Chapter 4 coy Reinforced concrete structures 4.1 Introduct n Concrete is an extremely versatile structural material. It is moderately strong in compres sion but weak in tension; it has good resis- tance to fire and good durability. Perhaps its most distinctive characteristic, however, is that it is available to the builder, on the building site, in semi-liquid form. This has two very important consequences. First, it allows concrete to be cast into a wide variety of shapes; the material itself places little restric- tion on form. Secondly, it makes possible the incorporation into concrete of other materials, Fig. 4.1 Chui ‘Austria, 1965-76 Fritz \Wotruba with Fritz G. Mayr, architects. The expressive possibilities of reinforced concrete are well illustrated Photo: E.& F McLachlan} ”Structural Design for Architecture 00 Ag? Fig. 4.2 Hennebique's system for reinforced concrete. which was patented in 1897, was one of a number which were developed in the late nineteenth century and which Jed to the subsequent widespread use of the material for rmuht-storey structures with which its properties can be augmented ‘The most important of these is steel, in the form of small-diameter reinforcing bars, and this produces the composite material teinforced concrete, which possesses tensile and flexural strength as well as compressive strength. Reinforced concrete can therefore be used to make any type of structural element, Concrete can be either cast directly into its final location in a structure, in which case it is said to be in situ concrete, or used in the form of elements which are cast at some other location, usually a factory, and simply assem- bled on site, in which case it is referred to as precast concrete. The relative advantages of the two types are reviewed in Section 4.4. Both in situ and precast concrete can be produced in ordinary reinforced form or in pre-stressed form. The distinctions between these types are discussed in Section 4.3.2. — 4.2 The architecture of reinforced concrete — the factors which affect the decision to select reinforced concrete as a structural material 4.2.1 The aesthetics of reinforced concrete The opportunities which reinforced concrete offers in the matter of architectural form can be seen by examining the range of building types for which it has been used during the relatively short period in which it has been available as a structural material Although a type of concrete was used to good effect by the architects and engineers of Roman antiquity the moder material, reinforced concrete, dates from the nineteenth century. ‘Roman’ cement, the forerunner of the present-day Portland Cement, was patented in the UK by |. Aspden in 1824, but the earliest uses of reinforcement in concrete appears to have occurred more or less simultaneously in France and USA where, in the 1880s and 1890s, Francois Hennebique (Fig. 4.2) and Emest Ransome, respectively, each developed framing systems for buildings based on this principle. Another early innovator was Robert Maillart, whose development of the two-way-spanningFig. 43 Cross-section through five-storey flat-sla struc- ture by Robert Malllar. «1912, Flat-slab systems, which are sophisticated two-way-spanning structures which derive much of their strength from the high degree of structural continuity which is present, were developed surprisingly early in the history of reinforced concrete construction, Because there are no downstand beams the system allows a very economical use to be made of both ‘material and labour Local thickening is required in the vicinity of the columns, where shear forces are high. This is accomplished by the use of ‘mushroom’ column heads, Reinforced concrete structures flat-slab structure was particularly notable (Fig. 4.3 ). All of these early pioneers were concerned principally with the application of reinforced concrete framing systems to indus- trial buildings In the late nineteenth century reinforced concrete was a ‘new’ structural material. capable of producing durable and fire-proof skeleton frameworks and therefore buildings with open interiors free from structural walls. It arrived on the architectural scene at a time when the precursors of the Modern Movement were exploring the possibilities of creating a new architectural language which would be appropriate for the twentieth-century world ‘These architects were anxious to make use of the new materials which industry was produ- cing and the most innovative of them were not slow to appreciate the potential of reinforced concrete, ‘Among the earliest of designers to under- stand the purely architectural qualities of the new material was August Perret. In the apart- ment block at 25 bis Rue Franklin, Paris, 1902 (Fig. 4.4), the adoption of a reinforced concrete frame structure was used to produce an open- plan interior with light non-loadbearing parti- tion walls, Large areas of glazing were a feature of the exterior and the reinforced concrete columns of the building, although not actually exposed (a tile cladding system was used) ‘were expressed on the facade. The later garage at 51 Rue de Ponthieu by Perret was also based on reinforced concrete and in this build- ing the concrete framework was left entirely exposed, apart from a thin layer of paint. These buildings were very important precursors of the Modern Movement. An important aspect of their novelty was the role played by the struc- ture in liberating the organisation of space from the tyranny of the loadbearing wall. This was exploited by Perret in his design for the Rue Franklin flats, producing a version of the Paris apartment in which a new free-flowing space could be enjoyed. The other significant aspect was the re-establishment of structure, and in particular the column, as a part of the architectural expression, something which had not happened since the eclipse of Neo- ia