obsidian to the Classic Lowland Maya Centers, were El 1983, Hurtado de Mendoza and Jester 1978), the only inten-
Chayal and Ixtepeque, in Guatemala (Hammond 1972, Nelson sive archaeological survey of a major Guatemalan source is
and Clark in press), but significant quantities of Central Mexi- Braswell's work at San Martin Jilotepeque (Glascock et at in
can obsidians (especially from the Sierra de Pachuca, press). The initial surveys of Sidrys et al. (1975), Clark (1981)
Tulancingo, Otumba and Ucareo-Zinapecuaro) have been iden- and others of Guatemalan quarries need to be complemented
tified at Tikal and other Maya centers (Moholy-Nagy et al. 1984, before we can begin to understand the political and economic
Moholy-Nagy and Nelson 1990, Nelson and Howard 1986, institutions of Maya obsidian trade.
Nelson and Clark in press). Central Mexican obsidians gener-
ally are not sufficiently common in Classic Maya lithics as- Numerous debates among archaeologists (similar to the ones
semblages to have constituted a key resource for the Maya about Maya trade) exist concerning the nature and the eco-
economy (Spence 1996): Generally the presence of these for- nomic significance of obsidian mining and trade for peoples in
eign obsidians probably is more the result of prestige rela- the Central Mexican Highlands during the Classic: These in-
tionships between Maya and Mexican elites or other types of vestigations mainly have evaluated the importance of obsid-
long distance cultural contacts. The fairly common occurrence ian tool production in the origins and expansion of the
of Pachuca green obsidian in Maya building and burial offer- Teotihuacan state, and have produced two alternative hypoth-
ings probably was due to the religious or other symbolic value eses: One model (based principally on surface survey data from
of its exotic color. Teotihuacan and elsewhere in the Central Highlands) proposes
the existence of a great obsidian tool industry having 80-100
The changing panorama of economic models and reconstruc- workshops at Teotihuacan during its apogee between 300-650
tions of ancient Maya obsidian trade over the last 25 years, A. D. The products of these workshops (mainly prismatic blades
probably is indicative of what will happen in the study of other and bifaces) were distributed to many areas in Central Mexico
Mesoamerican cultures when we have more artifact trace ele- and southern Mesoamerica via a complex commercial system
ment analyses for them. As more and more trace element pro- (Spence 1981, 1984; Charlton and Spence 1982; Charlton
venience studies were done for Maya lithics complexes, the 1978; Santley 1983, 1984). The opposing model (supported
archaeological models and reconstructions for ancient obsid- by technological and statistical calculations of the produc-
ian trading systems became increasingly complicated; mak- tion, transport and consumption of obsidian tools) postulates
ing the processes of Maya trade seem highly complex, even a less important role for obsidian in the Teotihuacan economy,
though we only are beginning to understand them. Formative calculating that fewer Teotihuacan obsidian workshops ex-
period Maya obsidian trade appears to have had different isted and that a lower volume of tools were exported because
source exploitation patterns from those of the Classic period. of the high human energy cost oflong distance transport dur-
Trace element studies indicate that during the Middle and Late ing pre-Hispanic times (Clark 1986; Drennan 1984, 1994).
Formative, San Martin Jilotepeque, Guatemala (which was not
an important quarry during the Classic), constituted a major These hypotheses cannot be investigated because no Classic
obsidian source for the Maya, and was more important than period obsidian workshops have been excavated extensively
the much more extensive source area oflxtepeque (Nelson and at Teotihuacan. The only workshop excavations for this pe-
Howard 1986, Glascock etal. in press, Braswell and Glascock riod are some test-pits excavated by Evelyn Rattray and stud-
1992, Nelson and Clark in press). ied by Ruiz (1981). In addition, investigations are needed for
the Teotihuacan period quarries at otumba and the Sierra de
The reconstructed commercial systems for the Classic Maya Pachuca. Even though we lack adequate excavations of work-
are now considerably more complex than the initial trade route shops at Teotihuacan, it is reasonable to propose that the
models of Hammond (1972) and others postulating that the obsidian tool industry played a significant role in the origins
largest Guatemalan obsidian sources (Ixtepeque and El Chayal) and expansion of this city. It is probably not a random coinci-
would have almost mutually exclusive transport routes; with dence that the Teotihuacan was founded in the only sector of
the Motagua River, the Caribbean, and the east coast of the the Basin of Mexico that possesses an obsidian source
Yucatan Peninsula being the trade route proposed for (Otumba).
Ixtepeque, and northern land routes to the Peten along with a
northeast route via the Usumacinta River being proposed for The energy costs and other problems related to the pre-His-
El Chayal. This model has not been supported by subsequent panic long distance transport of obsidian, have probably been
trace element studies, which indicate that most Classic pe- exaggerated. There are tons of green obsidian in Teotihuacan
riod obsidian tools in coastal Belize are made from El Chayal workshops which were transported from the Sierra de Pachuca,
CONCWSIONS 199
del sur de Mesoamerica, hay una probable correlacion entre Los sistemas comercia!es reconstruidos de los mayas del Cia-
Ia difusion de Ia tecnologia de navajas prismaticas, Ia apari- sica hoy son considerablemente mas complejos que los mode-
cion de los complejos ceramicos de estilo olmeca y el surgi- los iniciales de las rutas de comercio de Hammond (1972) y de
miento de Ia estratificacion social. Los contextos economicos otros investigadores que postulan que las principales fuentes
y sociales de Ia difusion de Ia tecnologia en el Formativo esta de obsidiana guatemalteca (Ixtepeque y El Chayal) debieron
siendo ahara estudiada y debatida en detalle (Jackson y Love, haber sido rutas de transporte mutuamente excluyentes, con
1991; Awe y Healy, 1994). el rio Motagua, el Caribe y Ia costa oriental de la peninsula
yucateca como la ruta propuesta para Ixtepeque, y las rutas
Sabre los mayas de las tierras bajas del periodo Chisico se han terrestres norteiias hacia el Peten, junto con Ia ruta noreste
publicado mas analisis de elementos traza de artefactos de via el rio Usumacinta, para El Chayal. Este modelo no ha po-
obsidiana que para cualquier otro pueblo mesoamericano. Los dido sostenerse despues de diversos estudios de elementos
principales sistemas de yacimiento que proporcionaron traza que nos indican que Ia maymia de los artefactos de
obsidiana a los centros mayas de las tierras bajas fueron El obsidiana del periodo Clasico de la costa beliceiia fueron he-
Chayal e Ixtepeque, en Guatemala (Hammond. 1972; Nelson y chos con material de El Chayal (Healy et al., 1984; Gude1jan
Clark, en prensa). pero tambien se han identificado importan- et al., 1989; Vail, 1988). AUn cuando existen analisis de ele-
tes cantidades de obsidianas del centro de Mexico (especial- mentos traza detallados para algunas de las minas de
mente de Ia Sierra de Pachuca, de Tulancingo, de Otumba y de obsidiana de Guatemala (Asaro etaL, 1978; Stross etal., 1983;
Ucareo-Zinapecuaro) en Tikal yen otros sitios mayas (Moholy- Hurtado de Mendoza y Jester, 1978). el unico reconocimiento
NagyetaL, 1984; Moholy-NagyyNelson, 1990; NelsonyHoward, arqueologico intensivo de un yacimiento guatemalteco impor-
1986; Nelson y Clark, en prensa). Las obsidianas del centro de tante es el trabajo de Braswell en San Martin Jilotepeque
Mexico no son por lo general lo suficientemente comunes en (Glascock et al., en prensa). Los recorridos iniciales de Sidrys
los complejos liticos del period a Clasico Maya como para haber et al. (1975), Clark (1981) y otros especialistas en las minas
constituido recursos clave en Ia economia maya (Spence, 1996). de Guatemala deben complementarse antes de que podamos
Par lo general, Ia presencia de esas obsidianas foraneas quiz<i empezar a entender las instituciones economicas y politicas
sea mas el resultado de relaciones de prestigio entre las elites del comercio de obsidiana de los mayas.
mayas y del centro de Mexico u otros tipos de contactos cultu-
rales a gran distancia. La presencia relativamente comun de Entre los arqueologos existen numerosos debates (similares a
obsidiana verde de Pachuca en las ofrendas de construccion o los relacionados con el comercio maya) referentes a Ia natura-
de entierros mayas posiblemente se debia a! valor religioso o leza y el significado economico de la mineria y el co mercia de
simbolico de su color exotica. obsidiana de los pueblos de las tierras altas del centro de
Mexico durante el periodo Clasico. Esas investigaciones han
El cambiante panorama de los modelos y reconstrucciones evaluado primordialmente Ia importancia de la produccion de
economicas del comercio de obsidiana de los mayas antiguos artefactos de obsidiana en los origenes y Ia expansion del Es-
a lo largo de los ultimos 25 afios es posiblemente un indicia tado teotihuacano y han elaborado dos hipotesis altemativas.
de lo que acontecera en el estudio de otras culturas mesoameri- El primer modelo (principalmente basado en informacion de
canas cuando tengamos mas analisis de elementos traza de reconocimientos de superficie de Teotihuacan y de otras re-
sus artefactos. Conforme se fueron elaborando mas y mas giones del altiplano mexicano) propane Ia existencia de una
estudios para determinar Ia procedencia de elementos traza gran industria de artefactos de obsidiana que tenia entre 80 y
de los complejos liticos mayas, los modelos arqueologicos y 100 talleres en Teotihuacan durante su apogeo entre los aiios
las reconstrucciones de los antiguos sistemas de comercio de 300 y 650 d.C. Los productos de esos talleres (fundamental-
obsidiana se volvieron mas complejos, hacienda que los pro- mente navajas prismaticas y bifacia!es) eran distribuidos a
cesos de comercio maya parecieran mas comp!icados, a pesar muchas wnas del centro de Mexico y el sur de Mesoamerica a
de que apenas estamos comenzando a entenderlos. El comer- traves de un complejo sistema comercial (Spence, 1981; 1984;
cia de obsidiana maya durante el periodo Formativo parece Charlton y Spence, 1982; Charlton, 1978; Santley, 1983;
haber tenido distintos patrones de explotacion de los yaci- 1984). El modelo opuesto (apoyado par calculos estadisticos y
mientos de los del periodo Clasico. Los estudios de elementos tecnologicos de Ia produccion, transporte y consumo de arte-
traza nos indican que durante el Formativo Media y Tardio factos de obsidiana) postula un papel menos importante para
San Martin Jilotepeque, Guatemala (que no era una mina Ia obsidiana en Ia economia teotihuacana, calculando que
importante durante el Clasico) constituia un relevante yaci- existian menos talleres de obsidiana en Teotihuacan y que se
miento de obsidiana para los mayas y fue mas importante que exportaba un volumen menor de artefactos debido a! alto cos-
el muy extenso yacimiento de Ixtepeque (Nelson y Howard, to de energia humana que se requeria para el transporte a
1986; Glascock et al., en prensa; Braswell y Glascock, 1992; gran distancia en tiempos prehispfmicos (Clark, 1986;
Nelson y Clark, en prensa). Drennan, 1984; 1994).
200 CONCLUSIONES
located 55 kilometers to the northeast. Most of the tools pro- increased (Mastache and Cobean 1990). This change prob-
duced at the workshops do not weigh much even in large quan- ably was the result of the destruction of the Teotihuacan state
tities. One tlameme (porter) could have carried several and its commercial system. Another important factor in this
thousand prismatic blades from Teotihuacan to other regions decline of obsidian trade during the Epiclassic in Central
in the Central Highlands. The great quantities of Thin Orange Mexico, is that for two centuries no hegemonic state existed
and other foreign ceramics at Teotihuacan and other High- in the Highlands until the rise ofTula (circa 950-1200 A. D.).
land centers during the Early Classic, suggest the existence
of commercial distribution systems capable of transporting The Epiclassic (700-900 A. D.) in Central Mexico is consid-
substantial volumes of products over fairly great distances ered a time of political and economic fragmentation, with the
(Rattray 1990). existence of many small competing centers (Sanders et al. 1979,
Diehl and Serlo 1989), but few detailed studies have been made
In the case of Classic Teotihuacan, a key economic-techno- for cultures of this period. In the Tula, Hidalgo region, the
logical change which needs to be investigated, is the substitu- Epiclassic settlements appear to have been politically autono-
tion during the Miccaotli and Tlamimilolpa phases of the Sierra mous, lacking sufficient politico-economic complexity to be
de Pachuca in place of Otumba, as the principal obsidian considered states (Mastache and Cobean 1989, Mastache
quarry for the city's workshops (Spence 1981, et al. 1984). 1996).
Only excavations at the workshops and more systematic field-
work at the quarries can clarity the nature of this process. Relatively few trace element analyses have been done for
Central Mexican Epiclassic obsidian artifacts, but the present
Archaeologists often have related the economic (and possibly results show that in many areas the Ucareo-Zinapecuaro quar-
political) expansion of the Teotihuacan state in other regions ries replace the Sierra de Pachuca as the principal obsidian
of Mesoamerica, to attempts by the city to control or gain ac- source (Healan 1989, 1997). Ucareo-Zinapecuaro supplied
cess to obsidian and other raw material resources. Charlton most of the obsidian used at Xochicalco, More los (Hirth 1984,
(1978) proposes the existence of a system for the production 1989; Sorensen et al. 1989), Azcapotzalco in the Basin of
and distribution of obsidian tools during the Terminal Form- Mexico (Garcia et al. 1990), and the Tula, Hidalgo region
ative and the Early Classic in southern Hidalgo and adjacent (Mastache and Cobean 1990, Healan 1997). The exploitation
regions controlled by Teotihuacan, with the main workshops of the Tulancingo, Hidalgo, quarries also increased during the
being concentrated at Tepeapulco, Hidalgo (Matos et al. 1981). Epiclassic, which is the apogee of the Huapalcalco center
More recent research has shown that Tepeapulco probably (Muller 1957, Gaxiola and Guevara 1989). Rattray (1989) ex-
did not have extensive obsidian workshops during the Classic cavated an Epiclassic (Coyotlatelco) biface workshop at
(F. LOpez and R. Nieto, personal communication). Mora (1981) Teotihuacan, which principally used obsidian from Otumba.
however, found an important Teotihuacan workshop at the An important recent investigation ofEpiclassic lithics is Hirth's
nearby site ofCasacoalco, Hidalgo, and thus Charlton's (1978) (1995) excavation of obsidian workshops at Xochicalco.
basic model for Teotihuacan obsidian exploitation in this re-
gion may be correct. The increased use of tools made from rhyolite, basalt, and
chert in Central Mexico during the Epiclassic, probably was
Santley (1983) presents a model postulating that obsidian trade the result of at least two factors: The exploitation of more avail-
played a key role in the Early Classic commercial expansion able local materials as an "alternative industry" to obsidian,
ofTeotihuacan in Mesoamerica. This reconstruction was criti- which was more difficult to obtain after the collapse of
cized severely by Clark (1986), but once again not enough field Teotihuacan's commercial system, and the arrival to the Cen-
investigations of Teotihuacan commerce have been done to tral Highlands of peoples from the northern periphery of
evaluate the validity of Santley's and Clark's interpretations. Mesoamerica, who had different lithic traditions which were
Key regions outside the Central Highlands, where Classic pe- not based on obsidian (Mastache and Cobean 1990, Crespo
riod commercial systems and possible economic ties with the 1970, Spence 1971, Jackson 1990, Rees 1990). Another im-
Teotihuacan state are being studied systematically, are south- portant element among these northern populations is the
ern Veracruz (Santley and Pool 1992, Stark et al. 1992) and Coyotlatelco red-on-brown ceramic tradition, which is present
the Valley of Guatemala (Sanders 1977). in many areas of Central Mexico during the Epiclassic.
After the decline of Teotihuacan (circa 650-700 A. D.), there During the Early Postclassic (900-1200 A. D.), the Sierra de
was a radical change in obsidian exploitation and trading sys- Pachuca was once again the principal supplier of obsidian for
tems in the Central Mexican Highlands. The quantity of ob- Central Mexico, although few lithic analyses have been pub-
sidian tools in many sites decreased greatly, and the number lished for this period from areas outside the Tula region. In
of tools made from nearby sources of rhyolite, basalt and chert the city of Tula, during this period, green obsidian from the
CONCWSIONS 201
Estas hipotesis no pueden contrastarse porque no se han taller teotihuacano en el sitio cercano de Casacoalco, Hidalgo,
excavado, de manera extensa, talleres de obsidiana del periodo y por ello el modelo basico de Charlton (1978) para la explota-
Clasico en Teotihuacan. Las (micas excavaciones de un taller cion teotihuacana de la obsidiana en esta region puede ser
de esa epoca son algunos pows de prueba practicados por correcto.
Evelyn Rattray y estudiados por Ruiz (1981). Ademas, se nece-
sitan investigar las minas del periodo teotihuacano en Otumba Santley (1983) presenta un modelo que postula que el corner-
y en la Sierra de Pachuca. Aun cuando carecemos de cia de Ia obsidiana jugo un papel clave en la expansion co-
excavaciones adecuadas en los talleres de Teotihuacan, es ra- mercia! de Teotihuacan durante el Clasico Temprano en
zonable proponer que la industria de artefactos de obsidiana Mesoamerica. Esta reconstruccion fue severamente criticada
jugo un papel importante en los origenes y la expansion de esa por Clark (1986), pero nuevamente nos encontramos ante insu-
ciudad. Probablemente no sea una mera coincidencia que esa ficiente investigacion de campo del comercio teotihuacano para
ciudad se haya fundado en el unico sector de la cuenca de evaluar la validez de las interpretaciones de ambos investiga-
Mexico que cuenta con un yacimiento de obsidiana (Otumba). dores. El sur de Veracruz (Santley y Pool, 1992; Stark et al.,
1992) y el Valle de Guatemala (Sanders, 1977) son las regio-
Los costos de energia y otros problemas vinculados con el nes clave, fuera de las tierras altas centrales, donde se estan
transporte de obsidiana a gran distancia posiblemente han estudiando detalladamente los sistemas comerciales del pe-
sido vistos con exageracion. Existen toneladas de obsidiana riodo Clasico y los posibles nexos economicos con el Estado
verde en los talleres de Teotihuacan que fueron transporta- teotihuacano.
das desde la Sierra de Pachuca, localizada a 55 kilometros al
noreste. La mayoria de las herramientas producidas en los Tras el ocaso de Teotihuacan (ca. 650-700 d. C.) bubo un cam-
talleres no pesa mucho, aun en grandes cantidades. Un bia radical en los sistemas de explotacion y comercio de la
tamerne (portador) pudo haber llevado miles de navajas pris- obsidiana en las tierras altas del centro de Mexico. La canti-
maticas de Teotihuacan a otras regiones del altiplano central. dad de artefactos de obsidiana de numerosos sitios disminu-
Las grandes cantidades de Naranja Delgado y de otras cera- yo en gran medida y se incremento el numero de herramientas
micas foraneas encontradas en Teotihuacan y en otros sitios hechas con material de yacimientos cercanos de riolita, basalto
de Ia cuenca durante el periodo Clasico sugieren la existencia y pedemal (Mas tache y Cobean, 1990). Este cambio posiblemen-
de sistemas de distribucion comercial capaces de transportar te fue el resultado de la destruccion del Estado teotihuacano
importantes volumenes de productos a traves de distancias y su sistema comercial. Otro importante factor de esta caida
sumarnente grandes (Rattray, 1990). del comercio de obsidiana durante el Epichisico en el centro
de Mexico es que durante dos siglos no existio un Estado en el
En el caso del Teotihuacan del periodo Clasico un cambio eco- altiplano central sino basta ei surgimiento de Tula (ca. 950-
nomico-tecnologico clave que debe investigarse es Ia sustitu- 1200 d.C.).
cion, durante las fases Miccaotli y Tlamimilolpa, de obsidiana
de Otumba por la Sierra de Pachuca como la principal fuente EI Epichisico (700-900 d.C.) en el centro de Mexico es consi-
de extraccion de obsidiana para los talleres de la ciudad derado como una epoca de fragmentacion politica y economi-
(Spence, 1981; et al. 1984). La naturaleza de ese proceso so- ca que ortgino pequefios centros en competencia (Sanders et
Iamente podra aclararse mediante la excavacion de talleres y al. 1979, Diehl y Berlo 1989), pero se han realizado pocos
un mayor trabajo de campo sistematico en los yacimientos. estudios detallados de las culturas de ese periodo. En Ia re-
gion de Tula, Hidalgo, los asentamientos del Epiclasico pare-
A menudo los arqueologos han asociado la expansion econo- cen haber sido autonomos politicamente y carentes de
mica (y posiblemente political del Estado teotihuacano a otras suficiente complejidad politico-economica como para consi-
regiones de Mesoamerica como intentos de la ciudad por con- derarlos parte de un estado (Mastache y Cobean, 1989;
trolar o ganar acceso a las fuentes de obtencion de la obsidiana Mastache, 1996).
y de otras matetias primas. Charlton (1978) propane la exis-
tencia de un sistema de produccion y distribucion de artefac- De los artefactos de obsidiana del Epiclasico del centro de
tos de obsidiana durante el Formativo Terminal y el Clasico Mexico se han hecho relativamente pocos analisis de elemen-
Temprano en el sur de Hidalgo y en regiones adyacentes con- tos traza, pero los resultados actuales muestran que en mu-
trolado por Teotihuacan, con los talleres mas importantes con- chas wnas las minas de Ucareo-Zinapecuaro reemplazaron a
centrados en Tepeapulco, Hidalgo (Matos et al., 1981). la Sierra de Pachuca como el principal proveedor de obsidiana
Investigaciones mas recientes nos han mostrado que (Healan, 1989; 1997). EI yacimiento de Ucareo-Zinapecuaro
Tepeapulco posiblemente no tuvo grandes talleres de obsidiana proveyo Ia mayor parte de Ia obsidiana utilizada en Xochicalco,
durante el periodo Clasico (F. Ulpez yR. Nieto, comunicacion Morelos (Hirth, 1984; 1989; Sorensen et al., 1989), enAzcapot-
personal). Sin embargo, Mora (1981) encontro un importante zalco, en la cuenca de Mexico (Garcia et al., 1990), yen la
202 CONCLUSIONES
Sierra de Pachuca constitutes 80-85% of the material used chaeological obsidian studies for this period are increasing:
for tools in the habitational structures and other contexts Pastrana (1996) and Cruz (1994) studied Aztec obsidian quar-
(Benfer 1974, Pastrana 1990, Healan et al 1983, Healan and ries in the southern Sierra de Pachuca; Charlton (1991) and
Stoutamire 1989, and Salazar 1991). Trace element analyses others excavated several important obsidian workshops at the
show that 10-15% of Early Postclassic Tula's obsidian comes Aztec city-state of Otumba. Spence (1985) surveyed Aztec ob-
from Ucareo-Zinapecuaro, and there are small amounts of sidian workshops in the Teotihuacan Valley, and Gonzalez Rul
material from Zacualtipan (Hidalgo). Otumba (State of Mexico), (1979) presents a typological analysis of Late Postclassic lithics
El Pared6n (Puebla-Hidalgo) and possibly Alto tonga, Veracruz from Tlatelolco. An important recent project is investigating
(Hester et al. 1973, Healan 1986, M. Glascock personal com- material from an excavated Aztec obsidian workshop in
munication). Unlike Teotihuacan, in Tula intensive surveys Tenochtitlan, recovered by a salvage program in Mexico City's
and excavations have been done in the ancient obsidian work- contemporary streets of Venustiano Carranza and Isabel Ia
shops (Pastrana ibid., Healan et al ibid.). Healan (1986, 1990) Cat6lica (Cassiano et al. 1990). These studies show that in
excavated habitational structures that were production areas general over 90% of the obsidian in Aztec sites come from the
in Tula's obsidian workshop zone, reconstructing in detail the Sierra de Pachuca, Hidalgo. Another important series of ob-
technology of tool manufacture there. sidian investigations for the Late Postclassic are centered in
Michoacan: especially the work of Pollard and Vogel (1993,
Most of the investigations concerning Mesoamerican obsidian 1994) at Tzintzuntzan and of Healan (1997) in the Ucareo-
exploitation during the Late Postclassic (1200-1520 A. D.) Zinapecuaro region. Both these projects are similar to the work
mainly have used ethnohistorical data (Barlow 1949, Feldman of Charlton (1991) at Otumba, productively combining large
1971, Clark 1989, Isaac 1986). However, the number of ar- quantities of ethnohistorical and archaeological information.
CONCWSIONS 203
region de Tula, Hidalgo (Mastache y Cobean, 1990; Healan, de El Paredon (Puebla-Hidalgo) y posiblemente de Altotonga,
1997). La explotacion del yacimiento de Tulancingo, Hidalgo, Veracruz (Hester et al. 1973; Healan, 1986; M. Glascock, co-
tambien se incremento durante el Epichisico, lo cual marca el municacion personal). A diferencia de Teotihuacan, en Tula
apogeo de Huapalcalco (Muller, 1957; Gaxiola y Guevara, se han practicado reconocimientos y excavaciones intensivas
1989). Rattray (1989) excavo en Teotihuacan un taller de en los antiguos talleres de obsidiana (Pastrana, 1990; Healan
bifaciales del Epiclasico (Ccyotlatelco) que utilizo principal- et al., 1983). Healan (1986, 1990) excavo estructuras
mente obsidiana de Otumba. Una importante investigacion habitacionales en areas de produccion en Ia zona de talleres
reciente de Ia litica del Epiclasico es Ia excavacion de talleres de obsidiana de Tula, reconstruyendo en detalle Ia tecnologia
de obsidiana de Xochicalco practicada por Hirth (1995). de Ia elaboracion de artefactos.
El mayor uso de herramientas de riolita, basalto y pedernal La mayor parte de las investigaciones relacionadas con Ia
en el centro de Mexico durante el Epiclasico posiblemente fue explotacion de Ia obsidiana mesoamericana durante el Post-
el resultado de un minimo de dos factores: Ia explotacion de clasico Tardio (1200-1520 d.C.) han usado primordialmente
materiales locales de mayor disponibilidad como una "indus- informacion etnohistorica (Barlow, 1949; Feldman, 1971;
tria alternativa" a Ia obsidiana, que era mas dificil de obtener Clark, 1989; Isaac, 1986). No obstante, el numero de estudios
tras el colapso del sistema comercial de Teotihuacan, y Ia lie- arqueol6gicos sobre obsidiana de este periodo estan aumen-
gada al altiplano central de pueblos de Ia periferia norte de tando. Pastrana (1996) y Cruz (1994) estudiaron las minas de
Mesoamerica que tenian distintas tradiciones liticas que no obsidiana azteca del sur de Ia Siena de Pachuca, Charlton
utilizaban obsidiana (Mas tache y Co bean, 1990; Crespo, 1970; (1991) y otros excavaron importantes talleres de obsidiana en
Spence, 1971; Jackson, 1990; Rees, 1990). Otro elemento Ia ciudad-estado azteca de Otumba. Spence (1985) investigo
importante comun en las poblaciones norteiias es Ia tradicion los talleres de obsidiana aztecas del Valle de Teotihuacan, y
ceramica Coyotlatelco rojo sobre cafe que se observa en mu- Gonzalez Rul (1979) presento un analisis tipol6gico de Ia litica
chas area del centro de Mexico durante el Epiclasico. del Postclasico Tardio de Tlatelolco. Un importante proyecto
esta estudiando recientemente el material de un taller de obsi-
Si bien se han publicado pocos analisis liticos sobre este pe- diana azteca excavado en Tenochtitlan por un proyecto de sal-
riodo en areas fuera de Ia region de Tula, durante el Postclasico vamento en las calles contemporaneas de Venustiano Carranza
Temprano (900-1200 d.C.). Ia Sierra de Pachuca fue nueva- e Isabel Ia Catolica en Ia Ciudad de Mexico (Cassiano et al
mente el principal proveedor de obsidiana para el centro de 1990). Esos estudios muestran que, en general, mas del 90
Mexico. Durante ese tiempo, en Ia ciudad de Tula Ia obsidiana por ciento de Ia obsidiana de los sitibs aztecas procede de Ia
de Ia Siena de Pachuca constituye del 80 al 85% del material Sierra de Pachuca, Hidalgo. Otra importante serie de investi-
utilizado para herramientas en las estructuras habitacionales gaciones de Ia obsidiana del Postclasico Tardio esta centrada
yen otros contextos (Benfer, 1974; Pastrana, 1990; Healan et en Michoacan: especialmente el trabajo de Pollard y Vogel
al, 1983; Healan y Stoutamire, 1989 y Salazar, 1991). Los (1993, 1994) en Tzintzuntzan y el de Healan (1997) en Ia re-
analisis de elementos traza muestran que del 10 al 15% de Ia gion de Ucareo-Zinapecuaro. Ambos proyectos son similares
obsidiana de Tula en el Postclasico Temprano procede de al trabajo de Charlton (1991) en Otumba, combinando pro-
Ucareo-Zinapecuaro, y hay pequeiias cantidades de materia- ductivamente gran cantidad de informacion etnohistorica y
les de Zacualtipan (Hidalgo). de Otumba (estado de Mexico). arqueologica.
204 CONCLUSIONES
APPENDIX 1. CHARACTERIZATION OF THE OBSIDIAN SOURCES
IN NORTHERN MESOAMERICA
Michael D. Glascock
INTRODUCTION
The frequency of obsidian artifact finds at prehistoric sites located throughout Mesoamerica is
evidence of a series of human activities involving the procurement and transport of raw obsid-
ian from sources, the production and distribution of cores and sharp-edged tools, and the
consumption and eventual discarding of spent objects. The capability of securely linking arti-
facts to the limited number of obsidian sources through their chemical fingerprints is a power-
ful tool for investigating these activities in the context of prehistoric human behavior.
The composition of most obsidian ranges from 70-75% Si02 ; 10-15% Alz0 3; 3-5% N~O; 2-5%
I~O and 1-5% total Fe 20 3 + FeO. Peralkaline varieties of obsidian are generally higher in iron
content than rhyolitic varieties. In addition, the intrinsic water content of obsidian ranges from
0.1-0.5 % by weight with a gradual increase to approximately 3.5% as the obsidian glass
transforms into perlite. Most elements are present at concentrations of far less than 1% and
are referred to as trace elements. It is the trace elements that are generally most useful for
sourcing.
The success of chemical analysis as a sourcing technique is primarily due to the fact that the
trace elements may differ by one to three orders of magnitude between sources, while the variat-
ions within a single source are generally much smaller. In those few instances where the
within-source variation in elemental composition of the obsidian is considerable (Bowman et
al 1973), the correlation in variation between certain elements is so extraordinary that the
ability to assign artifacts to the source is as certain as if the source were homogeneous. Other
complex sources are known where a collection of discrete, but chemically homogeneous flows,
are found (Hughes 1988, 1994). Artifacts from these complex sources can also be assigned to
specific sub-sources with a high degree of confidence.
The prehistoric obsidian mines of northern Mesoamerica have been the subject of archaeologi-
cal research for almost two hundred years (Breton 1902; Charlton 1969; Holmes 1900; Humboldt
1814; Ordonez 1892; Spence and Parsons 1967; Tylor 1861). A report by Cobean et al (1971)
was among the first compositional studies of obsidian sources in the region. Other investiga-
tions by Ericson and Kimberlin (1977), Hester et al (1971), Jack et al. (1972), and Pires-
Ferreira (1973) followed soon thereafter. Because the researchers were often interested in local
problems, limited numbers of source specimens were collected and partially characterized for
a few elements with little regard to their potenti<).l for future use. As a result, incomplete de-
scriptions of both the geologic conditions and the true variability in the compositions of indi-
vidual sources were built up. Another problem was the use of different standards and different
analytical calibrations in each of the laboratories involved in this work, which made laboratory
inter-comparisons problematic. These factors affected the early obsidian research in many
regions and led to serious criticism by experts such as Hughes (1984) and Shackley (1988,
1998).
APPENDIX 1 205
APENDICE 1. CA.RACTERIZACION DE WS YACIMIENTOS
DE OBSIDIANA EN EL NORTE DE MEsOAMERICA
Michael D. Glascock
INTRODUCCI6N
Los frecuentes hallazgos de artefactos de obsidiana en los sitios prehistoricos que se hallan en
toda Mesoamerica son evidencia de una serie de actividades humanas que incluye la extrac-
cion y el trans porte de obsidiana en bruto desde sus yacimientos; la produccion y distribucion
de nucleos y de artefactos afiliados; asi como el consumo y eventual desecho de objetos usa-
dos. La posibilidad de vincular con seguridad los artefact<;>s con un numero limitado de yaci-
mientos de obsidiana a traves de sus elementos quimicos constituye una poderosa herramienta
para investigar tales actividades en el contexto de Ia conducta humana prehistorica.
La com posicion quimica de Ia mayo ria de las obsidianas contiene de 70 a 75% de Si02; de 10
a 15% de A1 20 3 ; de 3 a 5% de N~O; de 2 a 5% de K:,O y de 1 a 5% de Fep3 + FeO. Las
variedades peralcalinas de obsidiana generalmente tienen un mayor contenido de hierro que
las variedades rioliticas. Ademas, el contenido intrinseco de agua de Ia obsidiana varia de 0.1
a 0.5% en el peso, con un incremento gradual basta alcanzar 3.5% conforme el vidrio de
obsidiana se transforma en perlita. La mayoria de los elementos estan presentes en concentra-
ciones mucho menores que el 1% y nos referimos a ellos como elementos traza. Generalmente
los elementos traza son los mas utiles para identificar las fuentes de procedencia de la obsidiana.
El exito del analisis quimico como una tecnica para identificar procedencia se debe principal-
mente al hecho de que los elementos traza pueden diferir de uno a tres ordenes de magnitud
entre yacimientos, mientras que las variaciones de un mismo yacimiento por lo general son
mucho menores. En aquellos pocos casas en los que existen variaciones considerables de Ia
com posicion elemental de la obsidiana de un mismo yacimiento (Bowman et al, 1973) la corre-
lacion en Ia diferencia existente entre ciertos elementos es tan extraordinaria que la posibili-
dad de asignar artefactos a ese yacimiento es tan segura como si el yacimiento fuera homogeneo.
Tambien se conocen otros yacimientos complejos en los que existe una coleccion de tlujos
discretos, pero quimicamente homogeneos (Hughes, 1988, 1994). Los artefactos de esos yaci-
mientos complejos tambien pueden asignarse a subyacimientos especiftcos con un alto grado
de confianza.
Las minas de obsidiana prehistorica del norte de Mesoamerica han sido objeto de investigacio-
nes arqueologicas durante casi 200 aflos (Breton, 1902; Charlton, 1969; Holmes, 1900;
Humboldt, 1814; Ordonez, 1892; Spence y Parsons, 1967; Tylor, 1861). Un reporte de Cobean
et aL (1971) fue uno de los primeros estudios de composicion quimica de los yacimientos de
obsidiana en la region. Poco tiempo despues le siguieron otros estudios como los de Ericson y
Kimberlin (1977), Hester, et aL (1971), Jack, et aL (1972) y Pires-Ferreira (1973). Debido al
hecho de que los investigadores a menudo estaban interesados en problemas locales, se colec-
taron pocas muestras de yacimientos y fueron caracterizados parcialmente por unos cuantos
elementos sin considerar su potencialidad para usos futuros. Como resultado de lo anterior, se
generaron descripciones incompletas tanto de las condiciones geologicas como de Ia variabili-
dad real de las composiciones de los yacimientos individuales. Otro problema fue la aplicacion
206 APENDICE 1
An early study illustrating several of the above mentioned prob- 1. Locate sources precisely by their geographic coordinates.
lems is the research by Fires-Ferreira (1973), who character-
ized a collection of obsidian artifacts from the Valley of Oaxaca 2. Collect representative raw material specimens from all pos-
by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INM). In her re- sible source areas.
search, Pires-Ferreira employed a procedure that measured only
two short-lived elements (i.e., Mn and Na). Because she did not 3. Demonstrate that good quality obsidian tools and objects
sample all possible sources, she assigned a large number of can be produced from raw material collected at the source.
the Valley ofOaxaca artifacts to a source at Alto tonga, Veracruz,
similar in composition on these same elements as another source 4. Prove that the source was accessible to prehistoric peoples
located at Zaragoza, Puebla, of which she was unaware. The and not only a recent exposure as a consequence of more
two sources are easily differentiated by other elements as dem- recent mining or construction activities.
onstrated in a more comprehensive analysis of sources reported
by Cobean et al. (1991). More recent research by Elam (1993), 5. Search for all possible prehistoric quarrying areas within
reporting on the analysis of approximately 500 obsidian arti- the primary source area and related secondary deposits.
facts from the Valley of Oaxaca, found that obsidian from
Zaragoza was used extensively and the obsidian source at 6. Analyze source specimens thoroughly to obtain the most com-
Altotonga was never important during prehistoric times. prehensive chemical fmgerprint for each source specimen.
A second example concerns the Cobean et al. (1971) study of 7. Correlate the source fingerprints to specific source loca-
obsidian artifacts from San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan, Veracruz, tions or zones.
analyzed for the elements routinely measured by X-ray fluo-
rescence (XRF). On the basis of chemical similarity, the Co bean 8. Demonstrate that the chemical fingerprints allow artifacts
study suggested that a large number of artifacts [i.e., Group to be assigned to particular source areas with high reliabil-
A] probably came from the obsidian source at Otumba, Mexico. ity.
In addition, it was noted that using the elements available by
XRF the source at Otumba was sometimes difficult to differ- Asystematic program of sampling, chemical analysis and sta-
entiate from obsidian sources in Guatemala. In a study by tistical evaluation is essential for accomplishing these goals.
Charlton et al. (1978), measuring only a small suite of ele-
ments by INM, a chemical similarity was observed between SAMPLING AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
the Otumba source and a Mexican obsidian source located at
Pared6n, Puebla. Thus, on the basis of these initial works, the Before the benefits of obsidian artifact sourcing can be fully
Guatemalan sources and Otumba and Pared6n were found to realized, it is essential to locate and sample all possible sources
be relatively difficult to differentiate from one another. The in the region of interest. The geographic extent of each pri-
primary limitations in the data were due to inadequate sam- mary source and the areal distributions of secondary deposits
pling and incomplete analyses of source samples. Fortunately, should be carefully determined. Intensive field surveys should
using the larger suite of elements from INM reported in Cobean be undertaken to locate small outcrops and large quarries
et al. (1991), it is now very easy to differentiate the otumba, showing evidence of prehistoric utilization. Use of a global posi-
Pared6n and all of the Guatemalan sources from one another. tioning system (GPS) is highly recommended while conduct-
ing the survey and collecting raw material specimens, especially
Hughes (1986) makes the point that researchers often fail to in areas where the existing maps are deficient. In addition,
consider the significance of particular elements and instead, because different names may have been given to sources by
assigned equal weight to all measured elements. Unfortunately, the local people and by the archaeologists, clarification of
this practice may lead to a significant number of misclassificat- names with geographic coordinates is necessary to avoid con-
ions. Hughes suggests that a more critical approach to variable fusion by laboratory analysts and others unlikely to visit the
selection based on multivariate classifications can reduce the actual source area.
number of errors. Consistent with Hughes is a recommenda-
tion by Leach and Manly (1982) that the power of any new sourc- The number of source specimens collected and analyzed should
ing algorithm to reject wrong answers should be demonstrated. be sufficient to enable determination of the range of composi-
tional variation in the source. In general, a minimum of a dozen
A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH samples should be analyzed for any given source (i.e., geoche-
mical group), although sources that cover large areas or
In order to achieve more reliable source attributions, obsidian sources that are geologically complex may require analysis of
researchers should: more than 100 specimens for an adequate description to be
APPENDIX 1 207
de estandares distintos y de diferentes calibraciones analiticas determinados elementos y al conceder igual valor a todos los
en cad a uno de los laboratorios participantes, hacienda difici- elementos analizados. Por desgracia, esa practica puede con-
les las comparaciones de los resultados obtenidos en diversos ducir a efectuar un buen numero de clasificaciones incorrec-
lugares. Estos factores afectaron Ia investigacion temprana tas. Hughes sugiere que un enfoque mas critico de Ia seleccion
de la obsidiana en muchas regiones y conllevaron serias criti- de variables basado en clasificaciones de variable multiple
cas de expertos como Hughes (1984) y Shackley (1988, 1998). puede reducir los errores. Ala par con Hughes existe Ia reco-
mendacion de Leach y Manly (1982) de que debe demostrarse
Un estudio temprano que ilustra varios de los problemas arri- Ia eficacia de cualquier nuevo algoritmo para descartar res-
ba mencionados es la investigacion de Fires-Ferreira (1973), puestas equivocadas.
quien caracterizo una coleccion de artefactos de obsidiana del
Valle de Oaxaca mediante el analisis de activacion de neutrones UN ENFOQUE SISTEMATICO
(AAN). En su contribucion, Fires-Ferreira utilizo un procedi-
miento que solo midio dos elementos de vida corta (Mn y Na). Con el proposito de obtener atribuciones o caracteristicas mas
AI no tomar muestras de todos los yacimientos posibles, Ia confiables de un yacimiento, los estudiosos de Ia obsidiana
investigadora asigno un gran numero de artefactos del Valle de ben:
de Oaxaca a un yacimiento de Alto tonga, Veracruz, similar en
Ia composicion de esos mismos elementos a otro yacimiento 1. Localizar los yacimientos con precision mediante sus coor-
localizado en Zaragoza, Puebla, y el cual ella desconocia. Am- denadas geograficas.
bos yacimientos son facilmente diferenciables por otros ele-
mentos como lo demuestra un ana!isis mas completo repmiado 2. Colectar muestras representativas de todas las areas posi-
por Cobean, et al. (1991). Una investigacion mas reciente de bles del yacimiento.
Elam (1993) relacionada con el analisis de unos 500 artefac-
tos de obsidiana del Valle de Oaxaca encontro que la obsidiana 3. Demostrar que se pueden producir herramientas y objetos
de Zaragoza fue usada ampliamente en esa region y que el de obsidiana de buena calidad a partir del material colec-
yacimiento de obsidiana de Altotonga nunca fue importante tado en el yacimiento.
en tiempos prehistoricos.
4. Probar que el yacimiento fue accesible a los pueblos prehis-
Un segundo ejemplo se refiere al estudio de artefactos de toricos y que no se trata de una exposicion reciente de
obsidiana de San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan, Veracruz, elaborado material como consecuencia de mineria modema o de acti-
por Cobean, et al., (1971) yen el que se observaron los ele- vidades de la construccion.
mentos rutinariamente analizados mediante la fluorescencia
de rayos X (FRX). Con base en la semejanza quimica, el estu- 5. Investigar todas las areas de extraccion prehistoricas posi-
dio de Cobean sugirio que una gran cantidad de artefactos (el bles dentro del yacimiento primario, asi como los depositos
Grupo A) probablemente procedia delyacimiento de obsidiana secundarios asociadas.
de Otumba, Mexico. Ademas, se advirtio que usando los ele-
mentos disponibles mediante la FRX, elyacimiento de Otumba 6. Analizar minuciosamente los ejemplares del yacimiento con
en ocasiones era dificil de diferenciar de los yacimientos de zonas o localidades especificas de otros yacimientos.
obsidiana de Guatemala. En un estudio de Charlton et al.
(1978) en el que solo se incluyo una pequefla cantidad de ele- 8. Demostrar que la composicion quimica caracteristica per-
mentos mediante el AAN, se observo una semejanza quimica mite asignar artefactos a zonas particulares del yacimiento
entre el yacimiento de Otumba y otro localizado en Paredon, con alta confiabilidad.
Puebla. Por ella, con base en esos primeros estudios se supo
que los yacimientos de Guatemala, Otumba y Paredon eran Para lograr estas metas es fundamental efectuar un progra-
relativamente dificiles de distinguir entre si. Las limitaciones ma sistematico de muestreo, de analisis quimico y de evalua-
fundamentales derivaban del muestreo inadecuado y de los cion estadistica.
analisis incompletos de las muestras de los yacimientos. Afor-
tunadamente, al usar un co~unto mayor de elementos me- MUESTREO Y ANALISIS QUtMICO
diante el AAN reportado por Cobean et al. (1991) hoy es muy
facil diferenciar los yacimientos de Otumba, de Pared on y de La localizacion y el muestreo de todos los posibles yacimientos
todas las fuentes guatemaltecas. de la region de estudio es esencial para conocer la proceden-
cia de los artefactos de obsidiana. La extension geografica de
Hughes (1986) acertadamente seflala que a menudo los in- cada yacimiento primario y las distribuciones zonales de los
vestigadores se equivocan al no considerar Ia importancia de depositos secundarios deben determinarse cuidadosamente.
208 APENDICE 1
attained. If possible, source specimens should be collected Source specimens should be analyzed comprehensively by all
from the actual locations of prehistoric quarries rather than available analytical techniques (preferably NM and XRF, but
from road cuts, construction sites, or mines that are a conse- also any other available technique), and the analyses should
quence of modem human activity. Additional specimens should be performed on sufficient numbers of samples to establish
be collected beyond those slated for analysis in order to main- the concentration ranges, means, and standard deviations for
tain samples for future reference and possible exchange with each source. Use of well-known standard reference materials
other laboratories. If the amount of variation in a particular such as the National Institute of Standards and Technology
source proves to be greater than anticipated or if analysis of (NIST) SRM-278 Obsidian Rock and SRM-1633a Coal Fly Ash
artifacts indicates the existence of additional undiscovered are recommended for calibration (Graham et al 1982). In ad-
sources, additional field surveys and collections should be dition, routine quality-control samples should be analyzed with
performed (Shackley 1988). each batch and rigorously monitored between analytical runs
in order to certifY that the data are as accurate and precise as
Acomprehensive data bank or source catalog should be com- reasonably possible (Glascock and Anderson 1993). These
piled to store all of the descriptive, physical, and chemical steps will insure that the data from separate batches and dif-
information in a format for easily available future retrieval. ferent laboratories are comparable and possible sources of
Previous efforts by Skinner (1983) and Hughes (1986), and systematic errors are minimized.
more recently by Healan (1997), were an initial step in this
direction. Informational categories recommended for each STATISTICAL EvALUATION OF OBSIDIAN SOURCE DATA
source include:
Most modem researchers recognize the wisdom of collecting
1. Geographic location and names for the source. many source specimens and analyzing for several elements to
achieve a statistically significant differentiation between the
2. Source type (either primary or secondary). obsidian sources. Unfortunately, as Ward (1974) and, more re-
cently Hughes (1986) have pointed out, it is difficult to visual-
3. Geologic setting of the source area. ize more than two or three elements at once during statistical
analysis. For example, low-dimensional plots (bivariate scat-
4. Evidence of quarrying or chipping activity and the quality tergrams and ternary plots) of the measured elements are the
of the raw material obsidian for tool making. usual way that researchers display and examine their data.
When considering a small number of sources, this technique is
5. Visual characteristics (both macroscopic and microscopic) often satisfactory. However, when the number of sources in a
of the glass. region becomes large, such as in central Mexico (-20 sources)
or in the California-Oregon-Nevada region (> 100 sources), low-
6. Density of the glass. dimensional plots of the raw elemental concentrations may prove
to be inadequate. This can be particularly problematic in XRF
7. Age of source and method of determination (e.g., K-Ar, where the number of high-precision, element-concentration
fission-track). pairs is small. As a result, the failure to consider multivariate
methods of data analysis and non-systematic use of source and
B. Whether source specimens were collected from flows, artifact data has led to erroneous assignments on occasion.
bomblets or nodules.
One of the most notable examples of mistaken source assign-
9. Names of persons knowledgeable of the source area. ments concerns the Chatham Island, South Pacific artifacts.
UsingXRF data and simple univariate methods, Leach (1973)
10. Evidence from use sites of artifacts that came from the mistakenly concluded the artifacts to be of Mayor Island ori-
source. gin, located approximately 600 km to the west of the Chatham
Islands. Subsequent use of more comprehensive NM data and
11. Types of chemical analyses performed (e.g., XRF, INM, multivariate methods found the Chatham Island artifacts ac-
ICP-MS). tually came from Easter Island located almost 7,000 km to
the east (Leach and Warren 1981).
12. Atabulation of compositional data on each analyzed speci-
men (not averages). The concentrations of various elements in obsidian and most
other geological materials are far from independent from one
13. A compilation of the relevant literature about the source. another. Instances of relatively high correlation in obsidian
are common. Some researchers (Perlman and Asaro 1969;
APPENDIX 1 209
Para localizar pequefios afloramientos y sectores grandes de 6. Densidad del vidrio.
mineria que evidencien un usa prehistorico deben realizarse
recorridos intensivos de superficie. Es recomendable el usa 7. Edad geologica del yacimiento y metoda de determinacion
de un posicionador satelital (GPS) al efectuar los recorridos y (par ejemplo Ar-K, huella de fision).
al colectar las muestras de material, especialmente en aque-
llas zonas en las que los mapas carecen de detalles. Ademas, 8. Procedencia de las muestras (flujos, nodulos, etcetera)
dado que los yacimientos reciben distintos nombres par los
informantes, los guias o los arqueologos, se requiere la ada- 9. Nombre de los informantes que conocen el yacimiento.
radon de nombres con coordenadas geograficas para evitar
confusiones a los analistas y tecnicos dellaboratorio que no 10. Evidencia de sitios con artefactos procedentes del yaci-
podran visitar el yacimiento en cuestion. miento.
La cantidad de muestras colectadas y analizadas debe ser 11. Tipos de analisis quimicos realizados (par ejemplo FRX,
suficiente como para permitir conocer el rango de variacion AAN).
en la com posicion quimica del yacimiento. Par Ia general, para
cualquier yacimiento (es decir un grupo geoquimico) debe 12. Tabulacion de los elementos de composicion de cada
analizarse un minima de dace muestras, si bien los yacimien- muestra analizada (sin porcentajes).
tos que ocupan grandes extensiones o aquellos que son
geologicamente complejos pueden requerir el anaJisis de mas 13. Compilacion de la literatura relevante relacionada con el
de cien muestras para obtener una descripcion adecuada. En yacimiento.
la medida de lo posible las muestras del yacimiento deben
colectarse a partir de los puntas especificos de extraccion pre- Las muestras del yacimiento deben analizarse ampliamente
historica y no de los cortes abiertos par carreteras, par la cons- utilizando todas las tecnicas disponibles (preferentemente AAN
truccion de sitios o par minas que son el resultado de y FRX, pero tambien a traves de cualquier otra tecnica accesi-
actividades modemas. Ademas de las muestras colectadas para ble) y los analisis deben realizarse en las muestras suficientes
analisis, es conveniente adquirir otros ejemplares para refe- que permitan establecer la concentracion de rangos, medias y
rencias futuras asi como para intercambios con otros labora- desviaciones estandar de cada yacimiento. Para calibracion
torios. Si la variacion de un yacimiento determinado resulta se recomienda el usa de materiales de referenda estandar bien
ser mayor que Ia que esperabamos o si el analisis de los arte- conocidos como los de Ia obsidiana SRM-278 y la ceniza de
factos nos indica la existencia de yacimientos aun desconoci- carbon SRM-1633a del National Institute of Standards and
dos, sera necesario efectuar nuevas recorridos de campo con Technology (NIST) (Graham et aL, 1982). Ademas, es conve-
sus respectivos muestreos (Shackley, 1988). niente analizar rutinariamente muestras de control de caU-
dad en cada late y monitorearlas con rigor a fm de asegurar
Es importante crear un banco de datos o un catalogo de yaci- que Ia informacion sea tan precisa como sea posible (Glascock
mientos en el que se incluya toda la informacion descriptiva, y Anderson, 1993). Estas acciones aseguraran que la infor-
fisica y quimica, en un forma to que facilite las consultas futu- macion de lotes separados y de distintos laboratorios sea com-
ras. En ese sentido los esfuerzos de Skinner (1983), de Hughes parable y que disminuyan las fuentes de errores sistematicos.
(1986) y, en tiempos mas recientes, de Healan (1997) han sido
los primeros pasos en esa direccion. Las categorias de infor- EvALUACI6N ESTADtSTICA DE LA INFORMACI6N
macion que se recomiendan cubrir para cada yacimiento son DE LOS YACIMIENTOS DE OBSIDIANA
las siguientes:
La mayoria de los investigadores modemos reconoce las ven-
1. Ubicacion geografica y nombres del yacimiento. tajas de colectar varias muestras de un yacimiento y de ana-
lizar diversos elementos para lograr una diferenciacion
2. Tipo de yacimiento (primario o secundario).
estadisticamente significativa de los yacimientos de obsidiana.
3. Ubicacion geologica del yacimiento. Par desgracia y como Ward (1974) y Hughes (1986) han sefia-
lado, es dificil observar mas de dos o tres elementos al mismo
4. Evidencias de extraccion, de tallado primario, o ambas, asi tiempo durante los analisis estadisticos. Un ejemplo son los
como la calidad de la materia prima para la elaboracion de cuadros de baja dimension de los elementos medidos como la
herramientas. forma usual de exponer y examinar los datos. Cuando se con-
sidera un numero pequefio de yacimientos, a menudo esta
5. Caracteristicas visuales del vidrio (macroscopicas y micros- tecnica es satisfactoria. No obstante, cuando el numero de
copicas). yacimientos en la region es mayor, como en el centro de Mexico
210 APE;NDICE 1
Wilson 1978) have argued against consideration of correlated EUCLIDEAN HYPERSPACE, VARIANCE-COVARIANCE,
elements because little extra discrimination between sources AND CORRELATION
is achieved by analyzing a number of correlated elements.
However, the practice of failing to consider correlated elements Multivariate statistical techniques are based on the idea that
results in an unnecessary loss of potentially valuable infor- each specimen can be considered a point in multi-dimensional
mation, no matter how slight. For example, Bowman et al. space (or hyperspace), with the number of dimensions equiva-
(1973) demonstrated that despite the presence of extreme cor- lent to the number of elements measured. In such a hyper-
relation in the compositional data for Borax Lake obsidian the space, groups of specimens with similar compositions fonn a
interpretations of the data were just as definitive as if the cor- cloud of points surrounding a mathematically calculable "cen-
relation between elements had not existed. Multivariate sta- ter of mass." An individual compositional group is character-
tistical procedures as described in the following section permit ized by the location of its centroids and by the unique
inter-element correlation to be fully accounted for without hyperellipsoidal shape of the group distribution (Sayre 1975).
sacrificing potentially useful information from any of the meas- The shape is due to the correlations between different ele-
ured elements. ments. Distinct source groups are represented by two or more
ellipsoids that do not overlap.
MULTIVARIATE METHODS OF ANALYSIS
As the dispersion of a particular element increases, it becomes
The main objectives of statistical analysis when applied to more difficult to use that element to differentiate between dif-
compositional data are data exploration, hypothesis generation, ferent source groups because the groups will have an increas-
hypothesis verification, and data summarization. Ward (1974), ing tendency to overlap with one another. A parameter that
Sayre (1975), Bieber et aL (1976), Leach and Manly (1982), and quantifies the dispersion in the compositional data is the meas-
others pioneered the application of multivariate analytical ured variance, s2m, in the mean element concentration. The
techniques to achieve these objectives in archaeometric studies. measured variance represents the sum of the natural vari-
Before describing the statistical procedures employed by the ance for group composition, s2n, and the variance due to sam-
Archaeometry Laboratory at the Missouri University Research pling and analytical errors, s2a' as defined by expression:
Reactor (MURR), a brief review of the terminology and techniques
employed in multivariate analysis is presented. More detailed
explanations are available in Sayre (1975), Bieber etaL (1976),
Davis (1986), Bishop and Neff (1989), and Neff (1994). The variance is equal to the square of the standard deviation,
sm' of the group mean concentration. For homogeneous ob-
SAMPLE DISTRIBUTIONS AND OUTLIERS sidian sources, approximately half of the elements measured
by NM have standard deviations below 3%.
Previous authors (e.g., Picon et al. 1975; Bieber et al. 1976)
have differed over whether element concentration data for geo- Just as the sample variance is a measure of the spread of
logical materials are distributed normally or lognormally. For- concentration values for an element around a central mean,
tunately, Ahrens (1954) has noted that if the dispersion in the the sample covariance is a measure of the mutual variability
data is small compared to the mean concentration, the log- of a pair of elements about their common mean. The sample
normal distribution approximates a normal distribution. The covariance between two elements j and k can be calculated
assumption of lognormality is also convenient because a trans- from expression:
n
formation to logarithms compensates for the large differences
in magnitude between the high-concentration elements in a
~ (C ..-A.)(Cik-
=l=l 'J J
AJ
obsidian (i.e., K, Fe and Na) and the trace elements (e.g., rare Jk n-1
earth elements). Thus, log transformation provides a conven-
ient quasi-standardization (Sayre 1975) or rescaling of the The values Cii and Cik denote the respective concentrations of
original data that facilitates the application of multivariate the jth and kth elements in specimen L The mean concentra-
methods. tions are given by') and Ak, and n is the number of specimens
under consideration. Although the covariance is similar to a
Specimens that chemically differ from all others and have a correlation coefficient, it is not standardized for the magni-
disruptive influence on the shapes of sample distributions are tudes of the elements. Therefore, the covariance can take on
commonly known as outliers. During the application of any value and is not limited to the range from -1 to t 1.
multivariate methods, preliminary screening and group refin-
ement procedures are commonly used to eliminate statistical For computational purposes, the covariances between elements
bias caused by outlier specimens (Bishop and Neff 1989). are arranged in the form of a square matrix with one row and
APPENDIX 1 211
(~20 yacimientos) o en la region California-Oregon-Nevada(> 100 estadisticos aplicados por ellaboratorio de arqueometria del
yacimientos), los cuadros de baja dimension de las concen- Missouri University Research Reactor (MURR). Existen expli-
traciones de material basico pueden resultar inadecuados. Esto caciones mas detalladas en Sayre (1975), Bieber et al, (1976),
puede ser especialmente problematico en la FRX, en donde te- Davis (1986), Bishop y Neff (1989) y Neff (1994).
nemos un pequefio numero de pares de concentraciones de
elementos de alta precision. Como resultado de esto, el no consi- DISTRIBUCIONES DE LAS MUESTRAS Y ELEMENTOS
derar metodos de variable multiple en el ana.Iisis de la informa- EXTERNOS
cion y el uso no sistematico de la informacion de los yacimientos
y de los artefactos ha generado asignaciones erroneas. Algunos autores (Picon et al., 1975; Bieber et aL, 1976) han
polemizado acerca de si la concentracion de elementos en los
Uno de los ejemplos mas claros de procedencias equivocadas materiales geologicos se distribuye de manera normal o
de yacimientos es el de los artefactos de las islas Chatham, en logaritmicamente. Por fortuna, Ahrens (1954) ha observado
el Pacifico del Sur. Leach (1973) utilizo datos de FRXy meto- que si la dispersion en los datos es pequefia comparada con la
dos sencillos de una variable de modo que erroneamente con- concentracion media, la distribucion logaritmica se aproxima
cluyo que los artefactos procedian de la Isla Mayor, ubicada a la distribucion normal. El supuesto de la normalidad
aproximadamente a 600 kilometros al poniente de las logaritmica tambien es conveniente porque una transforma-
Chatham. El uso posterior de informacion derivada del MN y cion a logaritmos compensa las grandes diferencias de mag-
de metodos de variable multiple permitieron saber que los ar- nitud entre los elementos de alta concentraci6n (K, Fe, y Na) y
tefactos de Chatham en realidad procedian de la Isla de Pas- los elementos traza de la obsidiana. De esta manera la trans-
cua, localizada a casi 7000 kilometros al oriente (Leach y formaci6n logaritmica proporciona una conveniente cuasi-
Warren, 1981). estandarizacion (Sayre 1975) o nueva forma de medir la
informacion original que facilita la aplicaci6n de los metodos
Las concentraciones de varios elementos en la obsidiana y en de variable multiple.
la mayoria de otros materiales geologicos distan de ser inde-
pendientes entre si. Es comun una correlacion relativamente Los materiales que difieren quimicamente y que tienen influen-
alta en la obsidiana. Algunos investigadores (Perlman y Asaro, cia de ruptura en las formas de distribuci6n de la muestra
1969; Wilson, 1978) han argumentado en contra de considerar generalmente se conocen como elementos externos. Para elimi-
la correlacion de elementos porque el ana.Iisis de varios elemen- nar los sesgos estadisticos causados por los elementos externos
tos correlacionados no proporciona mayor diferenciacion entre (Bishop y Neff, 1989), es comun el uso de filtros preliminares
los yacimientos. Sin embargo, el no considerar estos conlleva y de procedimientos de refinacion de grupo durante la aplica-
una innecesaria perdida de informacion potencialmente va- cion de metodos de variable multiple.
liosa. Un ejemplo es el de Bowman et al. (1973) quien demos-
tro que a pesar de la presencia de una correlacion extrema en HIPERESPACIO EUCLIDIANO, VARIANCIA-COVARIANCIA
los datos de la composicion de la obsidiana de Borax Lake, las Y CORRELACI6N
interpretaciones de los datos eran tan definitivas como si no
existiera la correlacion de elementos. Los procedimientos es- Las tecnicas estadisticas de variable multiple se basan en la
tadisticos de variable multiple que son descritos en la siguiente idea de que cada ejemplar puede considerarse como un punta
seccion permiten obtener la correlacion entre elementos sin en el espacio multidimensional (o hiperespacio), con un nu-
sacrificar informacion potencialmente util de los elementos mero de dimensiones equivalente al numero de elementos
medidos. medidos. En tal hiperespacio, los grupos de ejemplares con
composiciones similares forman una nube de puntas que ro-
MtTODOS DE ANALISIS DE VARIABLE MuLTIPLE dea a un "centro de masa" matematicamente calculable. Un
grupo de composicion individual se caracteriza por la ubica-
Los objetivos principales del analisis estadistico aplicados a cion de sus centro ides y por la forma Unica hiperelipsoidal de
la informacion de la composicion del material son la explora- la distribucion del grupo (Sayre 1975). La forma se debe a las
cion de datos, la generacion de hipotesis, la verificacion de la correlaciones entre los distintos elementos. Los grupos de ya-
misma y el resumen de la informacion. Ward (1974). Sayre cimientos diferentes se representan con dos o mas elipsoides
(1975), Bieber et al. (1976), Leach y Manly (1982) y otros in- que no se sobreponen.
vestigadores fueron los pioneros de la aplicacion de tecnicas
de variable multiple para lograr esos objetivos en los estudios Conforme aumenta la dispersion de un elemento particular,
arqueometricos. A continuacion presentamos una breve revi- es mas dificil usar dicho elemento para distinguir los diferen-
sion de la terminologia y de las tecnicas empleadas en el ana- tes grupos de yacimientos porque estos tendran una mayor
lisis de variable multiple antes de describir los procedimientos tendencia a traslaparse. Un parametro que cuantifica la dis-
212 APENDICE 1
one column for each element. The intersection of a row and Computation of the eigenvectors is derived from either the vari-
column contains the covariance for the corresponding pair of ance-covariance or correlation matrix of the original variables.
elements. The diagonal entries contain the variances, since The first principal component (PC) is oriented in the direction
the covariance for an element against itself is the same as the of maximum variance in the data. The second PC lies in the
variance. Appropriately, the matrix is known as a variance- direction of the maximum remaining variance, with the addi-
covariance matrix. tional constraint that it must be orthogonal to the first PC.
The third PC is orthogonal to the first two PCs, again repre-
Finally the correlation coefficient, ~k' between the elements j senting the direction of maximum remaining variance. The
and k is defined by the ratio: procedure continues until the number of PCs is equal to the
aJk number of original dimensions. All resulting PCs are linear
~k= --=--
aja k combinations of the original axes. The loading factors (coeffi-
cients) used to construct the PCs can be used to identify at-
The values s. and sk are the respective sample standard de- tributes important to the individual components.
viations, and s1k is the sample covariance between the ele-
ments. Correlation coefficients range in value from t 1 to -1, The PCA technique can be used to describe, using a different
with+ 1 indicating a perfect relationship, 0 indicating no rela- basis, the entire distribution of elemental concentrations in a
tionship, and -1 indicating an inverse relationship between compositional data set. The positions of samples in the origi-
elemental compositions. For obsidian it is not uncommon to nal element concentration space are converted into principal
find correlation coefficients of 0.9 or higher for certain ele- scores calculated in terms of the linear combinations of the
ments (e.g., the REEs). original data and are projected onto the new principal compo-
nent axes. For correlated data, a larger portion of the data
BIVARIATE ANALYSIS structure (often >90% of the total population variance) can be
inspected from two- or three-dimensional plots using the first
As stated earlier, two-dimensional scattergrams or bivariate few PCs than is possible with most bivariate plots of the origi-
plots are frequently used to make visual distinctions between nal elements. Thus, PCA eliminates repetitive data and estab-
obsidian source-groups. In addition, highly-correlated element lishes a new basis for dimensionality reduction. If PCA provides
pairs and outlier specimens are often identified by viewing the a satisfactory differentiation between source groups, it is of-
bivariate plots. Confidence ellipses (or probability intervals ten possible to assign artifacts by projecting their principal
surrounding source groups) are frequently calculated and component scores against the principal axes.
drawn at a constant Mahalanobis distance from the group
centroid. In geographic regions with relatively few possible The PCA approach is widely employed in archaeometric stud-
sources, bivariate plots usually permit the unambiguous as- ies of ceramics (Neff eta!. 1988) and man-made glasses (Baxter
signment of artifacts to sources. Bivariate plots can also be 1991) but has only rarely seen application in obsidian studies
used to graph the original concentration data or linear combi- (Stark et at 1992). However, PCA can be especially useful for
nations of the data such as principal components or discrimi- understanding the chemical basis for group separation and in
nant functions. rapidly identifying the original elements that by themselves
may be satisfactory to describe the most significant composi-
PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS ANALYSIS tional differences between particular obsidian source groups.
Finally, the most useful elements in one geographic region
One of the more widely employed techniques for identifying may be entirely different from the elements useful in a differ-
the underlying relationships in multivariate data is factor ent region.
analysis. In particular, the factor analytical approach known
as principal components analysis (PCA) is employed when the In their discussions of taxonomic methods, Cattell (1952) and
main objective is to derive a set of non-correlated linear com- Sneath and Sokal (1973) point out that multivariate factor
binations of the original variables while retaining all of the analysis can be used in two ways. Associating variables over
original information. If the original variables are significantly all specimens is known as the Q-mode technique. On the other
correlated as frequently occurs for obsidian, a small number hand, associating specimens over all variables is known as
of principal components may be adequate to describe the sig- the R-mode technique. The emphasis in most previous archaeo-
nificant features in the original data. logical applications of PCA has been the use of R-mode tech-
niques with displays of variable scores plotted in R-space to
In PCA, one performs a transformation of the data using eigen- reveal the contributions of individual variables. However, ap-
vector methods to determine both the direction and magni- plications involving Q-mode techniques on compositional data
tude of maximum variance in hyperspace (Davis 1986). are becoming more common (Neff et al. 1988).
APPENDIX 1 213
persion en los datos de composicion es la variancia medida, indicando ninguna relacion y -1 indicando una relacion in-
a2m' en la concentracion media de elementos. La variancia versa entre la composicion de elementos. En la obsidiana es
medida representa la suma de la variancia natural para la comun encontrar coeficientes de correlacion de 0.9 o mayores
composicion del grupo, a20 , y la valiancia debida al muestreo para algunos elementos (es decir los elementos terrestres ra-
y errores analiticos, a2a, es definida por la expresion: ros, ETR).
La variancia es igual al cuadrado de la desviacion estandar, Como hemos seiialado, frecuentemente se usan cuadros de
am, de la concentraci6n media del grupo. En los yacimientos dos variables, o diagramas de dispersion de dos dimensiones,
de obsidiana homogeneos, aproximadamente la mitad de los para efectuar distinciones visuales entre los grupos de yaci-
elementos medidos por AAN presentan desviaciones estandar mientos de obsidiana. Ademas, analizando los cuadros de dos
menores a 3%. variables a menudo se identifican pares de elementos alta-
mente correlacionados y ejemplares extemos. Las elipses de
Asi como la variancia de la muestra es una medida de la ex- confiabilidad (o intervalos de probabilidad que rodean a los
tension de los valores de concentracion de un elemento alre- grupos de yacimientos) con frecuencia son calculadas y dibu-
dedor de una media central, la covariancia de la muestra es jadas a una distancia Mahalanobis constante del centroide
una medida de la variabilidad mutua de un par de elementos del grupo. En regiones geograficas con relativamente pocos
respecto a su media comun. La covariancia de la muestra en- yacimientos, los cuadros de dos variables generalmente per-
tre dos elementos j y k puede calcularse con la expresion: miten la asignacion acertada de artefactos a los yacimientos.
Los cuadros de dos variables tambien pueden usarse para
n
graficar la concentracion original de datos o las combinacio-
a = f:t(CiiAHCik- AJ nes lineales de tales datos como los componentes principales
Jk n-1 o como funciones discliminatorias.
Los valores cijy cik denotan las concentraciones respectivas ANALISIS DE LOS COMPONENTES PRINCIPALES
de los elementos j y k en el ejemplar L Las concentraciones
medias son dadas por 1\ y J\. mientras que n es el numero de Una de las tecnicas que mas se utilizan para identificar las
ejemplares considerados. Aunque la covariancia es similar a relaciones de los datos de variable multiple es el anaJisis
un coeficiente de correlacion, no esta estandarizado por las factorial. En particular, el enfoque analitico factorial conoci-
magnitudes de los elementos. Por ello, la covariancia puede do como analisis de componentes principales (ACP) se utiliza
existir en cualquier valor y no se limita a Ins rangos de -1 a +1. cuando el objetivo principal es obtener un conjunto de combi-
naciones lineales no correlacionadas de las variables origina-
Para propositos de anruisis por computadora, las covariancias les al tiempo que se conserva toda la informacion original. Si
entre los elementos estan distribuidas en forma de una ma- las variables originales son correlacionadas de manera signi-
triz cuadrada con una fila y una columna por cada elemento. ficativa, como ocurre con frecuencia con la obsidiana, un pe-
La interseccion de una fila y una columna contiene una cova- quefio numero de componentes principales puede ser adecuado
riancia del par de elementos correspondiente. Las entradas para describir las caracteristicas importantes en los datos
diagonales contienen las variancias, dado que la covaliancia originales. En elACP efectuamos la transformacion de los datos
de un elemento contra si mismo es la misma de la variancia. usando metodos de vectores eigen para determinar tanto la
En consecuencia, la matriz es conocida como una matriz de direccion como la magnitud de la variancia maxima en el
variancia -covariancia. hiperespacio (Davies, 1986). El analisis por computadora de
los vectores eigen puede derivar de la variancia-covariancia o
Por ultimo el coeficiente de correlacion, rJk' entre los elemen- de la matriz de correlacion de las variables originales. El pri-
tos j y k es definido por la formula: mer componente principal (CP) se orienta en direccion de la
valiancia maxima en los datos. El segundo CP se orienta en
direccion de la variancia remanente maxima, con la limitante
adicional de que debe ser ortogonal al primer CP. El tercer CP
es ortogonal a los dos anteriores, nuevamente representando
Los valores aJ y ak son las desviaciones estandar respectivas la direccion de la variancia remanente maxima. El procedi-
de la muestra y aJk es la covariancia de la muestra entre los miento continua basta que el numero de CP es igual al nume-
elementos. Los coeficientes de correlacion tienen un rango de ro de dimensiones originales. Todos los CP resultantes son
valor de +1 a -1, con +1 indicando una relacion perfecta, 0 combinaciones lineales de los ejes originales. Los factores de
214 APB:NDICE 1
Articles by Baxter (1992) and Neff (1994) demonstrate the America and the Maya lowlands, Nelson (1985) and Hughes
application of RQ-mode PCA as a means of examining rela- (1986) employed the stepwise discriminant analysis procedures
tionships between specimens and elements simultaneously. available in the well-known SPSS statistical package.
This technique of presenting R-mode and Q-mode plots to-
gether is called bi-plotting (Gabriel1971). The use of both R- Bivariate plots of discriminant functions are useful for visu-
and Q-mode plots allows the contributions of individual ele- ally displaying group separation. In the same manner as PCA,
ments to group separation to be displayed. one can employ discriminant functions to calculate the dis-
criminant scores for artifacts. By comparing artifact scores
DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION ANALYSIS with scores for source specimen groups, decisions regarding
source assignments for the artifacts can be made.
In multivariate analysis, the term discriminant analysis is fre-
quently used to describe two different processes: discrimina- MAHALANOBIS DISTANCES AND PROBABILITY
tion and classification. The process of discrimination involves CALCULATIONS
identifying a mathematical transformation of the original vari-
ables that best reveals the differences between known groups Discriminant analysis for classification purposes and related
of observations. On the other hand, the process of classifica- techniques is based on the standardized-squared distance or
tion involves the categorization of a number of observations Mahalanobis distance. The Mahalanobis distance, D2, statis-
into known groups. tic is defined as the squared-Euclidean distance from an indi-
vidual specimen to a group centroid divided by the group
Discriminant function analysis (DFA) is a multivariate tech- standard deviation in that direction. Mathematically, the value
nique differing from PCA in that it is used to summarize rela- of D 2 from a specimen k to the centroid of cluster A is given by
tionships between groups. DFA is based on the assumption the equation:
that the pooled variance-covariance matrix is an accurate rep-
resentation of the total variance and covariance of the entire
set of data (Davis 1986). When employing DFA, it is assumed
that all specimens belong to one of the known source groups.
The valuesAi and Ai represent the mean concentrations of ele-
Two computational methods can be used to derive discrimi- ments i and j in the cluster and ~J is the ij th element of the
nant functions: concurrent or stepwise. The concurrent method inverse of the variance-covariance matrix. The relative Mahala-
identifies a set of linear combinations of the original variables nobis distances from a specimen to each of several alternative
that best summarize the between-group differences by con- group centroids can be used to estimate the probabilities of
sidering all variables simultaneously, regardless of their indi- membership in each group (Bishop and Neff 1989). The D 2
vidual discriminating powers. The concurrent method statistic can also be used to measure the separation distance
computes a series of discriminant functions (one less than between pairs of multivariate means in units of pooled vari-
the number of source groups under consideration) that mini- ance (Davis 1986).
mize the ratio of the difference between group multivariate
means to the multivariate variance within each group. As a As explained by Klecka (1980) and Hughes (1986), the clas-
result, the latter procedure maximizes the total score of speci- sification aspect of discriminant analysis is based on the fol-
mens belonging to their assigned group and minimizes the lowing assumptions:
total score of belonging to all other groups. The resulting dis-
criminant functions are linear combinations of the original 1. The existence of two or more groups.
data each successively describing lesser amounts of separa-
tion between compositional groups. 2. There are at least two observations in each group.
In the stepwise method, the variables are entered into the dis- 3. The number of discriminating variables must be at least
criminant function one at a time on the basis of their dis- two less than the total number of specimens.
criminating power. The stepwise method begins by identifying
the single best discriminating variable. The initial variable is 4. The discriminating variables are measured at the interval
then paired with all others in order to identify the next best level.
discriminating variable. This process is successively repeated
for all remaining variables. Areduced set of most discriminating 5. The discriminating variables must not be linear combina-
variables, is often as good at differentiating as the entire suite tions of other discriminating variables.
of variables. In their studies of obsidian from western North
APPENDIX 1 215
carga (coeficientes) usados para construir los CP pueden usarse elementos. Esta tecnica de presentacion cor~unta de la moda-R
para identificar atributos que son importantes en los compo- y la moda-Q es denominada bi-ploteo (Gabriel. 1971). El uso de
nentes individuales. diagramas o cuadros (plots) de moda-R y moda-Q permite mos-
trar aquellos elementos individuales que tienden a separarse.
La tecnica de ACP puede emplearse para describir, usando
una base distinta, toda la distribucion de concentraciones ele- ANALISIS DE FUNCI6N DISCRIMINANTE
mentales en un conjunto de datos de composicion. Las posicio-
nes de las muestras en el espacio original de la concentracion En los analisis de variable multiple, el termino analisis discri-
de elementos son convertidas en puntas principales calculados minante se utiliza con frecuencia para describir dos procesos
en terminos de las combinaciones lineales de los datos origi- distintos: discriminacion y clasificacion. El proceso de discri-
nales y son proyectadas hacia los nuevas ejes principales de minacion considera !a identificacion de una transformacion
componentes. Para los datos correlacionados, una gran parte matematica de las variables originales que mejor revele las
de la estructura de datos (a menudo >90% de la variancia diferencias entre grupos conocidos de observaciones. Por otra
total de poblacion) puede inspeccionarse a partir de los cuadros parte, el proceso de clasificacion incluye !a categorizacion de
de dos o de tres dimensiones usando los primeros CP posibles varias observaciones en grupos conocidos.
con la mayoria de los cuadros de dos variables de los elemen-
tos otiginales. De esa manera, el ACP elimina la informacion El analisis de funcion discriminante (AFD) es una tecnica de
repetitiva y establece una nueva base para la reduccion de la variable multiple que difiere del ACP en que es empleado para
dimensionalidad. Si el ACP proporciona una diferenciacion resumir las relaciones entre grupos. El AFD se basa en el su-
satisfactoria entre los grupos de yacimientos, a menudo po- puesto de que la matriz de variancia-covariancia es una re-
dremos asignar artefactos proyectando su puntaje de compo- presentacion precisa de la variancia y de la covariancia to tales
nentes principales contra los ejes principales. de todo el conjunto de datos (Davis, 1986). AI aplicar el AFD
se presupone que todos los especimenes pertenecen a alguno
El enfoque del ACP es ampliamente utilizado en estudios ar- de los grupos de yacimientos conocidos.
queometricos de cenimica (Neff et al, 1988) y de vidrios hechos
por el hombre (Baxter, 1991). y solo ha tenido raras aplicacio- Para derivar funciones discriminantes se pueden emplear dos
nes en estudios de obsidiana (Stark et al., 1992). No obstante, metodos de computacion: el concurrente y el escalonado.' El
el ACP puede ser especialmente util para entender la base metoda concurrente identifica un conjunto de combinaciones
quimica de la separacion de grupos, asi como para la n'i.pida lineales de las variables originales que resume mejor las dife-
identificacion de elementos originales que por si mismos des- rencias intergrupales al considerar simultaneamente a todas
criben satisfactoriamente las diferencias de composicion mas las variables, independientemente de sus cualidades discri-
significativas de los grupos particulares de yacimientos de minantes individuales. El metoda concurrente computa una
obsidiana. Finalmente, los elementos mas utiles de una re- serie de funciones discriminantes (una menos que el numero
gion geografica pueden ser completamente distintos de aque- de grupos de yacimientos considerados) que minimizan la re-
llos elementos que son utiles en una region diferente. laci6n de !a diferencia entre las medias de variable multiple
de un grupo y la variancia de variable multiple dentro de cada
En sus discusiones de metodos taxonomicos Cattell (1952) y grupo. Como resultado de lo anterior ese procedimiento in-
Sneath y Sokal (1973) seiialan que el analisis de factores de crementa el puntaje total de especimenes pertenecientes a su
variables multiples puede emplearse en dos sentidos. La aso- grupo asignado y reduce el puntaje total de los pertenecientes
ciacion de variables con respecto a todos los especimenes se a todos los demas grupos. Las funciones discriminantes resul-
conoce como la tecnica de moda-Q. Por otra parte, la asocia- tantes son combinaciones lineales de los datos originales, cada
cion de especimenes con respecto a todas las variables es co- una describiendo, de manera sucesiva, cantidades menores
nocida como la tecnica de moda-R. El enfasis en la mayoria de separaci6n entre los grupos de composici6n.
de las aplicaciones arqueologicas previas del ACP ha sido el
uso de tecnicas de moda-R con presentaciones de puntajes de En el metoda escalonado las variables son introducidas de
variables graficados en espacio-R para mostrar las contribu- una en una a la funci6n discriminante con base en esa cuali-
ciones de las variables individuales. No obstante, cada vez dad. Este metoda comienza identificando ala mejor variable
son mas comunes las aplicaciones que consideran las tecni- discriminante. Esa variable inicial es luego pareada con todas
cas de moda -Q en los datos de composicion (Neff et al., 1988). las de mas a fin de identificar la siguiente mejor variante discri-
minante. Este proceso se repite sucesivamente para todas las
Los articulos de Baxter (1992) y de Neff (1994) demuestran la demas variables. Un conjunto reducido de las variables mas
aplicacion de moda-RQ en el ACP como una manera de exa- discriminantes generalmente es tan bueno para diferenciar
minar simultaneamente las relaciones entre especimenes y como el conjunto completo de variables. En sus estudios de !a
216 APB:NDICE 1
6. Each group is drawn from a sample population with a multiv- creases away from the group centroid toward the specimen of
ariate normal distribution on the discriminating variables. interest.
7. The variance-covariance matrices for each group must be Calculation of probabilities using D2 requires that the num-
approximately equal. ber of specimens defining the source groups exceed the number
of elements under consideration by at least one specimen.
Of these assumptions, the normality of multivariate distri- Probability calculations with small-sized groups suffer from a
butions and homogeneity of group variance-covariance matri- problem that Harbottle (1976) calls stretchability because of
ces are the most important and difficult to satisfy in practice the tendency for individual specimens to stretch the envelope
(Sneath and Sokall973). to include that specimen. Excluding the specimen from the
group before calculating its probability of membership helps
The assumption that each group is drawn from a multivariate to eliminate this problem. Nevertheless, it is recommended
normal distribution is critical for tests of significance. Signif- that each compositional group consist of three to five times as
icance tests are computed by comparing a statistic calculated many specimens as the number of elements under consider-
for a sample relative to a theoretical probability distribution ation (Harbottle 1976).
for that statistic. If the sample population does not satisfy this
requirement, the distribution for the sample statistic will be The significance of differences between two groups of speci-
different from the theoretical distribution, resulting in inac- mens can be tested by Hotelling's T2 statistic (the multivariate
curacy. As long as the deviation is minor, Lachenbruch (1975) equivalent of the Student's t) according to the expression:
has shown that the discriminant analysis is not particularly
sensitive. The assumption of multivariate normality is also
important for classification based on relative probability of
group membership. Probabilities are calculated from a chi-
square distribution that is appropriate only if the variables are
normally distributed. If the normality assumption is violated, The values n1 and n 2 are the number of specimens in each of
probabilities for membership in some groups may be overstated two groups. Hotelling's T2 statistic is essentially equivalent to
while the probabilities for other groups may be underestimated. D2 for individual data points. If vis the number of elements
According to Ahrens (1954), the evidence from basic statistics under consideration, the T2 statistic can be transformed into
(i.e., means, ranges, etc.) indicates that most geochemical dis- the F ratio by the expression:
tributions are approximately normal (or lognormal) and the mul-
tivariate normality assumption is rarely violated. (n 1 tn 1 -u 1)
F=-----
The more serious assumption concerns the homogeneity of (n1 + n 1 - 2)u
group variance-covariance matrices. If the matrices are not
equal, distortions in the classification equations will occur such The F ratio can be easily transformed into a probability per-
that specimens have a greater likelihood of being allocated centage using tables for the F distribution.
into groups with greater dispersion as measured by the deter-
minant of the variance-covariance matrix (Klecka 1980). Leach Finally, as Sayre (1975) recommends, Mahalanobis distance
and Manly (1982) employed a power transformation to alleviate calculations are quite useful for handling missing data. When
this problem in obsidian data from New Zealand. Fortunately, large numbers of specimens are analyzed, there is a high prob-
as Klecka points out, for classification purposes violation of ability that a few concentration measurements will be missed
the homogeneity assumption is only important when compar- for some specimens. This occurs most often when the group
ing probabilities that are nearly equal in magnitude. As a re- mean concentration for an element is very near the detection
sult, cautious consideration of similar probability values is limit for the element. For example, the elements Sr and Ba are
mandatory when making classifications. near or below the NAA detection limit for a number of obsid-
ian sources. Rather than completely eliminate specimens with
The D2 statistic, unlike the simple Euclidean measure, incor- occasional missing values from consideration, it is possible to
porates information about the correlations between pairs of substitute by computing a value that minimizes the
elements as derived from the off-diagonal terms of the vari- Mahalanobis distance for that specimen from the group cen-
ance-covariance matrix. The statistic permits calculation of troid. As a result, the substitute concentration values for these
the probability that a particular specimen belongs to the group few specimens will have little effect on the statistical charac-
based not only on its proximity to the group centroid, but also teristics of the group and enables the elements to be included
on the rate at which the density of specimen data points de- in all group calculations.
APPENDIX 1 217
obsidiana del occidente de Norteamerica y de las tierras bajas 5. Las variables discriminantes no deben de ser combinacio-
mayas, Nelson (1985) y Hughes (1986) utilizaron procedimien- nes lineales de otras variables discriminantes.
tos de analisis discriminantes con el metoda escalonado dis-
ponible en el bien conocido paquete estadistico SPSS. 6. Cada grupo es obtenido de una poblacion simple con una
distribucion normal de variable multiple en las variables
Los cuadros de dos variables de funciones discriminantes son discriminantes.
utiles para separar visualmente a los grupos que se mues-
tran. AI igual que en el ACP, podemos emplear funciones dis- 7. Las matrices de variancia-covariancia de cada grupo de-
criminantes para calcular el puntaje discriminante de los ben de ser aproximadamente iguales.
artefactos. La comparacion de los puntajes de artefactos con
los puntajes de los grupos de yacimientos permite to mar deci- De los supuestos anteriores, la normalidad de las distribucio-
siones relacionadas con la asignacion de yacimientos para los nes de variable multiple y la homogeneidad de las matrices de
artefactos. variancia-covariancia del grupo son las mas importantes y las
mas dificiles de satisfacer en Ia practica (Sneath y Sakal, 1973).
DISTANCIAS MAHALANOBIS Y CALCULOS
DE PROBABILIDAD El supuesto de que cada grupo es obtenido de una distribucion
normal de variable multiple es fundamental para pruebas de
El analisis discriminante con propositos clasificatorios y las significancia. Estas ultimas son computadas comparando una
tecnicas correspondientes se basan en la distancia estandari- estadistica calculada para una muestra relativa con una dis-
zada al cuadrado o distancia Mahalanobis. La distancia Maha- tribucion de probabilidad teorica de esa estadistica. Si la
lanobis estadistica, D2, se define como la distancia euclidiana muestra de poblacion no satisface este requisito, Ia distribucion
al cuadrado de un especimen individual al centroide de un de la muestra estadistica sera distinta de la distribucion teo-
grupo, dividido por la desviacion estandar del grupo en esa rica, resultando imprecisa. Lachenbruch (1975) ha demostrado
direccion. Matematicamente, el valor de D2 de un especimen que el analisis discriminante no es particularmente evidente
k al centro ide del conjunto A es dado por la ecuacion siguiente: conforme la desviacion sea menor. El supuesto de normali-
dad de variable multiple tambien es importante para la clasi-
ficacion basada en la probabilidad relativa de la pertenencia
al grupo. Las probabilidades son calculadas a partir de una
distribucion chi-al cuadrado que solo es apropiada silas varia-
Los valores A1y AJ' representan las concentraciones medias de bles estan distribuidas normalmente. Si el supuesto de nor-
los elementos i y j en el conjunto e I1J es el elemento Y de Ia malidad se viola, las probabilidades de pertenencia de algunos
inversa de la matriz de variancia-covariancia. Las distancias grupos pueden ser sobrevaloradas a! tiempo que las probabi-
Mahalanobis relativas de un especimen a cada uno de los va- lidades de otros grupos pueden ser subvaluadas. De acuerdo
rios centroides alternativos del grupo pueden usarse para cal- con Ahrens (1954), la evidencia de la estadistica basica (es
cular las probabilidades de pertenencia en cad a grupo (Bishop decir, medias, rangos, etcetera) nos indica que la mayoria de
y Neff, 1989). La D2 estadistica tambien puede utilizarse para las distribuciones geoquimicas son aproximadamente norma-
medir la distancia que separa a los pares de medias de varia- les (o logaritmicamente normales) y el supuesto de normali-
ble multiple en unidades de variancia conjunta (Davis, 1986). dad de variable multiple rara vez es violado.
Como explicaron Klecka (1980) y Hughes (1986), el aspecto El supuesto mas serio se refiere a la homogeneidad de las
clasificatorio del analisis discriminante se basa en los siguien- matrices de variancia-covariancia de grupo. Si las matrices
tes supuestos: no son iguales, ocurriran distorsiones en las ecuaciones de
clasificacion, de modo que los especimenes tenderan a ser
1. La existencia de dos o mas grupos. colocados en grupos con mayor dispersion segun lo marque la
matriz de variancia-covariancia (Klecka, 1980). Leach y Manly
2. Existencia de dos observaciones minimas en cada grupo. (1982) utilizaron una transformacion de poder para resolver
este problema en datos de obsidiana de Nueva Zelanda. Por
3. El numero de variables discriminantes debe ser cuando me- fortuna, como nos aclara Klecka, para los propositos clasifi-
nos dos unidades menor que el numero total de especimenes. catorios, la violacion del supuesto de homogeneidad solo es
importante cuando se comparan probabilidades que son casi
4. Las variables discriminantes son medidas en el nivel de iguales en magnitud. Como resultado, al efectuar clasificacio-
intervalo. nes debemos considerar con precaucion los valores de proba-
bilidad similares.
218 APE:NDICE 1
THE MESOAMERICAN OBSIDIAN portions of the source specimens were sent to other laborato-
CHARACTERIZATION PROJECT ries for XRF analysis and hydration rate measurements. An
additional goal was to increase the confidence with which ob-
One of the most extensive obsidian source characterization sidian artifacts could be associated with specific source ar-
studies carried out to date and described herein was initiated eas. In order to accomplish this goal, a detailed statistical
in 1979-80 by Robert Cobean with support from the National analysis was employed to identity the most discriminating ele-
Science Foundation and the University of Missouri. In col- ments between regions, sources, and, if possible, between dif-
laboration with other archaeologists from Mexico's Instituto ferent flows or outcrops within sources. Identification of highly
Nacional de Antropologia e Historia (INAH), Cobean collected discriminating elements has the added potential advantage of
and recorded information on more than 800 obsidian source facilitating the development of more rapid and less expensive
specimens (weighing a total of 710 kg) from volcanic sources analytical procedures for future analyses of artifacts that are
located throughout the region of eastern and central Mexico. just as reliable as the comprehensive analysis used to charac-
A map of the sources in the study is shown in Figure Al.l. terize source specimens.
The main goals of the project were to establish a sample re- A few of the sources sampled by Co bean extended over areas
pository and geochemical data bank on Mexican obsidian greater than 300 km2. Intensive field surveys resulted in map-
sources for use on future research projects. In addition to col- ping the obsidian flows, locating prehistoric quarries, and col-
lecting samples for NM at MURR and for future reference, lection of other essential information. Reports describing the
0 500 1000 km
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I ''
I
I
I
I \
\
''
I
I
I.
I ''
I
I
I
I
\
\ ''
I
I
\
\
''
I
I
I
' ''
Zacual\ipan .A
0 50 100 km
~
Pachuca-1 ,·2,·3
J;;. Ucareo A .A AltotO!l{ISI
Jr cru; Negra Otumba .A .A .A . Zaragoza
Zlnapeeuaro Ma!pa{s Paredon
Derrumbadas
Figure Al.l. The locations of MexicoCtly ..A Guadal 'k AVICiolila
obsidian sources in central Mexico Orizaba A
mentioned in this study.
Figura Al.l. Ubicacion de los
yacimientos de obsidiana del
centro de Me::dco mencionados en
este estudio.
APPENDIX 1 219
La estadistica D 2 , a diferencia de Ia euclidiana simple, incor- que se encuentran cerca o debajo del limite de deteccion del
pora informacion acerca de las correlaciones entre los pares AAN para varios yacimientos de obsidiana. En Iugar de elimi-
de elementos que se derivan de los terminos diagonales exter- nar por completo los especimenes con valores ocasionalmente
nos de Ia matriz de variancia-covariancia. La estadistica per- faltantes, podemos sustituirlos computando un valor que re-
mite calcular !a probabilidad de que un especimen particular duce Ia distancia Mahalanobis de ese especimen en el centroide
pertenece a un grupo basandose no solo en su cercania al del grupo. Como resultado, los valores de concentracion susti-
centroide del grupo, sino tambien en Ia proporcion hacia !a tutos de esos cuantos especimenes tendran un efecto minimo
que apunta !a densidad de informacion del especimen a! ale- en las caracteristicas estadisticas del grupo y permite incluir a
jarse del centroide del grupo hacia el especimen de interes. los elementos en todos los calculos del grupo.
Finalmente, y como Sayre (1975) recomienda, los calculos de !a Algunos de los yacimientos de los que Cobean tomo muestra
distancia Mahalanobis son bastante utiles para manejar datos se extienden en superficies mayores de los 300 kilometros
faltantes. Cuando se analiza un gran numero de especimenes cuadrados. Los recorridos intensivos de campo produjeron
existe una alta probabilidad de que falten unas cuantas medi- mapas de flujos de obsidiana, ubicaci6n de canteras prehisto-
das de concentracion para algunos especimenes. Ello sucede ricas y colectas de otros datos esenciales. Los reportes que
con mayor frecuencia cuando Ia concentracion promedio del describen el trabajo de campo han sido publicados por Stocker
grupo de un elemento se halla muy cerca del limite de detec- y Cobean (1984}, por Cobean et al., (1991) yen otros aparta-
cion del elemento. Un ejemplo es el de los elementos Sr y Ba dos de este volumen.
220 APB:NDICE 1
fieldwork appeared earlier in Stocker and Cobean (1984) and minute count to determine six short-lived elements (i.e., Ba,
Cobean et al. (1991) and elsewhere in this volume. Cl, Dy, K, Mn, and Na). To measure the medium- and long-
lived elements, samples in quartz vials were irradiated for 70
Following the sampling strategy, a comprehensive INM char- hours in a neutron flux of 5 x 10 13 neutrons cm·2 s· 1• Seven
acterization program for obsidian was developed in the labo- medium-lived elements (i.e., Ba, La, Lu, Nd, Sm, U, and Yb)
ratory. Sample preparation techniques (Glascock et al. 1988), were determined by a 2,000 second count after 7-8 days of
standards for analytical calibration (Graham et al. 1982), and decay. In general, the medium-lived Ba measurement was usu-
quality control procedures (Glascock and Anderson 1993) were ally superior to the short-lived Ba measurement. Finally, fif-
established in order to provide the most complete and accu- teen long-lived elements (i.e., Ce, Co, Cs, Eu, Fe, Hf, Rb, Sb,
rate analyses possible. In addition, database management and Sc, Sr, Ta, Tb, Th, Zn and Zr) were determined by a 10,000-
statistical procedures originally developed for compositional second count after 4-5 weeks of decay. Concentrations of ele-
studies of ceramic materials were implemented (Bishop and ments in the unknown specimens were determined relative to
Neff 1989: Neff 1990). the SRM-278 Obsidian Rock standard.
APPENDIX 1 221
En ellaboratorio se desarrollo un amplio programa de caracte- seguida por un lapso de 25 minutos de reposo y una cuenta
rizacion de la obsidiana mediante el AAN siguiendo !a estrategia de 12 minutos para determinar 6 elementos de vida corta (es
del muestreo. Las tecnicas de la preparacion de las muestras decir Ba, Cl, Dy, K, Mn y Na). Para medir los elementos de
(Glascock et al., 1988), los estandares para la calibracion anali- vida media y larga se irradiaron las muestras en via!es de
tica (Graham et aL, 1982) y los procedimientos de control de cuarzo durante 70 horas con un flujo de neutrones de 5 x
calidad (Glascock y Anderson, 1993) fueron establecidos con 10 13 neutrones sobre cm· 2 s· 1 • Tras siete u ocho dias de repo-
el fin de proporcionar los analisis mas completos y precisos. so se determinaron siete elementos de vida media con una
Ademas, se implementaron una base de datos y procedimientos cuenta de 2000 segundos (Ba, La, Lu, Nd, Sm, U e Yb). Por lo
estadisticos originalmente desarrollados para estudiar ]a general, las medidas de Ba de vida media fueron superiores
composicion de materiales ceramicos (Bishop y Neff, 1989; a las del mismo elemento de vida corta. Finalmente, tras
Neff, 1990). cuatro o cinco semanas de reposo y mediante una cuenta de
10000 segundos, se determinaron 15 elementos de vida lar-
LAS MUESTRAS Y WS PROCEDIMIENTOS ANALiTICOS ga (es decir Ce, Co, Cs, Eu, Fe, Hf, Rb, Sb, Sc, Sr, Ta, Tb, Th,
UTILIZADOS Zn y Zr). Las concentraciones de elementos en las muestras
desconocidas se determinaron como relativas a! estandar de
Aproximadamente 640 de los 800 especimenes originales de obsidiana SRM-278.
yacimientos del norte de Mesoamerica fueron analizados consi-
derando la region comprendida del este al oeste de Mexico. ANALISIS ESTADiSTICO DE WS DATOS
Los analisis mas intensivos se realizaron en muestras colecta- DE YACIMIENTOS
das en el centro y el oriente de Mexico, cerca del yacimiento
de Pachuca en el estado de Hidalgo, en el yacimiento de Ucareo- En las instalaciones de la Universidad de Missouri se usaron
Zinapecuaro, en el estado de Michoacan, yen la zona del Pico varias rutinas de lenguaje GAUSS escritas por Neff (1990) para
de Orizaba-Guadalupe Victoria, que se localiza entre los esta- facilitar la aplicacion de metodos de variable multiple. Las
dos de Veracruz y Puebla. Uno de los primeros reportes de rutinas dellenguaje GAUSS sustituyen a una serie previa de
Cobean et al. (1991) presenta una parte de los datos de ese rutinas de lenguaje FORTRAN originalmente desarrolladas por
proyecto (basicamente los yacimientos de las areas orientales Sayre (1975) y por Bieber et al. (1976).
de Veracruz y Puebla). A partir de esa publicacion, varios estu-
dios de procedencia de artefactos de obsidiana han utilizado Despues de haber analizado los especimenes de obsidiana, la
partes de la base de datos analitica (Elam, 1993; Elam et al., concentracion de informacion de cada especimen es integrada
1990, 1994; Garda-Chavez et aL, 1990; Glascock et aL, 1988, como un solo registro en la base de datos maestra con otros
1994; Joyce et aL, 1995; Stark et al., 1992; Trombold et al., datos descriptivos y analiticos de ese especimen. Del archivo
1993). Este trabajo presenta, en un solo reporte, todo el cuer- maestro pueden obtenerse especimenes como individuos o
po de informacion acumulado acerca de los yacimientos de como grupos de un analisis estadistico particular. Como primer
obsidiana en el norte de Mesoamerica durante este proyecto. paso se eliminan los especimenes de yacimientos individuales
que no son confiables. Si el numero de valores faltantes de un
Las muestras de yacimientos fueron fracturadas o rotas para elemento es muy grande (por ejemplo si se trata de mas de la
exponer material interior limpio, no contaminado. Varias pe- mitad de los especimenes), dicho elemento es omitido. Si !a
queflas astillas o fragmentos (-25 mg) de vidrio limpio (libres cantidad de valores faltantes es menor, entonces se emplea
de inclusiones) fueron tornados de cada muestra y prepara- un procedimiento GAUSS, basado en !a reduccion de la dis-
das para dos procedimientos de irradiacion. Aproximadamen- tancia Mahalanobis del centroide del grupo, para calcular
te 100 mg de cad a muestra fueron preparados para irradiacion valores sustitutos. Para las obsidianas mesoamericanas el
corta cargandolos en poliviales. Otra muestra de 300 mg fue elemento Sr se ha!la debajo de nuestro limite de deteccion de
preparada para irradiacion prolongada colocandola en viales -25 ppm en un 50% de las muestras que analizamos, lo cual
de cuarzo de alta pureza. Ademas, se prepararon cantidades frecuentemente hace que lo eliminemos de !a lista de elementos
similares de dos materiales de referenda estandar (obsidiana de rutina considerados. Dependiendo del yacimiento, el ele-
SRM-278 y ceniza de carbon SRM-1633a). La primera funcio- mento Ba ocasionalmente se encuentra bajo nuestro limite de
no como un estandar analitico primafio y la segunda se uso deteccion de -15 ppm yen ocasiones es necesario sustituirlo.
para el control de calidad analitico. En otros yacimientos, en ocasiones el Sr y el Ba aparecen en
concentraciones de hasta 2 o 3 ordenes de magnitud sobre el
Los procedimientos de analisis de obsidiana midieron 27 ele- limite de deteccion. Para el ana!isis de artefactos, a menudo
mentos rutinariamente para cada yacimiento. Una irradia- podemos efectuar una rapida diferenciacion referente a los
cion de 5 segundos de la muestra en poliviales, usando un yacimientos posibles basandonos en la presencia o ausencia
flujo de neutrones de 8 x 10 13 neutrones sobre cm· 2 s· 1, fue deBaySr.
222 APE:NDICE 1
that can be measured more rapidly and at lower cost be identi- inspection of other PC plots finds the overlapping confidence
fied that work for a majority of the artifacts? And finally, what ellipses for the Cruz Negra and Zinapecuaro and the Pachuca
is our degree of confidence in making source assignments? In subsources are separated by the components PC04 and PC05.
order to answer these questions, the GAUSS language routines
were applied to the data for northern Mesoamerican sources. As a test of the robustness of the PCA method in avoiding
misclassification of source specimens among the Mexican obs-
ELEMENTS USED TO DIFFERENTIATE idian sources, the transformation to principal components can
THE NORTHERN MESOAMERICAN SOURCES be used to calculate the Mahalanobis distance between speci-
mens and source groups and their F-probabilities. From these,
Element concentration data for seventeen source groups involv- it is possible to generate a posterior classification matrix. Due
ing 613 source specimens from the northern Mesoamerican to the presence of only five specimens in the Derrumbadas
region were extracted from the Master Database file to form sources, probability calculations using Mahalanobis distances
the individual source groups. Twenty-one outlier specimens and considering all 17 sources are limited to a maximum of
from eleven different sources were eliminated on the basis of three variables (i.e., the first three PCs subsume approximately
preliminary screening of elemental means, standard deviations, 92% of the total variance). The classification matrix shown in
and ranges. The elements Cl, Dy, K, Nd, and U were elimi- Table III is organized with the obsidian source from listed verti-
nated from consideration on the basis of their poor analytical cally and the source assigned to listed horizontally. The jack-
precision. The element Sr had too many missing values and it knife method was used in which individual specimens are
was also eliminated. removed from the source group to which they were assigned
before comparing them to that group. As shown, the number of
In order to identify the dimensions of greatest variance and misclassified samples (off diagonal entries) is only nine. Amajor-
elements likely to be most important in showing the differ- ity of the misclassifications occur among the Pachuca sub-sour-
ences between obsidian sources, an RQ-mode PCA was per- ces. As mentioned earlier, the erroneous Pachuca classifications
formed on the remaining 592 central Mexico source specimens are due to the relative similarity of these sources to one an-
using chemical data on the selected 21 elements. The concen- other when using such a small number of PCs. The small num-
tration data were converted to log base-l 0 ppm of concentra- ber of analyzed source specimens for the Derrumbadas source
tion before calculating the principal components from the increases the probability that the calculated D 2 extends the
variance-covariance matrix. The eigenvalues, percent variance, probability hyperellipsoid to overlap with fringe samples from
and cumulative percent variance explained are listed in Table other sources. This observation supports the earlier argument
Al.l for the successive principal components. Notably, the that a sufficient number of source samples be analyzed and
cumulative variances accounted for by first three PCs and the clearly the five analyzed specimens are an insufficient number.
first five PCs are 92% and 98%, respectively. The resulting R- Fortunately, there is no evidence that the Derrumbadas source
mode and Q-mode plots of the data based the first two principal was important during prehistoric times.
components are shown in Figures Al.2 and A.l3, respectively.
As shown in Table Al.4, the number of misclassified samples
Inspection of the R-mode plot fmds that the incompatible ele- can be reduced to zero by using the frrst five PCs (i.e, explain-
ments Ba, Zr, Hf, Cs, and many of the REEs contribute strongly ing 98% of the total variance) to calculate the Mahalanobis
to the variance on the first two components- hence, the sepa- distance from specimen to source group: in this instance, the
ration between individual sources as observed in the Q-mode Derrumbadas source with only five source samples eliminated
plot. On the other hand, elements such as Na and Rb contrib- from consideration. Table Al.5 lists the average probabilities
ute very little. The eigenvectors (i.e., loading factors) for the of group membership for all 587 source specimens based on
first six principal components describing the compositions in the frrst five PCs. Ideally, the average probability of member-
the obsidian source data are listed in Table A.l.2. The fact ship in one's own group will be ~50% as shown by the diago-
that the incompatible elements are often most different be- nal entries. The only off-diagonal probability above 1 in 100,000
tween different obsidian glass deposits is due to their incom- occurs for samples from the Pachuca-1 source group which
patibility in the silicate melt which leads to greater contrast have a small probability of being assigned to the Pachuca-3
between the chemical compositions of individual deposits source group. In this worst case, the low probability of misclas-
which cooled rapidly but under different conditions. sification of only 6 in 100,000 is a testament to the robust-
ness of this procedure when applied to the obsidian sources
As shown in Figure A1.3, except for the three Pachuca sub- in central Mexico.
sources and the Cruz Negra and Zinapecuaro sources located
near Ucareo, all other obsidian sources are adequately sepa- Using the information from the R-mode plot as a guide to iden-
rated at the 95% confidence level. Although not shown here, tifying the most discriminating elements, bivariate plots of
APPENDIX 1 223
Antes de comparar los artefactos con los yacimientos, tiene tabla Al.2. El hecho de que los elementos incompatibles a
sentido demostrar Ia utilidad de Ia base de datos de yacimientos menudo sean mas diferentes entre los distintos depositos de
para responder a preguntas relacionadas con los yacimien- vidrio de obsidiana se debe a su incompatibilidad en Ia fusion
tos. Por ejemplo: 6Pueden usarse los datos de yacimiento para de silicatos, lo cual causa un mayor contraste entre las com-
distinguir entre todos los yacimientos de obsidiana pertene- posiciones quimicas de los depositos individuales que se
cientes a Ia region de interes? 6Cuales elementos permiten enfriaron rapidamente pero bajo condiciones distintas.
una mejor diferenciacion de los yacimientos? 6Puede un con-
junto limitado de elementos ser medido con mayor rapidez, Como se muestra en la figura Al.3, con excepcion de tres
identificado con menos costo funciona para Ia mayoria de los subyacimientos de Pachuca y de los yacimientos de Cruz Ne-
artefactos? y finalmente 6Cual es nuestro grado de confiabili- gra y de Zinapecuaro localizados cerca de Ucareo, todos los
dad al asignar yacimientos? Para responder a estas preguntas demas yacimientos de obsidiana estan adecuadamente sepa-
se aplicaron rutinas del lenguaje GAUSS a los datos de los rados con un 95% de confiabilidad. Aunque no los mostramos
yacimientos del norte de Mesoamerica. aqui, Ia inspeccion de otros cuadros de CP nos indica que el
traslape de elipses de confiabilidad de los subyacimientos de
ELEMENTOS EMPLEADOS PARA DIFERENCIAR Cruz Negra, Zinapecuaro y Pachuca estan separados por los
LOS YACIMIENTOS DEL NORTE DE MESOAMERICA componentes CP04 y CP05.
Para formar los grupos de yacimientos individuales, de Ia base Para probar Ia solidez del metodo de ACP en Ia clasiflcacion
de datos maestra se extrajeron datos de concentracion de ele- de los especimenes de yacimientos de Ia obsidiana mexicana,
mentos de 17 grupos de yacimientos que incluyeron 613 mues- Ia transformacion a componentes principales puede usarse
tras de Ia region norte de Mesoamerica. Con base en el filtro para calcular Ia distancia Mahalanobis entre los especimenes
preliminar de medias elementales, desviaciones estandar y y los grupos de yacimientos y sus probabilidades F. De estos,
rangos se eliminaron 21 muestras no confiables de 11 yaci- podemos luego generar una matriz de clasificacion. Debido a
mientos distintos. Los elementos Cl, Dy, K, Nd y U fueron que en los yacimientos de Derrumbadas solo contamos con
eliminados por su pobre precision analitica. El elemento Sr cinco muestras, los calculos de probabilidad usando distan-
tenia demasiados valores faltantes y tam poco fue considerado. cias Mahalanobis y considerando todos los 17 yacimientos se
limitan a un maximo de tres variables (es decir que los tres
Para identificar las dimensiones de mayor variancia y los ele- primeros CP's subsumen aproximadamente el 92% de Ia
mentos que mostrarian mejor las diferencias entre los yaci- variancia total). La matriz de clasificacion presentada en Ia
mientos de obsidiana, efectuamos un ACP en moda-RQ de las tabla A1.3 esta organizada con el yacimiento de obsidiana de
592 muestras restantes de los yacimientos del centro de Mexico procedencia en Ia coordenada vertical y el yacimiento asigna-
usando datos quimicos de los 21 elementos seleccionados. do en el plano horizontal. El metoda de "navaja" fue usado
Los datos de concentracion fueron convertidos a una base removiendo los especimenes individuales del grupo de yaci-
logaritmica de -10 ppm de concentracion antes de calcular miento a! cual fueron asignados antes de compararlos con ese
los componentes principales de Ia matriz de variancia- grupo. Como puede observarse, el numero de muestras mal
covariancia. Los valores eigen, Ia variancia porcentual, y Ia clasificadas es solo de nueve. En los subyacimientos de Pachu-
variancia porcentual acumulativa estan listadas en Ia tabla ca ocurriola mayor cantidad de clasificaciones erroneas. Como
A1.1 segun sus componentes principales. Es de no tar que las mencionamos anteriormente las fallas en Ia clasificacion de
variancias acumulativas registradas para los tres primeros CP's los materiales de Pachuca se deben a Ia semejanza relativa de
y los cinco primeros CP's son de 92% y 98% respectivamente. esos yacimientos entre si cuando utilizamos un pequeiio nu-
La moda-R y los cuadros moda-Q resultantes de los datos mero de CP's. Los pocos especimenes analizados para los ya-
basados en los dos primeros componentes principales se pre- cimientos de Derrumbadas incrementan la probabilidad de
sentan en las figuras Al.2 y Al.3 respectivamente. que la D2 calculada extienda la hiperelipsoide de probabilidad
para traslaparse con las muestras exteriores de otros yacimien-
La inspeccion del cuadro de moda-R permite ver que los ele- tos. Esta observacion apoya el argumento previa de que debe
mentos incompatibles Ba, Zr, Hf, Cs y muchos de los ETR analizarse un numero suficiente de muestras de yacimiento y
contribuyen fuertemente en Ia variancia de los primeros dos de que los cinco especimenes analizados claramente son una
componentes; de aqui que exista Ia separacion de yacimien- cantidad insuficiente. Por fortuna no existe evidencia de que
tos individuales como se observa en el cuadro de moda-Q. Por el yacimiento de Derrumbadas fuera importante en tiempos
otra parte elementos como el Nay el Rb contribuyen muy poco. prehistoricos.
Los vectores eigen (es decir los factores de carga) de los seis
primeros componentes principales que describen las compo- Como se aprecia en la tabla A1.4, el numero de muestras mal
siciones de los yacimientos de obsidiana estan listados en Ia clasiflcadas puede reducirse a cero usando los primeros 5 CP's
224 APENDICE 1
~ ~M
0
;
;
0 I
..- I -
0
,
I
I
I
'Se -
,41 __ .,.To
0 'No l'ill'- ln
0 4fl - - - - - - - - Hf
0
: : ---
: - - :_________
41~iii II it=~;; - - - - _..,. -111- lu
,,.~, :::
.........
-- .......- . .
I ,., !!!'~-- ~:::-
~ ... .... ----------.. Yb
,,, \ ... .. .. .. .. - :::
,, , , .. ..
~ ~ II.. II ~.::: ~ ..Tb..
,
, , II I \\ \ '' -.-.-.
N
l ~
-
~ I .cJI '',
\ '\~ Till '......
- ,re .... Eu
0 ~ .. 'a.. Zr
u 0 , I1 1 ' '\ ' '\ '"- Sm
~
()_ ~ \
~ \
''
0 '\ '\
~
I ~
\
, \ ' '\
~
,
~ \
'\ ''
I '\ -
~
'\
~
I
~ '\ 'C\ Ce
~ I \
0
N
~ ~
~
I
I ~ lo
~ I
0 ~ fsb
I ,
~
~
~
~
~
I·
.leo I
0 ,Co
I")
Pico de Orizaba
v
0 Pachuca-1
0
N
0 Guadalupe
0
~ ~oria
N 0
0 0
u Derrumbadas Altotonga
0
Q_
CJ u~o Paredon
0
N
0 Maipafs 0O 0
0
I Otumba f"\
Zaragoza \.j
v
0 0 Tulandngo
TepaJZJngoo
0
I Zacualtipan ()
tO
0
0
I -0.08 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
PC01
Figure Al.3. Q-mode bivariate plot of the first two principal components showing 95% confidence ellipses calculated for
obsidian sources in central Mexico. To avoid data congestion, the scores for individual source specimens are not shown.
Figura Al.3. Cuadro de dos variables en moda-Q de los dos prlmeros componentes prlncipales que muestra elipses de un 95% de
confiabilidad calculados para los yacimientos de obsidiana del centro de Ml:xico. Para evitar informacion excesiva, no se inclu-
yeron los puntajes de las muestras individuates
different pairs of incompatible elements were examined. For- another: and Ucareo specimens with Zinapecuaro.) The aver-
tunately, a bivariate plot of two high-precision elements (i.e., age probability of misclassification does not exceed 5%. There-
Cs vs. HD as shown in Figure A1.4 was determined to be one fore, if one uses a cutoff of 5%, or an even more conservative
of the most successful plots in showing non-overlapping, 95% 10%, with the abbreviated-NM method the total number of
confidence ellipses for the 17 central Mexican obsidian source misclassifications of artifacts to the Mexican subsources
groups. Other bivariate element plots such as Cs vs. Eu and should also be extremely rare. Sources for obsidian specimens
Eu vs. Th can be examined with similar success. below the probability cutoff can be determined by submitting
them to the long irradiation INM method and employing the
AN ABBREVIATED-NAA PROCEDURE more robust procedure described earlier.
As noted earlier, Pires-Ferriera (1973) used the short-lived el- Figures A1.5 and A1.6 show bivariate plots of Mn versus Na
ements Mn and Na to source obsidian artifacts with success and Mn versus Dy for 700 artifacts from sites in Mexico pro-
for most but not all of the sources in Mexico. Later, Stross et jected against the central Mexican sources to which they were
al. (1983) employed a similar procedure on obsidian in Guate- assigned. None of the sources not shown were linked to any of
mala with five short-lived elements (Ba, Dy, K, Mn, and Na). these artifacts. Specimens outside of the 95% confidence el-
At MURR, we developed a procedure similar to that of Stross lipse (below the 5% cutofD submitted to the long-irradiation
with the measurement of one additional element (i.e., Cl). The NM procedure for fmal source determination.
procedure has been described in detail elsewhere (Glascock et
al. 1994). Because these elements are measured less precisely SUMMARY
than elements such as Cs, Eu, Hf and Th, it is anticipated
that the classification error rate will be greater. On the other In summary, the procedures described for sourcing obsidian
hand, the abbreviated NM method offers the advantages of artifacts will result in a highly successful rate of assignment.
lower cost and rapid analysis of artifacts and it is possible to By collecting and analyzing a large number of source specimens
conduct the long irradiation procedure afterward for artifacts and measuring as many elements as possible (both correlated
found to remain questionable. Before applying this method, a and uncorrelated elements) at high precision, obsidian source
critical examination of its applicability was conducted. data can be used to develop a highly robust and reliable sourc-
ing procedure. The multivariate methods described in this
Data for the six short-lived elements among the above-men- paper enable this to be done efficiently and systematically.
tioned 587 central Mexico source specimens (excluding
Derrumbadas) was extracted from the Master database and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
log base-l 0 transformations were made. Aposterior classificat-
ion matrix resulting from the use of the four elements Ba, Dy, Support from two National Science Foundation grants is ac-
Mn and Na is shown in Table A1.6. The number of misclas- knowledged (BNS 7915409 to Cobean and J. R. Vogt and DBS
sifications is very small with the greatest number occurring 9102016 to Glascock). The assistance of numerous colleagues
for closely related sources (i.e., Orizaba with Guadalupe in Mexico and the United States who provided the artifacts in
Victoria: Otumba with Malpais: Pachuca subsources with one this study is much appreciated.
APPENDIX 1 227
(es decir explicando el 98% de Ia variancia total) para calcular Los datos para los seis elementos de vida corta de las 587
Ia distancia Mahalanobis de Ia muestra a] grupo de yacimien- muestras de yacimientos del centro de Mexico arriba mencio-
tos. En este caso, el yacimiento de Derrumbadas, con solo nados (excluyendo Derrumbadas) fueron tornados de la base
cinco muestras, no fue considerado. La tabla A1.5, contiene de datos maestra y de ellos efectuamos transformaciones
las probabilidades promedio de Ia membresia de grupo para logaritmicas de base -10. En Ia tabla Al.6 presentamos una
los 587 muestras de yacimiento basados en los cinco prime- matriz de c1asificaci6n posterior producto del uso de los cuatro
ros CP's. Idealmente, Ia probabilidad promedio de membresia elementos Ba, Dy, Mn y Na. El numero de clasificaciones erro-
en el propio grupo sera de -50%, como se muestra en las neas es muy pequeiio y Ia mayoria se da en yacimientos estre-
referenclas diagonales. La (mica probabilidad no-diagonal arri- chamente relacionados (por ejemplo Orizaba con Guadalupe
ba de 1 en 100,000 se da para muestras del grupo de yaci- Victoria; Otumba con Mal pais; los subyacimientos de Pachuca
mientos Pachuca-1 que tiene una pequeiia probabilidad de entre si; y los especimenes de Ucareo con Zinapecuaro. La
ser asignado a] grupo de yacimiento de Pachuca-3. En este probabilidad promedio de clasificacion equivocada no excede
a! 5%. Por ello si utilizamos una reduccion de 5%, o incluso
que es el peor de los casos, Ia baja probabilidad de mala clasi-
una mas conservadora de 10%, con el metoda AAN abreviado,
ficacion es de solo 6 en 100,000 yes una prueba de Ia solidez
el numero total de clasificaciones erroneas de artefactos de
de este procedimiento al aplicarse a los yacimientos de
subyacimientos mexicanos tambien sera sumamente raro. Los
obsidiana del centro de Mexico.
yacimientos de los especimenes de obsidiana que se hallen
debajo de Ia reduccion de Ia probabilidad pueden determinar-
Los cuadros de dos variables de pares distintos de elementos se sometiendolos al metoda AAN de irradiaci6n prolongada y
incompatibles fueron examinados usando Ia informacion del usando un procedimiento mas riguroso descrito anteriormente.
cuadro de moda-R como una guia para identificar los elementos
mas discriminantes. Por fortuna, un cuadro de dos variables Las figuras Al.5 y Al.6 presentan cuadros de dos variables de
de dos elementos de alta precision (es decir Cs vs. HD como Mn vs. Nay Mn vs. Dy para 700 artefactos de sitios de Mexico
aparece en Ia figura A1.4 resulto ser uno de los cuadros mas proyectados contra los yacimientos del centro de Mexico a los
utiles para mostrar elipses de un 95% de confiabilidad, que cuales fueron asignados. Ninguno de los yacimientos no
no se traslapan, para 17 grupos de yacimientos de obsidiana mostrados fueron relacionados con esos artefactos. Los
del centro de Mexico. Otros cuadros de elementos de dos va- especimenes que quedaron fuera de Ia elipse de confiabilidad
riables como el de Cs vs. Eu y el de Eu vs. Th pueden usarse de 95% (por debajo de Ia reduccion de 5%) fueron sometidos
con exito similar. a! procedimiento AAN de irradiacion prolongada para efectuar
una determinacion final del yacimiento.
UN PROCEDIMIENTO AAN ABREVIADO
COMENTARIOS FINALES
Como seiialamos anteriormente, Pires-Ferreira (1973) uso con
En resumen, los procedimientos descritos para conocer Ia pro-
exito los elementos de vida corta Mn y Na para conocer Ia
cedencia de los artefactos de obsidiana tendran un alto grado
procedencia de artefactos de obsidiana de Ia mayoria, pero no
de confiabilidad. La colecta y el analisis de un gran numero
de todos los yacimientos de Mexico. Despues, Stross et al.
de muestras de yacimiento y Ia medicion de alta precision de
(1983) utilizaron un procedimiento similar para Ia obsidiana
cuantos elementos sea posible (correlacionados y no correlacio-
de Guatemala con cinco elementos de vida corta (Ba, Dy, K,
nados) permitira contar con datos de yacimientos de obsidiana
Mn y Na). En las instalaciones de Ia Universidad de Missouri para desarrollar un procedimiento solido y confiable en Ia asig-
desarrollamos un procedimiento similar a! de Stross con Ia nacion de procedencia de los artefactos de obsidiana. Los
medicion de un elemento adicional (Cl). El metoda ha sido metodos de variable multiple descritos en este texto permiten
descrito en detalle (Glascock et al., 1994). Debido a que estos que esto se realice de manera eficiente y sistematica.
elementos son medidos con menor precision que elementos
tales como el Cs, Eu, Hfy Th, sabemos de antemano que ten- AGRADECIMIENTOS
dremos una alta proporcion de error en Ia clasificacion. Por
otra parte el metoda AAN abreviado ofrece las ventajas de un Reconocemos el apoyo de dos becas de Ia National Science
costa menor y de un rapido analisis de artefactos, y podemos Foundation (BNS 7915409 a Cobean y J. R. Vogt y DBS
efectuar despues un procedimiento de irradiaci6n prolongada 9102016 a Glascock). Agradecemos tambien Ia ayuda de nu-
a las muestras cuyos resultados son dudosos. Antes de aplicar merosos colegas en Mexico y en Estados Unidos que propor-
este metoda efectuamos un examen critico de su aplicabilidad. cionaron los artefactos para esta investigacion.
228 APitNDICE 1
OCl
N ..
Pachuca-1
v
~t Pachuca-3J
~t- Tulancingo
tO I-
~
Pachuca-2
0
E
- Tepalzingo
~J
1-
I
Paredon Zacualtipan
OCl
Guadalupe Victoria
0
~ Paredon Pachuca-1
Zaragoza
+
c.o
t"") +
+ ++
Ucareo
0~ N
t"")
ctS
--
Pico de Orizaba
z
+ +
\. ++
IX)
N
t +~ Otumba
~
N ~ Zacualtip~n
+ +
0
tD
Pachuca-1
I
-.;t
~
N
...-
0
E
- ...-
Zacualtipan
~ 00~ Pareddn
tO~
0 ..~
~
Zaragoza
--.
Ucareo i
NL r ..;,(t"-~,.JII!Ii...:fi. +
Guadalupe Victoria
oL---~----~----~--~----~----~--~----~----~--~----~----~--~----~
0 200 400 600 BOO 1000 1200 1400
Mn (ppm)
Figure Al.6. Bivariate plot ofMn versus Dy showing 700 obsidian artifacts from sites in central Mexico projected against 95%
confidence ellipses for eight important sources in central Mexico. Sources to which artifacts were not assigned are not shown.
Figura Al.6. Cuadro de dos variables de Mn versus Dy que muestra 700 artefactos de obs:idiana de sitlos del centro de Mexico, proyec-
tados contra elipses de confl.abilidad del 95% para ocho importantes yaclmientos del centro de Mexico. No se muestran aquellos
yacimientos para los cuales no existen artefactos.
TABLES
CUADROS
TABLE Al.l
EIGENVALUES AND PERCENTAGE VARIANCE EXPLAINED BY PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS CALCULATED FROM THE
VARIANCE-COVARIANCE MATRIX OF CONCENTRATION DATA IN LoG BASE-10 PPM FOR 582 OBSIDIAN SoURCE
SPECIMENS FROM CENTRAL MEXICO.
VALORES EIGEN Y VARIANCIA PORCENTUAL EXPLICADA POR COMPONENTES PRINCIPALES CALCULADOS A PARTIR
DE LA MATRIZ DE VARIANCIA-COVARIANCIA DE LA CONCENTRACI6N DE DATOS EN BASE LOGARITMICA -10 PPM
PARA 582 ESPECiMENES DE YACIMIENTOS DE OBSIDIANA DEL CENTRO DE ME:XICO
232 APENDICE 1
TABLE Al.2
EIGENVECTORS FOR THE FIRST SIX PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS DESCRIBING THE COMPOSITIONS OF OBSIDIAN
SOURCES IN CENTRAL MEXICO.
VECTORES EIGEN PARA LOS SEIS PRIMEROS COMPONENTES PRINCIPALES QUE DESCRIBEN LAS COMPOSICIONES
DE LOS YACIMIENTOS DE OBSIDIANA DEL CENTRO DE MEXICO
APPENDIX 1 233
TABLEA1.3
POSTERIOR CLASSIFICATION MATRIX BASED ON THE FIRST THREE PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS FOR OBSIDIAN SOURCE SPECIMENS FROM CENTRAL
MEXICAN SOURCES - JACKKNIFE METHOD.
MATRIZ DE CLASIFICACI6N POSTERIOR BASADA EN WS TRES PRIMEROS COMPONENTES PRINCIPALES DEWS ESPECiMENES DE YACIMIENTOS DE
OBSIDIANA DEL CENTRO DE MEXICO. METODO DE "NAVAJA" .
MATRIZ DE CLASIFICACI6N POSTERIOR BASADA EN WS CINCO PRIMEROS COMPONENTES PRINCIPALES DEWS ESPECiMENES DE YACIMIENTOS
DE OBSIDIANA DEL CENTRO DE MEXIco. METODO DE "NAVAJA"
PROBABILIDADES PROMEDIO DE LA MEMBRESiA DE GRUPO BASADAS EN WS CINCO PRIMEROS CP-s DE WS ESPECiMENES DE OBSIDIANA DE
YACIMIENTOS DEL CENTRO DE MEXICO. METODO DE "NAVAJA".
AV 50.579 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
ZP 0.000 53.510 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
PV 0.000 0.000 56.007 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
GP 0.000 0.000 0.000 48.619 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
pp 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 51.704 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
OM 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 47.543 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
MH 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 48.768 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
TH 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 49.115 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
PH 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 49.566 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
ZH 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 51.702 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
SH1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 49.111 0.000 0.006 0.000 0.000 0.000
SH2 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 49.161 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
SH3 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 49.307 0.000 0.000 0.000
UM 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 54.397 0.000 0.000
CNM 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 47.715 0.000
ZM 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 51.334
TABLEA1.6
POSTERIOR CLASSIFICATION MATRIX BASED ON WG BASE-10 PPM CONCENTRATIONS FOR BA, DY, MN, AND NA FOR OBSIDIAN SPECIMENS
FROM CENTRAL MEXICAN SOURCES - JACKKNIFE METHOD.
MATRIZ DE CLASIFICACI6N POSTERIOR BASADO EN CONCENTRACIONES WGARITMICAS DE BASE -10 PPM PARA BA, DY, MN Y NA PARA
ESPECiMENES DE OBSIDINA DE YACIMIENTOS DEL CENTRO DE MEXICO. METODO DE "NAVAJA"
AV 14 14
ZP 31 31
PV 58 56 2
GP 36 36
pp 48 48
OM 47 46 1
MH 19 19
TH 40 40
PH 10 10
ZH 30 30
SHl 129 128 1
SH2 11 11
SH3 27 1 26
UM 48 46 2
CNM 15 15
ZM 24 24
APPENDIX 2. A SUMMARY OF ELEMENTAL CONCENTRATION DATA FOR
THE OBSIDIAN SOURCE GROUPS IN MExico
RESUMEN DE CONCENTRACIONES DE ELEMENTOS PARA
WS YACilWENTOS ANAUZADOS DE MExiCO
APPENDIX2 239
PV 11 02 Fonda Lado este (039)
v 11 03 Fonda Lado oeste (040)
PV 12 01 Talud 2-Mina (041)
PV 12 02 Talud 2-Mina (042)
PV 12 03 Talud 2-Mina (043)
PV 12 04 Talud 2-Mina (044)
PV 12 05 Talud 2-Mina (045)
PV 13 01 Talud 2-Cima (046)
PV 14 01 Talud 2-Lado este del area con plantas (047)
PV 15 01 Talud 2-Area con plantas (048)
PV 16 01 Talud 2-Lado oeste de el area con plantas (049)
PV 17 01 Talud 2-Lado oeste (050)
PV 18 01 Talud 3-en media Lado este (051)
PV 19 01 Talud 3-Fondo Lado este (052)
PV 19 02 Talud 3-Fondo Lado este (053)
PV 19 03 Talud 3-Fondo Lado este (054)
PV 20 01 Talud 3-en frente de Ia mina (055)
PV 21 01 Talud 3-Mina (056)
PV 21 02 Talud 3-Mina (057)
PV 21 03 Talud 3-Mina (058)
PV 21 04 Talud 3-Mina (059)
PV 21 05 Talud 3-Mina (060)
PV 22 01 Talud 4-Mina-Sala con Ia escalera (061)
PV 23 01 Talud 4-Mina-Sala atras a Ia derecha (062)
PV 24 01 Talud 4-Entrada a Ia Sala con Ia escalera (063)
PV 24 02 Talud 4-Entrada a Ia Sala con Ia escalera (064)
PV 25 01 Talud 4-Lado este (065)
PV 25 02 Talud 4-Lado este (066)
PV 26 01 Talud 4-Lado oeste (067)
PV 27 01 Talud 4-Entrada a Ia Mina (068)
PV 28 01 Talud 4-Cima (069)
PV 25 03 Talud 4-Lado este (070)
PV 29 01 Talud nuevo arriba de Talud 5-Lado oeste (071)
PV 29 02 Talud nuevo arriba de Talud 5-Lado oeste (072)
PV 29 03 Talud nuevo aniba de Talud 5-Lado oeste (073)
PV 30 01 Cima del cerro arriba de Taludes 6 Y 7 (074)
PV 30 02 Cima del cerro arriba de Taludes 6 Y 7 (075)
PV 30 03 Cima del cerro arriba de Taludes 6 Y 7 (076)
PV 30 04 Cima del cerro arriba de Taludes 6 Y 7 (077)
PV 31 01 Obsidiana roja de Ia cima del cerro- arriba de las minas (078)
PV 32 01 Obsidiana roja del Talud nuevo arriba de Talud 5 (079)
PV 32 02 Obsidiana roja del Talud nuevo arriba de Talud 5 (080)
PV 32 03 Obsidiana roja del Talud nuevo arriba de Talud 5 (081)
PV 32 04 Obsidiana roja del Talud nuevo arriba de Talud 5 (082)
PV 32 05 Obsidiana roja del Talud nuevo arriba de Talud 5 (083)
PV 33 01 Fonda del Lado oeste del valle de Ixtetal (084)
PV 33 02 Fonda del Lado oeste del valle de Ixtetal (085)
PV 34 01 "Valle de Obsidiana" -Cima del cerro -Lado oeste (086)
PV 34 02 "Valle de Obsidiana"-Cima del cerro -Lado oeste (087)
PV 34 03 "Valle de Obsidiana"-Cima del cerro -Lado oeste (088)
PV 34 04 "Valle de Obsidiana"-Cima del cerro -Lado oeste (089)
PV 34 05 "Valle de Obsidiana" -Cima del cerro -Lado oeste
240 AP.ENDICE 2
PV 34 06 "Valle de Obsidiana"-Cima del cerro -Lado oeste (091)
PV 34 07 "Valle de Obsidiana"-Cima del cerro-Lado oeste (092)
PV 34 08 "Valle de Obsidiana" -Cima del cerro-Lado oeste (093)
PV 34 09 "Valle de Obsidiana" -Cima del cerro-Lado oeste (094)
PV 35 01 "Valle de Obsidiana" -Cima del cerro (095)
PV 35 02 "Valle de Obsidiana"-Cima del cerro (096)
PV 35 03 "Valle de Obsidiana" -Cima del cerro (097)
PV 35 04 "Valle de Obsidiana"-Cima del cerro (098)
PV 36 01 "Valle de Obsidiana"-Talud mas abajo- Lado este (099)
PV 36 01 "Valle de Obsidiana"-Talud mas abajo- Lado este (100)
APPENDIX2 241
OYAMELES, PUEBLA
OP 01 01 Flujo barranca (138)
OP 01 02 Flujo barranca (139)
OP 01 03 Flujo barranca (140)
OP 01 04 Flujo barranca (141)
OP 01 05 Flujo barranca (142)
OP 01 06 Flujo barranca (143)
OP 01 07 Flujo barranca (144)
OP 01 08 Flujo barranca (145)
OP 01 09 Flujo barranca (146)
OP 01 10 Flujo barranca (147)
OP 01 11 Flujo barranca (148)
OP 01 12 Flujo barranca (149)
OP 01 13 Flujo barranca (150)
OP 01 14 Flujo barranca (151)
OP 02 01 Canto barranca (152)
OP 02 02 Canto barranca (153)
OP 02 03 Canto barranca (154)
OP 02 04 Canto barranca (155)
OP 02 05 Canto barranca (156)
OP 02 06 Canto barranca (157)
OP 02 07 Canto barranca (158)
OP 02 08 Canto barranca (159)
OP 02 09 Canto barranca (160)
OP 02 10 Canto barranca (161)
OP 02 11 Canto barranca (162)
OP 02 12 Canto barranca (163)
OP 03 01 Cerca de mina probable-arriba de la barranca-canto (164)
OP 03 02 Cerca de mina probable-arriba de Ia barranca-canto (165)
ZARAGOZA, PUEBLA
ZP 01 01 Barranca canto-1 km al oeste del pueblo (166)
ZP 01 02 Barranca canto-1 km a! oeste del pueblo (167)
ZP 01 03 Barranca canto-1 km a! oeste del pueblo (168)
ZP 01 04 Barranca canto-1 km al oeste del pueblo (169)
ZP 01 05 Barranca canto-1 km al oeste del pueblo (170)
ZP 01 06 Barranca canto-1 km al oeste del pueblo (171)
ZP 01 07 Barranca canto-1 km al oeste del pueblo (172)
ZP 01 08 Barranca canto-1 km al oeste del pueblo (173)
ZP 01 09 Barranca canto-1 km al oeste del pueblo (174)
ZP 01 10 Barranca canto-1 km al oeste del pueblo (175)
ZP 01 11 Barranca canto-1 km al oeste del pueblo (176)
ZP 01 12 Barranca canto-1 km al oeste del pueblo (177)
ZP 01 13 Barranca canto-1 km al oeste del pueblo (178)
ZP 01 14 Barranca canto-1 km al oeste del pueblo (179)
ZP 01 15 Barranca canto-1 km al oeste del pueblo (180)
ZP 01 16 Barranca canto-1 km al oeste del pueblo (181)
ZP 01 17 Barranca canto-1 km a! oeste del pueblo (182)
ZP 01 18 Barranca canto-1 km a! oeste del pueblo (183)
ZP 01 19 Barranca canto-1 km a! oeste del pueblo (184)
ZP 01 20 Barranca canto-1 km a! oeste del pueblo (185)
ZP 01 21 Barranca canto-1 km al oeste del
242 AP.ENDICE 2
ZP 01 22 Barranca canto-1 km al oeste del pueblo (187)
ZP 02 01 Mina de grava-lado sur del camino
cerca de la gasolinera PEMEX (188)
ZP 02 02 Mina de grava-lado sur del camino
cerca de la gasolinera PEMEX (189)
ZP 02 03 Mina de grava-lado sur del camino
cerca de la gasolinera PEMEX (190)
ZP 02 04 Mina de grava-lado sur del camino
cerca de la gasolinera PEMEX (191)
UCAREO, MICHOACAN
UM 01 01 Flujo 2 km al oeste del pueblo-lado sur del camino (192)
UM 01 02 Flujo 2 km al oeste del pueblo-lado sur del camino (193)
UM 01 03 Flujo 2 km al oeste del pueblo-lado sur del camino (194)
UM 01 04 Flujo 2 km al oeste del pueblo-lado sur del camino (195)
UM 01 05 Flujo 2 km al oeste del pueblo-lado sur del camino (196)
UM 01 06 Flujo 2 km al oeste del pueblo-lado sur del camino (197)
UM 01 07 Flujo 2 km al oeste del pueblo-lado sur del camino (198)
UM 01 08 Flujo 2 km al oeste del pueblo-lado sur del camino (199)
UM 01 09 Flujo 2 km al oeste del pueblo-lado sur del camino (200)
UM 01 10 Flujo 2 km al oeste del pueblo-lado sur del camino (201)
UM 01 11 Flujo 2 km al oeste del pueblo-lado sur del camino (202)
UM 02 01 Canto debajo del flujo 2 km al oeste del pueblo
lado sur del camino (203)
UM 02 02 Canto debajo del flujo 2 km al oeste del pueblo
lado sur del camino (204)
UM 02 03 Canto debajo del flujo 2 km al oeste del pueblo
lado sur del camino (205)
UM 02 04 Canto debajo del flujo 2 km al oeste del pueblo
lado sur del camino (206)
UM 03 01 Flujo 2 km al oeste del pueblo-lado norte del camino (207)
UM 03 02 Flujo 2 km al oeste del pueblo-lado norte del camino (208)
UM 03 03 Flujo 2 km al oeste del pueblo-lado norte del camino (209)
UM 03 04 Flujo 2 km al oeste del pueblo-lado norte del camino (210)
UM 03 05 Flujo 2 km al oeste del pueblo-lado norte del camino (211)
UM 04 01 Flujo 10 km al oeste del pueblo-lado norte del camino (212)
UM 04 02 Flujo 10 km al oeste del pueblo-lado norte del camino (213)
UM 04 03 Flujo 10 km al oeste del pueblo-lado norte del camino (214)
UM 04 04 Flujo 10 km al oeste del pueblo-lado norte del camino (215)
UM 04 05 Flujo 10 km al oeste del pueblo-lado norte del camino (216)
UM 04 06 Flujo 10 km al oeste del pueblo-lado norte del camino (217)
UM 04 07 Flujo 10 km al oeste del pueblo-lado norte del camino (218)
UM 04 08 Flujo 10 km al oeste del pueblo-lado norte del camino (219)
UM 05 01 Primer Flujo ("nearest")-al noreste del pueblo (220)
UM 05 02 Primer Flujo ("nearest")-al noreste del pueblo (221)
UM 05 03 Primer Flujo ("nearest")-al noreste del pueblo (222)
UM 05 04 Primer Flujo ("nearest")-al noreste del pueblo (223)
UM 05 05 Primer Flujo ("nearest")-al noreste del pueblo (224)
UM 05 06 Primer Flujo ("nearest")-al noreste del pueblo (225)
UM 05 07 Primer Flujo ("nearest")-al noreste del pueblo (226)
UM 05 08 Primer Flujo ("nearest")-al noreste del pueblo (227)
UM 05 09 Primer ("nearest")-al noreste del (228)
APPENDIX2 243
UM 05 10 Primer Flujo ("nearest")-al noreste del pueblo (229)
UM 06 01 Segundo Flujo ("middle")-al noreste del pueblo (230)
UM 06 02 Segundo Flujo ("middle")-al noreste del pueblo (231)
UM 06 03 Segundo Flujo ("middle")-al noreste del pueblo (232)
UM 06 04 Segundo Flujo ("middle")-al noreste del pueblo (233)
UM 06 05 Segundo Flujo ("middle")-al noreste del pueblo (234)
UM 06 06 Segundo Flujo ("middle")-al noreste del pueblo (235)
UM 06 07 Segundo Flujo ("middle")-al noreste del pueblo (236)
UM 06 08 Segundo Flujo ("middle")-al noreste del pueblo (237)
UM 06 09 Segundo Flujo ("middle")-al noreste del pueblo (238)
UM 07 01 Tercer Flujo ("farthest")-al noreste del pueblo (239)
UM 07 02 Tercer Flujo ("farthest'')-al noreste del pueblo (240)
UM 07 03 Tercer Flujo ("farthest")-al noreste del pueblo (241)
UM 07 04 Tercer Flujo ("farthest")-al noreste del pueblo (242)
UM 07 05 Tercer Flujo ("farthest")-al noreste del pueblo (243)
UM 07 06 Tercer Flujo ("farthest")-al noreste del pueblo (244)
UM 07 07 Tercer Flujo ("farthest")-al noreste del pueblo (245)
UM 07 08 Tercer Flujo ("farthest")-al noreste del pueblo (246)
UM 07 09 Tercer Flujo ("farthest")-al noreste del pueblo (247)
UM 07 10 Tercer Flujo ("farthest")-al noreste del pueblo (248)
UM 07 11 Tercer Flujo ("farthest")-al noreste del pueblo (249)
ZINAPE:CUARO, MICHOACAN
ZM 01 01 Flujo junto a !a iglesia (250)
ZM 01 02 Flujo junto a !a iglesia (251)
ZM 01 03 Flujo junto a !a iglesia (252)
ZM 01 04 Flujo junto a !a iglesia (253)
ZM 01 05 Flujo junto a !a iglesia (254)
ZM 02 01 Flujo 2 cuadras al noreste de Ia iglesia (255)
ZM 02 02 Flujo 2 cuadras al noreste de Ia iglesia (256)
ZM 02 03 Flujo 2 cuadras al noreste de Ia iglesia (257)
ZM 02 04 Flujo 2 cuadras al noreste de Ia iglesia (258)
ZM 02 05 Flujo 2 cuadras al noreste de Ia iglesia (259)
ZM 02 06 Flujo 2 cuadras a! noreste de la iglesia (260)
ZM 03 01 Canto-milpa aprox. 200 mts al noreste de Ia iglesia (261)
ZM 03 02 Canto-milpa aprox. 200 mts al noreste de la iglesia (262)
ZM 03 03 Canto-milpa aprox. 200 mts al noreste de Ia iglesia (263)
ZM 03 04 Canto-milpa aprox. 200 mts al noreste de Ia iglesia (264)
ZM 03 05 Canto-milpa aprox. 200 mts al noreste de Ia iglesia (265)
ZM 04 01 Camino a Ciudad Hidalgo-lado sur del flujo (266)
ZM 04 02 Camino a Ciudad Hidalgo-lado sur del flujo (267)
ZM 04 03 Camino a Ciudad Hidalgo-lado sur del flujo (268)
ZM 04 04 Camino a Ciudad Hidalgo-lado sur del flujo (269)
ZM 04 05 Camino a Ciudad Hidalgo-lado sur del flujo (270)
ZM 05 01 Camino a Ciudad Hidalgo-parte central del flujo (271)
ZM 05 02 Camino a Ciudad Hidalgo-parte central del flujo (272)
ZM 05 03 Camino a Ciudad Hidalgo-parte central del flujo (273)
ZM 05 04 Camino a Ciudad Hidalgo-parte central del flujo (274)
ZM 06 01 Camino a Ciudad Hidalgo-lado norte del flujo (275)
ZM 06 02 Camino a Ciudad Hidalgo-lado norte del flujo (276)
ZM 06 03 Camino a Ciudad Hidalgo-lado norte del flujo (277)
ZM 06 04 Camino a Ciudad norte del (278)
244 APB:NDICE 2
ELPARMSO, QUERETARO
PQ 01 01 Rancho Navajas-canto-cerro (279)
PQ 01 02 Rancho Navajas-canto-cerro (280)
PQ 01 03 Rancho Navajas-canto-cerro (281)
PQ 01 04 Rancho Navajas-canto-cerro (282)
PQ 02 01 Rancho Navajas-canto-camino (283)
PQ 02 02 Rancho Navajas-canto-camino (284)
PQ 02 03 Rancho Navajas-canto-camino (285)
PQ 02 04 Rancho Navajas-canto-camino (286)
PQ 02 05 Rancho Navajas-canto-camino (287)
PQ 02 06 Rancho Navajas-canto-camino (288)
PQ 02 07 Rancho Navajas-canto-camino (289)
PQ 02 08 Rancho Navajas-canto-camino (290)
PQ 02 09 Rancho Navajas-canto-camino (291)
PQ 02 10 Rancho Navajas-canto-camino (292)
PQ 02 11 Rancho Navajas-canto-camino (293)
PQ 02 12 Rancho Navajas-canto-camino (294)
PQ 02 13 Rancho Navajas-canto-camino (295)
PQ 02 14 Rancho Navajas-canto-camino (296)
PQ 02 15 Rancho Navajas-canto-camino (297)
PQ 02 16 Rancho Navajas-canto-camino (298)
PQ 02 17 Rancho Navajas-canto-camino (299)
PQ 02 18 Rancho Navajas-canto-camino (300)
PQ 02 19 Rancho Navajas-canto-camino (301)
ALTOTONGA VERACRUZ
AV 01 01 Canto en ceniza (302)
AV 01 02 Canto en ceniza (303)
AV 01 03 Canto en ceniza (304)
AV 01 04 Canto en cehiza (305)
AV 01 05 Canto en ceniza (306)
AV 01 06 Canto en ceniza (307)
AV 02 01 Canto-barranca (308)
AV 02 02 Canto-barranca (309)
AV 02 03 Canto-barranca (310)
AV 02 04 Canto-barranca (311)
AV 02 05 Canto-barranca (312)
AV 02 06 Canto-barranca (313)
AV 02 07 Canto-barranca (314)
AV 02 08 Canto-barranca (315)
AV 02 09 Canto-barranca (316)
AV 02 10 Canto-barranca (317)
AV 02 11 Canto-barranca (318)
AV 02 12 Canto-barranca (319)
AV 02 13 Canto-barranca (320)
AV 02 14 Canto-barranca (321)
AV 02 15 Canto-barranca (322)
AV 02 16 Canto-barranca (323)
PENJAMO, GUANAJUATO
PG 01 01 Area 1 (324)
PG 01 02 Area 1 (325)
APPENDIX2 245
PG 01 03 Area 1 (326)
PG 01 04 Area 1 (327)
PG 01 05 Area 1 (328)
PG 01 06 Area 1 (329)
PG 01 07 Area 1 (330)
PG 01 08 Area 1 (331)
PG 01 09 Area 1 (332)
PG 01 10 Area 1 (333)
PG 01 11 Area 1 (334)
PG 01 12 Area 1 (335)
PG 01 13 Area 1 (336)
PG 01 14 Area 1 (337)
PG 01 15 Area 1 (338)
PG 01 16 Area 1 (339)
PG 01 17 Area 1 (340)
PG 01 18 Area 1 (341)
PG 01 19 Area 1 (342)
PG 01 20 Area 1 (343)
PG 01 21 Area 1 (344)
PG 01 22 Area 1 (345)
PG 01 23 Area 1 (346)
PG 01 24 Area 1 (347)
PG 01 25 Area 1 (348)
PG 01 26 Area 1 (349)
PG 01 27 Area 1 (350)
PG 01 28 Area 1 (351)
PG 01 29 Area 1 (352)
PG 01 30 Area 1 (353)
PG 02 01 Area 2-flujo (354)
PG 02 02 Area 2-flujo (355)
PG 02 03 Area 2-flujo (356)
PG 02 04 Area 2-flujo (357)
PG 02 05 Area 2-flujo (358)
PG 03 01 Area 2-enfrente del flujo (359)
PG 03 02 Area 2-enfrente del flujo (360)
PG 03 03 Area 2-enfrente del flujo (361)
PG 03 04 Area 2-enfrente del flujo (362)
PG 03 05 Area 2-enfrente del flujo (363)
PG 03 06 Area 2-enfrente del flujo (364)
PG 03 07 Area 2-enfrente del flujo (365)
PG 03 08 Area 2-enfrente del flujo (366)
PG 03 09 Area 2-enfrente del flujo (367)
PG 03 10 Area 2-enfrente del flujo (368)
PG 03 11 Area 2-enfrente del flujo (369)
PG 03 12 Area 2-enfrente del flujo (370)
PG 03 13 Area 2-enfrente del flujo (371)
PG 03 14 Area 2-enfrente del flujo (372)
246 APiJ:NDICE 2
OM 01 03 Num. 004 (376)
OM 01 04 Num. 005 (377)
OM 01 05 Num. 006 (378)
OM 01 06 Num. 007 (379)
OM 01 07 Num. 008 (380)
OM 01 08 Num. 009 (381)
OM 01 09 Num. 010 (382)
OM 01 10 Num. 011 (383)
OM 01 11 Num. 012 (384)
OM 03 01 Num. 013 (385)
OM 03 02 Num. 014 (386)
OM 04 01 Num. 015 (387)
OM 04 02 Num. 016 (388)
OM 04 03 Num. 017 (389)
OM 05 01 Num. 018 (390)
OM 05 02 Num. 019 (391)
OM 05 03 Num. 020 (392)
OM 05 04 Num. 021 (393)
OM 05 05 Num. 022 (394)
OM 05 06 Num. 023 (395)
OM 05 07 Num. 024 (396)
OM 05 08 Num. 025 (397)
OM 05 09 Num. 026 (398)
OM 05 10 Num. 027 (399)
OM 05 11 Num. 028 (400)
OM 05 12 Num. 029 (401)
OM 05 13 Num. 030 (402)
OM 04 04 Num. 031 (403)
OM 04 05 Num. 032 (404)
OM 03 03 Num. 033 (405)
OM 06 01 Num. 034 (406)
OM 06 02 Num. 035 (407)
OM 06 03 Num. 036 (408)
OM 07 01 Num. 037 (409)
OM 07 02 Num. 038 (410)
OM 07 03 Num. 039 (411)
OM 08 01 Num. 040 (412)
OM 08 02 Num. 041 (413)
OM 09 01 Num. 042 (414)
OM 09 02 Num. 043 (415)
OM 10 01 Num. 044 (416)
OM 11 01 Num. 045 (417)
OM 12 01 Num. 046 (418)
APPENDIX2 247
PP 02 03 Num. 008 (426)
PP 02 04 Num. 009 (427)
pp 02 05 Num. 010 (428)
pp 03 01 Num. 011 (429)
PP 03 02 Num. 012 (430)
pp 03 03 Num. 013 (431)
pp 03 04 Num. 014 (432)
PP 03 05 Num. 015 (433)
pp 04 01 Num. 016 (434)
pp 04 02 Num. 017 (435)
PP 04 03 Num. 018 (436)
pp 04 04 Num. 019 (437)
pp 04 05 Num. 020 (438)
pp 05 01 Num. 021 (439)
PP 05 02 Num. 022 (440)
pp 05 03 Num. 023 (441)
PP 05 04 Num. 024 (442)
pp 05 05 Num. 025 (443)
pp 06 01 Num. 026 (444)
PP 06 02 Num. 027 (445)
PP 06 03 Num. 028 (446)
pp 06 04 Num. 029 (447)
pp 06 05 Num. 030 (448)
PP 07 01 Num. 031 (449)
pp 08 01 Num. 032 (450)
PP 09 01 Num. 033 (451)
pp 09 02 Num. 034 (452)
pp 09 03 Num. 035 (453)
pp 09 04 Num. 036 (454)
pp 09 05 Num. 037 (455)
pp 09 06 Num. 038 (456)
PP 09 07 Num. 039 (457)
PP 09 08 Num. 040 (458)
PP 09 09 Num. 041 (459)
PP 09 10 Num. 042 (460)
PP 10 01 Num. 043 (461)
PP 10 02 Num. 044 (462)
PP 10 02 Num. 045 (463)
pp 10 04 Num. 046 (464)
pp 10 05 Num. 047 (465)
pp 10 06 Num. 048 (466)
pp 10 07 Num. 049 (467)
PP 10 08 Num. 050 (468)
PP 10 09 Num. 051 (469)
pp 10 10 Num. 052 (470)
PP 10 11 Num. 053 (471)
PP 11 01 Num. 054 (472)
pp 12 01 Num. 055 (473)
pp 12 02 Num. 056 (474)
PP 12 03 Num. 057 (475)
PP 12 04 Num. 058 (476)
PP 13 01 Num. 059
248 APENDICE 2
PP 13 02 Num. 060 (478)
APPENDIX2 249
SIERRA DE PACHUCA, HIDALGO
SIERRA NAVAJAS/El Durazno
SH 14 01 Transecto arriba del Arbo1-cruz-num. 001 (525)
SH 14 02 Transecto arriba del Arbo1-cruz-num. 002 (526)
SH 14 03 Transecto arriba del Arbol-cruz-num. 003 (527)
SH 14 04 Transecto arriba del Arbol-cruz-num. 004 (528)
SH 14 05 Transecto arriba del Arbol-cruz-num. 005 (529)
SH 14 06 Transecto arriba del Arbol-cruz-num. 006 (530)
SH 14 07 Transecto arriba del Arbol-cruz-num. 007 (531)
SH 14 08 Transecto arriba del Arbol-cruz-num. 008 (532)
SH 14 09 Transecto arriba del Arbol-cruz-num. 009 (533)
SH 14 10 Transecto arriba del Arbol-cruz-num. 010 (534)
SH 14 11 Transecto arriba del Arbol-cruz-num. 011 (535)
SH 14 12 Transecto arriba del Arbol-cruz-num. 012 (536)
SH 14 13 Transecto arriba del Arbol-cruz-num. 013 (537)
SH 14 14 Transecto arriba del Arbol-cruz-num. 014 (538)
SH 14 15 Transecto arriba del Arbol-cruz-num. 015 (539)
SH 14 16 Transecto arriba del Arbol-cruz-num. 016 (540)
SH 14 17 Transecto arriba del Arbol-cruz-num. 017 (541)
SH 15 01 Monticulo grande arriba del Arbol-cruz-num. 018 (542)
SH 15 02 Monticulo grande arriba del Arbol-cruz-num. 019 (543)
SH 15 03 Monticulo grande arriba del Arbol-cruz-num. 020 (544)
SH 15 04 Monticulo grande arriba del Arbol-cruz-num. 021 (545)
250 APENDICE 2
SIERRA DE PACHUCA, HIDALGO
CRUZ DEL MILAGRO
SH 20 01 Num. 001 (567)
SH 20 02 Num. 002 (568)
SH 20 03 Num. 003 (569)
SH 20 04 Num. 004 (570)
SH 20 05 Num. 005 (571)
SH 20 06 Num. 006 (572)
SH 20 07 Num. 007 (573)
SH 20 08 Num. 008 (574)
SH 20 09 Num. 009 (575)
SH 20 10 Num. 010 (576)
SH 20 11 Num. 011 (577)
SH 20 12 Num. 012 (578)
SH 20 13 Num. 013 (579)
SH 20 14 Num. 014 (580)
SH 20 15 Num. 015 (581)
SH 20 16 Nurn. o16 (582)
SH 20 17 Num. 017 (583)
APPENDIX2 251
SH 25 08 Barranca del Lado este del pueblo-num. 008 (611)
SH 26 01 Aprox. 700 mts a! sur del pueblo-num. 001 (612)
SH 26 02 Aprox. 700 mts a! sur del pueblo-num. 002 (613)
SH 26 03 Aprox. 700 mts a! sur del pueblo-num. 003 (614)
SH 26 04 Aprox. 700 mts a! sur del pueblo-num. 004 (615)
SH 26 05 Aprox. 700 mts a! sur del pueblo-num. 005 (616)
EL CHAPULIN, HIDALGO
H-49
CH 01 01 Num. 001 (634)
CH 01 02 Num. 002 (635)
CH 01 03 Num. 003 (636)
CH 01 04 Num. 004 (637)
CH 01 05 Num. oo5 (638)
EL PARED6N, HIDALGO
PP 14 01 Num. 001 (639)
PP 14 02 Num. 002 (640)
PP 14 03 Num. 003 (641)
PP 14 04 Num. 004 (642)
PP 14 05 Num. 005 (643)
PP 15 01 Num. 006 (644)
PP 15 02 Num. 007 (645)
PP 15 03 Num. 008 (646)
PP 16 01 Num. 009 (647)
PP 16 02 Num. 010 (648)
PP 17 01 Num. 011 (649)
PP 17 02 Num. 012 (650)
PP1703 Num.013 (651)
PP 17 04 Num. 014 (652)
PP 18 01 Num. 015 (653)
PP 18 02 Num. 016 (654)
252 APB;NDICE 2
PP 18 03 Num. 017 (655)
PP 19 01 Num. 018 (656)
PP 19 02 Num. 019 (657)
PP 19 03 Num. 020 (658)
MALPAiS, HIDALGO
H-26
MH 01 01 Num. 001 (659)
MH 01 02 Num. 002 (660)
MH 01 03 Num. 003 (661)
MH 01 04 Num. 004 (662)
MH 02 01 Num. 005 (663)
MH 02 02 Num. 006 (664)
MH 02 03 Num. 007 (665)
MH 03 01 Num. 008 (666)
MH 04 01 Num. 009 (667)
MH 05 01 Num. 010 (668)
MH 05 02 Num. 011 (669)
MH 05 03 Num. 012 (670)
MH 05 04 Num. 013 (671)
MH 05 05 Num. 014 (672)
MH 06 01 Num. 015 (673)
MH 06 02 Num. 016 (674)
MH 06 03 Num. 017 (675)
MH 07 01 Num. 018 (676)
MH 08 01 Num. 019 (677)
MH 08 02 Num. 020 (678)
MH 09 01 Num. 021 (679)
MH 10 01 Num. 022 (680)
MH 10 02 Num. 023 (681)
TOTOWA, HIDALGO
H-215
OH 01 01 Num. 001 (682)
OH 01 02 Num. 002 (683)
OH 02 01 Num. 003 (684)
OH 02 02 Num. 004 (685)
OH 02 03 Num. 005 (686)
OH 02 04 Num. 006 (687)
OH 03 01 Num. 007 (688)
APPENDIX2 253
LH 01 02 Num. 002 (696)
LH 02 01 Num. 003 (697)
LH 02 02 Num. 004 (698)
LH 02 03 Num. oo5 (699)
LH 02 04 Num. 006 (700)
LH 03 01 Num. 007 (701)
LH 03 02 Num. 008 (702)
LH 04 01 Num. 009 (703)
LH 04 02 Num. 010 (704)
EL ENCINAL, HIDALGO
EH 01 01 Num. 001 (705)
EH 01 02 Num. 002 (706)
EH 02 01 Num. 003 (707)
EH 02 02 Num. 004 (708)
EH 02 03 Num. oo5 (709)
EH 02 04 Num. 006 (710)
EH 03 01 Num. 007 (711)
EH 03 02 Num. 008 (712)
EH 03 03 Num. 009 (713)
EH 03 04 Num. 010 (714)
EH 03 05 Num. 011 (715)
EH 04 01 Num. 012 (716)
EH 04 02 Num. 013 (717)
EH 04 03 Num. 014 (718)
EH 05 01 Num. 015 (719)
EH 06 01 Num. 016 (720)
EH 06 01 Num. 017 (721)
EH 06 01 Num. 018 (722)
EH 06 01 Num. 019 (723)
EH 07 01 Num. 020 (724)
EH 07 01 Num. 021 (725)
EL PIZARRIN, HIDALGO I
TH 01 01 Num. 001 (726)
TH 01 02 Num. 002 (727)
TH 01 03 Num. 003 (728)
TH 01 04 Num. 004 (729)
TH 01 05 Num. oo5 (730)
EL PIZARRIN, HIDALGO II
TH 02 01 Num. 006 (731)
TH 03 01 Num. 007 (732)
EL PIZARRIN, HIDALGO IV
TH 05 01 Num. 009 (734)
TH 05 02 Num. 010 (735)
TH 05 03 Num. 011 (736)
TH 05 04 Num. 012 (737)
254 APE:NDICE 2
TH 05 05 Num. 013 (738)
EL PIZARRfN, HIDALGO V
TH 06 01 Num. 014 (739)
TH 06 02 Num. 015 (740)
TH 07 01 Num. 016 (741)
TH 08 01 Num. 017 (742)
TH 09 01 Num. 018 (743)
EL PIZARRfN, HIDALGO VI
TH 10 01 Num. 019-Mina de arena (744)
TH 10 02 Num. 020-Mina de arena (745)
TH 10 03 Num. 021-Mina de arena (746)
TH 10 04 Num. 022-Mina de arena (747)
TH 10 05 Num. 023-Mina de arena (748)
EL PIZARRfN, HIDALGO
TH 11 01 Num. 00 1-carretera Tulancingo-Tuxpan (749)
TH 11 02 Num. 002-carretera Tulancingo-Tuxpan (750)
TEPALZINGO, HIDALGO
PH 01 01 Num. 001 (763)
PH 02 01 Num. 002 (764)
PH 01 02 Num. 003 (765)
PH 03 01 Num. 004 (766)
PH 04 01 Num. 005 (767)
PH 04 02 Num. 006 (768)
PH 04 03 Num. 007 (769)
PH 04 04 Num. 008 (770)
PH 05 01 Num. 009 (771)
PH 05 02 Num. 010 (772)
PH 05 03 Num. 011 (773)
PH 05 04 Num. 012 (774)
PH 06 01 Num. 013 (775)
PH 06 02 Num. 014 (776)
PH 06 03 Num. 015 (777)
APPENDIX2 255
MEZQUITITLAN, HIDALGO
QH 01 01 Num. 001 (778)
QH 01 02 Num. 002 (779)
QH 01 03 Num. 003 (780)
QH 01 04 Num. 004 (781)
QH 01 05 Num. 005 (782)
ZACUALTIPAN, HIDALGO
ZH 01 01 Num. 001 (783)
ZH 01 02 Num. 002 (784)
ZH 02 01 Num. 003 (785)
ZH 02 02 Num. 004 (786)
ZH 02 03 Num. oo5 (787)
ZH 02 04 Num. 006 (788)
ZH 03 01 Num. 007 (789)
ZH 03 02 Num. 008 (790)
ZH 03 03 Num. 009 (791)
ZH 04 01 Num. 010 (792)
ZH 04 02 Num. 011 (793)
ZH 05 01 Num. 012 (794)
ZH 05 02 Num. 013 (795)
ZH 06 01 Num. 014 (796)
ZH 06 02 Num. 015 (797)
ZH 06 03 Num. 016 (798)
ZH 07 01 Num. 017 (799)
ZH 07 02 Num. 018 (800)
ZH 07 03 Num. 019 (801)
ZH 08 01 Num. 020 (802)
ZH 08 02 Num. 021 (803)
ZH 08 03 Num. 022 (804)
ZH 08 04 Num. 023 (805)
ZH 08 05 Num. 024 (806)
ZH 09 01 Num. 025 (807)
ZH 09 02 Num. 026 (808)
ZH 09 03 Num. 027 (809)
ZH 09 04 Num. 028 (810)
ZH 09 05 Num. 029 (811)
DERRUMBADAS, PUEBLA
DP 01 01 Num. 001 (812)
DP 01 02 Num. 002 (813)
DP 01 03 Num. 003 (814)
DP 01 04 Num. 004 (815)
DP 01 05 Num. 005 (816)
DP 01 06 Num. 006 (817)
DP 01 07 Num. 007 (818)
256 APB:NDICE 2
TABLES
CUADROS
TABLEA2.1
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR ALTOTONGA, VERACRUZ
DESCRIPCI6N ESTADiSTICA PARA ALTOTONGA, VERACRUZ
Element Mean ppm St. Dev. %St. Dev. No. Obs. Minimwn Maximum
Muestras incluidas:
AN!Ds of specimens included:
AV0101 AV0102 AV0103 AV0104 AV0105 AV0106 AV0201 AV0202
AV0203 AV0204 AV0207 AV0208 AV0210 AV0212
APPENDIX2 257
TABLEA2.2
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR ZARAGOZA, PUEBLA
DESCRIPCI6N ESTAD!STICA PARA ZARAGOZA, PUEBLA
Element Mean ppm St. Dev. %St. Dev. No. Obs. Minimum Maximum
Muestras incluidas:
AN!Ds of specimens included:
OP0101 OP0102 OP0103 OP0106 OP0108 OP0110 OP0112 OP0202
OP0203 OP0204 OP0206 OP0208 OP0210 OP0212 OP0301 OP0302
ZP0101 ZP0102 ZP0103 ZP0104 ZP0107 ZP0109 ZP0110 ZP0111
ZP0117 ZP0118 ZP0119 ZP0120 ZP0121 ZP0122 ZP0203
258 AP.ENDICE 2
TABLEA2.3
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR FICO DE 0RIZABA, VERACRUZ
DESCRIPCI6N ESTADiSTICA PARA FICO DE 0RIZABA, VERACRUZ
Element Mean ppm St. Dev. %St. Dev. No. Obs. Minimum Maximum
Muestras incluidas:
ANIDs of specimens included:
PV7101 PV7102 PV7103 PV7104 PV7105 PV8101 PV9101 PV9501
PV0101 PV0103 PV0201 PV0301 PV0401 PV0403 PV0404 PV0501
PV0601 PV0602 PV0603 PV0801 PV0802 PVlOOl PV1002 PV1005
PVllOl PV1201 PV1202 PV1401 PV1501 PV1701 PV1901 PV2001
PV2102 PV2201 PV2301 PV2401 PV2402 PV2501 PV2502 PV2503
PV2701 PV2901 PV2902 PV3001 PV3002 PV3101 PV3201 PV3202
PV3203 PV3204 PV3205 PV3301 PV3302 PV3401 PV3404 PV3501
PV3503 PV3601
APPENDIX2 259
TABLEA2.4
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR GUADALUPE VICTORIA, PUEBLA
DESCRIPCI6N ESTADiSTICA PARA GUADALUPE VICTORIA, PUEBLA
Element Mean ppm St. Dev. %St. Dev. No. Obs. Minimum Maximum
Muestras incluidas:
ANIDs of specimens included:
GP7101 GP7201 GP7203 GP0101 GP0103 GP0104 GP0105 GP0106
GP0108 GP0109 GP0201 GP0202 GP0302 GP0303 GP0304 GP0305
GP0306 GP0401 GP0403 GP0404 GP0409 GP0501 GP0503 TPP001
TPP002 TPP003 TPP004 TPP005 TPP006 TPP007 TPP008 TPP009
TPP010 TPP011 TPP012 TPP013
260 APB::NDICE 2
TABLEA2.5
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR DERRUMBADAS, PUEBLA
DESCRIPCI6N ESTADiSTICA PARA DERRUMBADAS, PUEBLA
Element Mean ppm. St. Dev. %St. Dev. No. Obs. Minimwn Maximum
Muestras incluidas:
ANIDs of specimens included:
DP0101 DP0102 DP0103 DP0104 DP0105
APPENDIX2 261
TABLEA2.6
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR PAREDON, PUEBLA
DESCRIPCI6N ESTADiSTICA PARA PAREDON, PUEBLA
Element Mean ppm St. Dev. %St. Dev. No. Obs. Minimum Maximum
Muestras incluidas:
ANIDs of specimens included:
LHOlOl LH0102 LH0201 LH0202 LH0203 LH0204 LH030l LH0302
LH0401 LH0402 PPOlOl PP0102 PP0201 PP0202 PP0301 PP0302
PP0401 PP0402 PP0501 PP0502 PP0601 PP0602 PP0901 PP0902
PP1001 PP1002 PP1201 PP1202 PP1301 PP1401 PP1402 PP1501
PP1502 PP1702 PP1801 PP1802 PP1901 PP1902 PP9301 PP9302
PP9303 PP9304 PP9305 PP9306 PP9307 PP9309 PP9310 PP93ll
262 APB;NDICE2
TABLEA2.7
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR OTUMBA, STATE OF MEXICO
0ESCRIPCI6N ESTADiSTICA PARA OTUMBA, ESTADO DE MEXICO
Element Mean ppm St. Dev. %St. Dev. No. Obs. Minimwn Maximwn
Muestras incluidas:
AN!Ds of specimens included:
OM7101 OM7201 OM7202 OM8101 OM8201 OM9101 OM9102 OM0101
OM0102 OM0103 OM0104 OM0105 OM0108 OM0109 OMOllO OMOlll
OM0301 OM0302 OM0303 OM0501 OM0502 OM0503 OM0504 OM0505
OM0506 OM0507 OM0508 OM0601 OM0701 OM0702 OM0703 OM0801
OM0802 OM0901 OM1001 OM1101 OM1201 OM9020C OM9020D OM9022B
OM9026 OM9028 OM9029 OM9030 OM9033 OM9034 OM9061
APPENDIX2 263
TABLEA2.8
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR MALPAIS, HIDALGO
DESCRIPCI6N ESTADfSTICA PARA MALPAfS, HIDALGO
Element Mean ppm St. Dev. %St. Dev. No. Obs. Minimum Maximum
Muestras incluidas:
ANIDs of specimens included:
IH0101 IH0201 IH0202 IH0203 IH0301 MH0101 MH0102 MH0201
MH0202 MH0401 MH0501 MH0601 MH0701 MH0901 OH0101 OH0201
OH0202 OH0203 OH0204
264 APE;NDICE 2
TABLEA2.9
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF TuLANCINGO, HIDALGO
DESCRIPCI6N ESTADiSTICA PARA TULANCINGO, HIDALGO
Element Mean ppm St. Dev. %St. Dev. No. Obs. Minimwn Maximwn
Muestras incluidas:
ANIDs of specimens included:
RH7101 RH7201 TH7101 TH7102 TH7103 EH0101 EH0102 EH0201
EH0202 EH0301 EH0302 EH0401 EH0402 EH0601 EH0602 RH0101
RH0102 RH0103 RH0104 RH0201 RH0202 RH0203 RH0301 RH0302
RH0303 TH0101 TH0102 TH0103 TH0201 TH0401 TH0501 TH0502
TH0503 TH0601 TH0701 TH0801 THlOOl TH1002 TH1003 THllOl
APPENDIX2 265
TABLEA2.10
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR TEPALZINGO, HIDALGO
DESCRIPCI6N ESTADiSTICA PARA TEPALZINGO, HIDALGO
Element Mean ppm St. Dev. %St. Dev. No. Obs. Minimum Maximum
Muestras incluidas:
ANIDs of specimens included:
PH0101 PH0102 PH0201 PH0301 PH0401 PH0402 PH0501 PH0502
PH0601 PH0602
266 APE:NDICE2
TABLE A2.11
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR ZACUALTIPAN, HIDALGO
DESCRIPCI6N ESTADiSTICA PARA ZACUALTIPAN, HIDALGO
Element Mean ppm St. Dev. %St. Dev. No. Obs. Minimum Maximum
Muestras incluidas:
ANIDs of specimens included:
QH7101 QH0101 QH0102 QH0103 QH0104 QH0105 ZH0101 ZH0102
ZH0201 ZH0202 ZH0401 ZH0402 ZH0501 ZH0502 ZH0601 ZH0602
ZH0701 ZH0801 ZH0802 ZH0901 ZH8911 ZH9038C ZH9042 ZH9046
ZH9070 ZH9072 ZH9073 ZH9074 ZH9075 ZH9076
APPENDIX2 267
TABLEA2.12
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR SIERRA DE PACHUCA-1, HIDALGO
DESCRIPCI6N ESTADiSTICA PARA SIERRA DE PACHUCA-1, HIDALGO
Element Mean ppm St. Dev. %St. Dev. No. Obs. Minimum Maximum
Muestras incluidas:
ANIDs of specimens included:
SH7201 SH7301 SH7302 SH7401 SH7402 SH7901 SH8108 CH0101
CH0102 CH0103 CH0104 CH0105 SH0101 SH0102 SH0201 SH0202
SH0203 SH0204 SH0401 SH0402 SH0501 SH0601 SH0602 SH0603
SH0701 SH0702 SH0703 SH0704 SH0705 SH0706 SH0801 SH0802
SH0803 SH0804 SH0901 SH0902 SH0903 SH0904 SH0905 SH1001
SH1002 SH1101 SH1102 SH1201 SH1203 SH1204 SH1205 SH1206
SH1207 SH1301 SH1302 SH1303 SH1304 SH1401 SH1402 SH1403
SH1404 SH1405 SH1406 SH1407 SH1408 SH1409 SH1410 SH1411
SH1412 SH1413 SH1414 SH1415 SH1416 SH1417 SH1502 SH1503
SH1504 SH1601 SH1602 SH1603 SH1604 SH1605 SH1606 SH1607
SH1608 SH1609 SH1610 SH1611 SH1612 SH1613 SH1614 SH1615
SH1701 SH1702 SH1801 SH1802 SH1902 SH2001 SH2002 SH2003
SH2004 SH2005 SH2006 SH2007 SH2008 SH2009 SH2010 SH2011
SH2012 SH2013 SH2014 SH2015 SH2016 SH2017 SH2101 SH2103
SH2104 SH2105 SH2106 SH2107 SH2108 SH2109 SH2201 SH2202
SH2203 SH2301 SH2302 SH2402 SH2404 SH2501 SH2503 SH2504
SH2505
268 APB;NDICE 2
TABLEA2.13
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR SIERRA DE PACHUCA-2, HIDALGO
DESCRIPCI6N ESTADiSTICA PARA SIERRA DE PACHUCA-2, HIDALGO
Element Mean ppm St. Dev. %St. Dev. No. Obs. Minimwn Maximum
Muestras incluidas:
AN!Ds of specimens included:
SH0301 SH0403 SH0404 SH1202 SH1901 SH2102 SH2403 SH2502
SH2506 SH2507 SH2508
APPENDIX2 269
TABLEA2.14
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR SIERRA DE PACHUCA-3, HIDALGO
DESCRIPCI6N ESTADfSTICA PARA SIERRA DE PACHUCA-3, HIDALGO
Element Mean ppm St. Dev. %St. Dev. No. Obs. Minimum Maximum
Muestras incluidas:
ANIDs of specimens included:
SH8101 SH8106 SH8107 SH2204 SH2401 SH2601 SH2602 SH2603
SH2604 SH2605 SH2701 SH2702 SH2703 SH2704 SH2801 SH2802
SH2901 SH2902 SH2903 SH2904 SH2905 SH3001 SH3002 SH3003
SH3004 SH3005 SH3101
270 APENDICE 2
TABLE A2.15
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR UCAREO, MlCHOACAN
0ESCRIPCI6N ESTADiSTICA PARA UCAREO, MrCHOACAN
Element Mean ppm St. Dev. %St. Dev. No. Obs. Minimum Maximum
Muestras incluidas:
AN!Ds of specimens included:
UM0101 UM0102 UM0103 UM0104 UM0105 UM0106 UM0107 UM0108
UM0109 UMOllO UM0111 UM0201 UM0202 UM0203 UM0204 UM0301
UM0302 UM0303 UM0304 UM0305 UM0501 UM0502 UM0503 UM0505
UM0506 UM0507 UM0509 UM0510 UM0601 UM0602 UM0603 UM0604
UM0605 UM0606 UM0607 UM0608 UM0609 UM0701 UM0702 UM0703
UM0704 UM0705 UM0706 UM0707 UM0708 UM0709 UM0710 UM0711
APPENDIX2 271
TABLEA2.16
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR CRUZ NEGRA, MlCHOACAN
DESCRIPCI6N ESTADfSTICA PARA CRUZ NEGRA, MlCHOACAN
Element Mean ppm St. Dev. %St. Dev. No. Obs. Minimum Maximum
Muestras incluidas:
ANIDs of specimens included:
ZM7102 ZM8202 UM0401 UM0402 UM0403 UM0404 UM0405 UM0406
UM0407 UM0408 UC-06 ZN-05 ZN-06 ZN-07 ZN-09
272 APENDICE 2
TABLEA2.17
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR ZINAPECUARO, MICHOACAN
DESCRIPCI6N ESTADfSTICA PARA ZANAPE:CUARO, M!CHOACAN
Element Mean ppm St. Dev. %St. Dev. No. Obs. Minimum Maximum
Muestras incluidas:
ANIDs of specimens included:
ZM7101 ZM7103 ZM7104 ZM7105 ZM0101 ZM0102 ZM0104 ZM0105
ZM0201 ZM0202 ZM0203 ZM0205 ZM0302 ZM0304 ZM0305 ZM0401
ZM0402 ZM0404 ZM0501 ZM0502 ZM0601 ZM0602 ZM0603 ZM0604
APPENDIX2 273
TABLEA2.18
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR EL PARAISO, QUERETARO
DESCRIPCI6N ESTADiSTICA PARA EL PARAiSO, QUERETARO
Element Mean ppm St. Dev. %St. Dev. No. Obs. Minimum Maximum
Muestras incluidas:
ANIDs of specimens included:
PQ7101 PQ7102 PQ7104 PQ7105 PQ0101 PQ0102 PQ0103 PQ0104
PQ0201 PQ0202 PQ0203 PQ0204 PQ0205 PQ0206 PQ0207 PQ0208
PQ0209 PQ0210 PQ0213 PQ0214 PQ0004 PQ0005
274 APENDICE 2
TABLE A2.19
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR PENJAM0-1, GUANAJUATO
DESCRIPCI6N ESTADiSTICA PARA PE:NJAM0-1, GUANAJUATO
Element Mean ppm St. Dev. %St. Dev. No. Obs. Minimum Maximum
Muestras incluidas:
ANIDs of specimens included:
PG0101 PG0102 PG0103 PG0106 PG0108 PG0109 PGOllO PG0111
PG0112 PG0113 PG0114 PG0115
APPENDIX2 275
TABLEA2.20
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR PENJAM0-2, GUANAJUATO
DESCRIPCI6N ESTADiSTICA PARA PE:NJAM0-2, GUANAJUATO
Element Mean ppm St. Dev. %St. Dev. No. Obs. Minimum Maximum
Muestras incluidas:
ANIDs of specimens included:
PG7101 PG7102 PG7103 PG7104 PG7105 PG0201 PG0202 PG0203
PG0204 PG0205 PG0301 PG0302 PG0303 PG0304 PG0305
276 APE:NDICE 2
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