Topic 1: Signals

© UC3M/TSC 2008
 1.1 The physical world: representation by
means of signals and systems
ƒ Signals: Functions with which we represent variations in
physical magnitudes
• Voltage, current, force, temperature, position

r (t )

r (t )

© UC3M/TSC 2008 2
 1.1 The physical world: representation by
means of signals and systems

Generalization

Vi (t ) Vo (t ) = T {Vi (t )}
System
x(t ) T {x(t )} = y (t )
ƒ Systems: Transform signals
• They can model the behavior of:
− A chemical plan, a hydraulic system, an electric circuit, a communication
channel, ...
© UC3M/TSC 2008 3
 1.1 The physical world: representation by
means of signals and systems
ƒ Systems: Transform signals
• Example: atmospheric channel

Generalization
c
λ= x(t ) y (t ) = α x(t − t0 )
f
System
10 m ≤ λHF ≤ 100 m T { x(t )} α ≤1

© UC3M/TSC 2008 4
 1.2 Signal Classification

ƒ According to the nature of the independent variable

• Defined in continuous time
− Notation: x(t)
x(t) is function of a real variable x(t)
x :R →C x(64,9834232)
x(46)
t → x(t )
− Examples:
– Temperature as a function t
of the time of the day
– Sinusoidal voltage

© UC3M/TSC 2008 5
 1.2 Signal Classification

ƒ According to the nature of the independent variable

• Defined in discrete time
x[n] is a function of the discrete variable n
• Notation: x[n]
x[n]

x :Z →C [ ]
x 12 does not exist
n → x[n]
x[2]

x[1]
x[0]
n
© UC3M/TSC 2008 6
 1.2 Signal Classification

ƒ According to the nature of the independent variable

• Defined in discrete time
− Economic indices: IBEX 35

8113
8032 8021

7857

n-1 n n+1 day

– Prediction:
xˆ[n + 1] = F ( x[n], x[n − 1], x[n − 2], L)
© UC3M/TSC 2008 7
 1.2 Signal Classification

ƒ According to the nature of the function

• Real

Continuous time
x(t ) = e −0.99t sin(10t ), t ≥ 0 r (t )

Discrete time
1 1
x[n] = α
n
x[n] x[n]
α α 0 ≤α ≤1 α2
−1 ≤ α ≤ 0
α2 α2 α2
-1 1
n n
-2 -1 0 1 2 -2 0 2
α α
© UC3M/TSC 2008 8
 1.2 Signal Classification

ƒ According to the nature of the function

• Complex x[n] = Re { x[n]} + j Im { x[n]}

− Conjugate x [n] = Re { x[n]} − j Im { x[n]}

*

Re { x[n]} = ( x[n] + x*[n])

1 Im{•}
2 x[n]
x[n]
Im { x[n]} =
1
( x[n] − x*[n])
2j arg( x[n])
Re{•}
( Re { x[n]}) + ( Im { x[n]})
2 2
x[n] =

⎛ Im { x[n]} ⎞
−1
arg( x[n]) = tan ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ {
Re x[ n ]}⎠
© UC3M/TSC 2008 9
 The Complex Plane (z plane, or Gauss plane)

Given a complex number z = x + jy we associate to it

Imaginary axis Magnitude:

Im {•} z = x +y
2 2

z Also called “absolute value”

(the magnitude of a real number is its
z absolute value)
y
Phase:
θ ⎛ y⎞
θ := arg z = z = arctan ⎜ ⎟
Re {•} ⎝x⎠
x
Real axis
© UC3M/TSC 2008 10
 Representation of Complex Numbers

ƒ Draw the complex number z = -3-2j ƒ Magnitude

in the complex plane and evaluate
its magnitude and phase r = z = ( − 3) 2
+ ( −2) 2
Im {•} = 13
The calculator does
not distinguish
ƒ Phase
−3 θ ⎛−2⎞
θ = arg z = arctan ⎜ =
⎛2⎞
⎟ arctan ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −3⎠ ⎝3⎠
r Re {•} = {L − 146 .3°, 33 .7°, 213 .7°, L}
−2
3.73 rad
−3 − 2 j
© UC3M/TSC 2008 11
 Sum and difference of complex numbers in the
complex plane

Im {•}

z1
z1 + z 2
Re {•}
z2
z 2 − z1
The sum (and difference) of
Complex numbers behave just
like vectors
© UC3M/TSC 2008 12
 Triangular Inequality

Im {•} | z1 + z 2 |≤| z1 | + | z 2 |
z1
z1 + z 2
| z1 | | z1 + z 2 |

Re {•}
| z2 | z2

© UC3M/TSC 2008 13
 1.3 Signal Properties

ƒ Symmetry
1
• Even
x(t ) = x(−t ) α α
α2 α2
x[n] = x[−n]
n
-2 -1 0 1 2
x(t )
• Odd x(t ) = − x(−t ) ⇒ x(0) = 0
x[n] = − x[− n]
0 t
ƒ Even and odd parts of a signal
1
x even (t) = (x(t) + x(−t))
2 x(t) = x even (t) + x odd (t)
1
x odd (t) = (x(t) − x(−t))
© UC3M/TSC 2008
2 14
 1.3 Signal Properties

ƒ Symmetry
• Calculate the even and odd parts of this signal

x(t )
1

0 t

© UC3M/TSC 2008 15
 1.3 Signal Properties

ƒ Periodicity ∃T > 0, x(t ) = x(t + T ), ∀t

∃N > 0, N ∈ {N+ : 1,2,3,...}, x[n] = x[n + N ], ∀n
1

0.8

⎛2 ⎞
x(t ) = cos⎜ πt ⎟
0.6

⎝3 ⎠
0.4

¿ ∃T > 0, x(t ) = x(t + T ), ∀t ?

0.2

-0.2 t
-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

⎛2 ⎞ ⎛2 ⎞
x(t ) = x(t + T ) ⇒ cos ⎜ π t ⎟ = cos ⎜ π (t + T ) ⎟
⎝3 ⎠ ⎝3 ⎠
⎛2 T⎞ ⎛2 ⎞
⇒ cos ⎜ π t + 2π ⎟ = cos ⎜ π t + 2π k ⎟ ⇒ T = 3
⎝3 3⎠ ⎝3 ⎠
© UC3M/TSC 2008 16
 1.3 Signal Properties

ƒ Periodicity
∃T > 0, x(t ) = x(t + T ), ∀t
∃N > 0, N ∈ {N+ : 1,2,3,...}, x[n] = x[n + N ], ∀n

• If x(t) is periodic of period T, it is also periodic of period 2T, 3T,

1
• Fundamental period: 0.8

− Minimum value of T (or N) such 0.6

that x(t)=x(t+T) (or x[n]=x[n+N]). 0.4

0.2
x(t ) = x(t + T ) = x(t + 2T ) = L 0
−T 2T
-0.2
T
t
-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
© UC3M/TSC 2008 17
 1.4 Signal Characterization

ƒ Average value
• Partial average
Continuous time
Discrete time
T n0 + N
t0 +

∫ ∑ x[n]
1 2 1
x(t ) = x(t )dt x[n] =
t 0 ,T
T t0 −
T n , 2 N +1
0
2N +1
2 n = n0 − N

x (t )
Integration interval

T 0 t
t0 − t0 T
t0 +
2 2
© UC3M/TSC 2008 18
 1.4 Signal Characterization

ƒ Average value
• Total average
Continuous time Discrete time
⎧ n0 + N
⎫
lim ⎧⎪ 1 ⎫
∑
T
t0 + lim ⎪ 1 ⎪
∫
2 ⎪ x[n] =
x (t ) = ⎨ x (t ) dt ⎬ ⎨ x[ n ]⎬
T → ∞ ⎪T T
⎪⎭ N → ∞ ⎪ 2N +1 ⎪⎭
⎩
t0 −
2 ⎩ n = n0 − N

• Periodic signals: We only need to consider the partial

average over a period.
− Example: x[n]=x[n+N] x[n] = x[n + 5]
1 1
n0 + N −1

∑ x[n] L
1 α α α
x[n] = α2 α2
n0 , N
N
n = n0 L
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
Interval for the sum
© UC3M/TSC 2008 19
 1.4 Signal Characterization

ƒ Average power of a signal

• Aperiodic signals
Continuous time Discrete time

lim ⎧⎪ 1 ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
T n0 + N
t0 +

∫ ∑
2 ⎪ lim ⎪ 1 2⎪
PX =
2
⎨ x(t ) dt ⎬ PX = ⎨ x[n] ⎬
T → ∞ ⎪T t0 −
T
⎪⎭ N → ∞ ⎪ 2N +1 ⎪⎭
⎩ 2 ⎩ n = n0 − N

• Periodic signals of period T (or N)

− Again, we limit integration (summation) over one period
T n0 + N −1
t0 +

∫ ∑
1 2 1
PX =
2
PX =
2
x(t ) dt x[n]
T t0 −
T N
2 n = n0

© UC3M/TSC 2008 20
 1.4 Signal Characterization

ƒ Average energy of a signal

Continuous time Discrete time

∞ ∞
EX = ∫ ∑
2
EX =
2
x(t ) dt x[n]
−∞
n =−∞

© UC3M/TSC 2008 21
 1.4 Signal Characterization

ƒ Energy-limited signals:
• Are those for which
⎛ ∞
⎞
⎜ X ∑
∞
EX = ∫ = < ∞
2
x(t ) dt < ∞
2
E x[ n ] ⎟
−∞
⎝ n =−∞ ⎠
ƒ Power-limited signals
• Are those for which
lim ⎧ 1 t0 + T2 ⎫
PX = ⎨ ∫t − T x(t ) dt ⎬ < ∞
2

T → ∞ ⎩T 0 2 ⎭
− Periodic signals
1 t0 + T2
PX = ∫ T x(t ) dt < ∞
2

T t0 − 2

© UC3M/TSC 2008 22
 1.4 Signal Characterization

ƒ RMS value (Root Mean Square value)

n0 + N −1
1 t0 + T2 1
xEFF = xRMS = ∫ xEFF = ∑
2 2
T x (t ) dt
x[n]
T t0 − 2 N n = n0
1

0.8 xEFF
• Sinusoidal signals 0.6

[ x(t )]
0.4
2

⎛ 2π ⎞
x(t ) = V p cos(ω t ) = V p cos ⎜
0.2

t⎟
⎝ T ⎠
0

-0.2

2
-0.4 x(t )
V
[ x(t )] = V p cos (ω t ) = (1 + cos(2ω t ) )
2 2 2 p -0.6

-0.8

2 -1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

1 T Vp 1 T ⎛ ⎛ 4π ⎞⎞ Vp
= ∫ x(t ) dt = ∫ 1 + cos ⎜ t ⎟ ⎟ dt =
2
xEFF ⎜
T 0
2 T ⎝
0
⎝ T ⎠⎠ 2
© UC3M/TSC 2008 23
 1.4 Signal Characterization

ƒ Average power in circuits 250

200 v (t )
+ 150

i (t ) 100

v(t ) = V p cos(ωt ) [V]

50
i (t )
v(t ) R 0

-50

-100

− -150

-200

Instantaneous power -250

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

v 2 (t )
p (t ) = v (t )i ( t ) = [W] 5000
p (t )
R
4000

Average power
2 2
3000 PR
v (t ) V
PR = ∫ dt = P
∫ cos 2 (ω t ) dt 2000
T R R T

VP2 VP2 VEFF

2 1000

=
2R ∫T
(1 + cos(2ω t )) dt =
2R
=
R 0

-1000
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
© UC3M/TSC 2008 24
 1.5 Basic Operations on Signals
ƒ Linear transformations of the independent variable
• Reflection (mirroring) in t = 0
x(t ) x ( −t )

T1 0 T2 t -T2 0 -T1 t
a > 1 ⇒ compresión
x(at )
• Scaling
x(t ) t
T1 0 T2
a a
x(at ) a < 1 ⇒ expansión
T1 0 T2 t
− Reversible operation in continuous time. T1 T2 t
0
a a
© UC3M/TSC 2008 25
 1.5 Basic Operation on Signals

ƒ Linear transformations of the independent variable

• Example:
– Reflection (mirroring) in t = 0

© UC3M/TSC 2008 26
 1.5 Basic Operations on Signals

ƒ Linear transformations of the independent variable

− Temporal scaling
– Example: given x(t), find y(t) = x(2t).

© UC3M/TSC 2008 27
 1.5 Basic Operations on Signals

ƒ Linear transformations of the independent variable

− Temporal scaling
– Example: given x(t), find z(t) = x(t/2).

© UC3M/TSC 2008 28
 1.5 Basic Operations on Signals

ƒ Linear transformations of the independent variable

− Temporal scaling: Given y(t), find w(t) = y(3t); v(t) = y(t/3).

© UC3M/TSC 2008 29
 1.5 Basic Operations on Signals

ƒ Linear transformations of the independent variable

− Scaling (discrete time)
y[n] = x[2n] a > 1 ⇒ compresión

2
x[n] 0 n
y[2] = x[4]
2
-1 0 1 n ⎧ ⎡n⎤
⎪x , n múltiplo de k
y[n] = ⎨ ⎢⎣ k ⎥⎦
⎪⎩ 0, en otro caso
y[2] = x[1]
− Important: a < 1 ⇒ expansión
– Irreversible operation!!

0 1 2 n
© UC3M/TSC 2008 30
 1.5 Basic Operations on Signals

ƒ Transformation of the independent variable

• Scaling (discrete time) Matlab
>> y = x(1:2:length(x));
− Decimation
x[n] y[n] = x[2n]
a > 1 ⇒ compresión
2 2
↓2
-1 0 1 n 0 n
y[2] = x[4]
− Oversampling
x[n] y[2] = x[1]

↑2 a < 1 ⇒ expansión
2
0 1 2 n
-1 0 1 n
>> y=zeros(2*length(x),1);
© UC3M/TSC 2008 >> y(1:2:2*length(x)) = x; 31
 Original Sound and its Spectrum

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Time

© UC3M/TSC 2008 32
 Signal Decimation

Decimation of factor 2
0.015

0.01

0.005

-0.005

-0.01

-0.015
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
n

0.015

0.01

0.005

-0.005

-0.01

-0.015
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
n

© UC3M/TSC 2008 33
 Consequences of Decimation

ƒ Decimation
Original:
50005000

40004000
Decimated:
30003000

20002000

10001000

0 0
0 0 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4
0.4 0.5 0.6
0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Time Time

© UC3M/TSC 2008 34
 Oversampling and Interpolation

Oversampling and interpolation of factor 2:

0.015

0.01

0.005

-0.005

-0.01

-0.015
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
n

0.015

0.01

0.005

-0.005

-0.01

-0.015
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
n

© UC3M/TSC 2008 35
 Consequences of Interpolation

5000

Original:
4000

3000

Interpolated:
2000

1000

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time

© UC3M/TSC 2008 36
 1.5 Basic Operations on Signals
ƒ Linear transformations of the independent variable
• Shifting
x(t ) x(t − t0 )
t0 < 0 t0 > 0

t t
T1 0 T2 0 t0 + T1 t0 t0 + T2

x[n] 1
x[n + 3]
1
α α α α
α2 α2 α2 α2
α3
n n
-2 -1 0 1 2 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2

© UC3M/TSC 2008 37
 1.5 Basic Operation on Signals
ƒ Linear transformations of the independent variable
− Shifting: Given x(t), find
x(t-t0) „ Rule: Make t - t0=0 ⇒ Shift the origin of x(t) to t0.
x(t+t0) „ Rule: Make t + t0=0 ⇒ Shift the origin of x(t) to -t0.

© UC3M/TSC 2008 38
 1.5 Basic Operations on Signals
ƒ Combination of scaling and shifting:
• x(at+b)
− Method I:
– Shifting: v(t)=x(t+b)

– Scaling: y(t) =v(at)= x(at+b).

© UC3M/TSC 2008 Systems and Circuits - Nadia Khaled 39

 1.5 Basic Operations on Signals
ƒ Combination of scaling and shifting
• x(at+b)
− Method II:
– Scaling: w(t) = x(a t)
– Shifting: y(t)=w(t+b/a) = x(a (t + b/a)) = x(at + b):

© UC3M/TSC 2008 Systems and Circuits - Nadia Khaled 40

 1.5 Basic Operations on Signals

ƒ Exercises
x(t )
1

0 1 2 t

• Find:
−
x(t + 1)
−
x(1 − t )
−
⎛ 3 ⎞
x⎜1 − t ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

© UC3M/TSC 2008 41
 1.6 Basic Signals

ƒ Discrete time δ [n] 1

• Unit impulse ⎧ 1, n = 0
δ [n] = ⎨
⎩0, n ≠ 0
− Properties -2 -1 0 1 2
n
– δ [ n] = δ [ − n] ⇒ Even
SeñalSignal
par
⎧ x[ 0 ] n=0
– x[ n ]δ [ n ] = x[ 0 ]δ [ n ] = ⎨
⎩0 n≠0
∞
– ∑
n = −∞
δ [n] = 1
x[n ] δ [n]
1
x[ n ]δ [ n ]

2
=
-1 0 1 n -2 -1 0 1 2 n
-1 0 1 2 n
© UC3M/TSC 2008 42
 1.6 Basic Signals

ƒ Discrete time
1
• Displaced/shifted unit impulse
δ [n − k ]
⎧ 1, n = k
δ [n − k ] = ⎨
⎩0, n ≠ k n
0 k-1 k k+1 k+2
− Property
⎧ x[k ] n = k
x[n]δ [n − k ] = ⎨ = x[k ]δ [n − k ]
⎩0 n≠k

δ [n − 3] x[3]δ [ n − 3]
x[n ] x[3] 1

2
=
-1 0 1 n -2 -1 0 1 2 3 n -1 0 1 2 3 n
© UC3M/TSC 2008 43
 1.6 Basic Signals

ƒ Discrete time
• Shifted unit impulse
− Property: Any discrete-time signal may be represented as a sum of
scaled and shifted impulses

x [ 3 ]δ [ n − 3 ]
M -1 0 1 2 3 n

2 x [ 2 ]δ [ n − 2 ]
x[n ] -1 0 1 3 n
2
=
-1 0 1 3 n x [1]δ [ n − 1]
-1 0 1 2 3 n
∞

x[ n ] = ∑
k = −∞
x [ k ]δ [ n − k ]
-1 0 1 2 3 n
x [ 0 ]δ [ n ]

© UC3M/TSC 2008
M L 44
 1.6 Basic Signals
ƒ Discrete time
1
• Unit step function u[n ]
⎧1, n ≥ 0
u[ n ] = ⎨
L
⎩0, n < 0 -2 -1 0 1 2 n
− Relationship to the unit impulse
∞ ∞

– u[ n ] = ∑ u[k ]δ [n − k ] = ∑ δ [n − k ]
k = −∞ k =0

∞ n−k =l
∑ ∑ δ [l ]
n

– u[ n ] = δ [n − k ] = k = 0 → l = n =
k =0 k = ∞ → l = −∞ l = −∞

– δ [ n ] = u[ n ] − u[ n − 1]
© UC3M/TSC 2008 45
 1.6 Basic Signals

ƒ Discrete time
δ [ n − k ], n < 0 δ [ n − k ], n > 0
• Unit step
1
Fixed interval of summation
∞

∑ δ [n − k ] =
k =0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 k = u[n ]

1
Moving summation interval δ [l ]

∑ L
n

δ [l ] = -∞ l = u[n ]
-2 -1 0 1 2 n>0
l = −∞ n<0

∑ δ [l ] = 0 ∑ δ [l ] = 1
n n

l = −∞ l = −∞
© UC3M/TSC 2008 46
 1.6 Basic Signals

ƒ Discrete time
• Unit step function δ [n] = u[n] − u[n − 1]
1
u[n ]
L
-2 -1 0 1 2 n

− u[ n − 1]
-1
L
δ [n ] n −1

u[ n ] = u[ n − 1] + δ [ n ] = ∑ δ [k ] + δ [n]
k = −∞

-2 -1 0 1 2 n
© UC3M/TSC 2008 47
 1.6 Basic Signals

ƒ Discrete time
• Complex exponentials
− Are cast in the generic formula x[ n ] = A α n
− Particular cases: A, α ∈R

−1 ≤ α ≤ 0
0 ≤α ≤1

© UC3M/TSC 2008 48
 1.6 Basic Signals

ƒ Discrete time
• Complex exponentials x[ n ] = A α n
− Particular cases
A = 1, α = e jω 0
∈C x[ n ] = e jω 0 n = cos (ω 0 n ) + j sin (ω 0 n )
Re {x[ n ]}

Im {•} ⎛ 2π ⎞
2π n=3 cos ⎜ n⎟
ω0 = ⎝ 16 ⎠
16 n=2
n =1
n=0
n = 15 Re {•} N
n = 14 N = 16

© UC3M/TSC 2008 49
 1.6 Basic Signals

ƒ Discrete time
• Complex exponentials x[ n ] = A α n
− Particular cases 2π
j n ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ 2π ⎞
A = 1, α = e jω 0
∈C x[ n ] = e = cos ⎜
8
n ⎟ + j sin ⎜ n⎟
⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠
– Re {x[ n ]}
Im {•} ⎛ 2π ⎞
n=2 cos ⎜ n⎟
2π ⎝ 8 ⎠
ω0 = n=3 n =1
8

n=0
n = 8 Re {•} N

n=7
n=6

© UC3M/TSC 2008 50
 1.6 Basic Signals
ƒ Discrete time
• Complex exponentials x[ n ] = A α n
− Particular cases 2π
j n ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ 2π ⎞
A = 1, α = e jω 0
∈C x[ n ] = e 4
= cos ⎜ n ⎟ + j sin ⎜ n⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
–
Re {x[ n ]}
Im {•}
n =1 ⎛ 2π ⎞
cos ⎜ n⎟
2π ⎝ 4 ⎠
ω0 =
4
n=2
n=0
n = 4 Re {•} N

n=3

© UC3M/TSC 2008 51
 1.6 Basic Signals

ƒ Discrete time
• Complex exponentials x[ n ] = A α n
− Particular cases
A = 1, α = e jω 0 ∈C x[ n ] = e jπn = cos (π n ) + j sin (π n ) = (− 1)
n

cos (π n )
–
Im {•}

ω0 = π

n =1 n=0
n = 2 Re {•} N

© UC3M/TSC 2008 52
 1.6 Basic Signals
ƒ Discrete time
• Complex exponentials x[ n ] = A α n
− Particular cases j
5π
n ⎛ 5π ⎞ ⎛ 5π ⎞
A = 1, α = e jω 0
∈C x[ n ] = e 4
= cos ⎜ n ⎟ + j sin ⎜ n⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
– Re {x[ n ]}
Im {•} cos ⎜
⎛ 5π ⎞
n⎟
n=2
⎝ 4 ⎠
5π n=7 n=5
ω0 =
4
n=4
n=0
Re {•} N

n =1 n=3
n=6

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 1.6 Basic Signals
ƒ Discrete time
• Complex exponentials x[ n ] = A α n
− Particular cases 7π
j n ⎛ 7π ⎞ ⎛ 7π ⎞
A = 1, α = e jω 0
∈C x[ n ] = e 4
= cos ⎜ n ⎟ + j sin ⎜ n⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
– Re {x[ n ]}
Im {•} cos ⎜
⎛ 7π ⎞
n⎟
n=6
⎝ 4 ⎠
7π n=5 n=7
ω0 =
4
n=4
n=0
Re {•} N

n=3 n =1
n=2

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 1.6 Basic Signals
ƒ Discrete time
• Complex exponentials x[ n ] = A α n
− Particular cases
A = 1, α = e jω 0 ∈C x[ n ] = e j 2πn = cos (2π n ) + j sin (2π n ) = 1
–
Im {•}
ω0 = 0
ω 0 = 2π
ω 0 = 4π
n=0
M n = 1 Re {•} N
cos (2π n )

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 1.6 Basic Signals
ƒ Discrete time
• Complex exponentials x[ n ] = A α n
− Particular cases
– A = 1, α = e jω 0 ∈C

x[ n ] = e jω 0 n = cos (ω 0 n ) + j sin (ω 0 n )

Useful relationships

[
Re {x[ n ]} = x[ n ] + x * [ n ]
1
] cos (ω 0 n ) = e [
1 jω 0 n
2
+ e − jω 0 n ]
2

Im {x[ n ]} =
1
2j
[
x[ n ] − x * [ n ] ] sin (ω 0 n ) =
2j
e [
1 jω 0 n
− e − jω 0 n ]
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 1.6 Basic Signals

ƒ Continuous time
• Complex exponentials
⎧⎪C = C e jφ
x (t ) = Ce at , donde
Where C,a ∈C ⎨
⎪⎩ a = σ + j Ω 0
− Representation of constants a and C
Im {•}
a Ω0 C C

φ
σ 1 Re {•}

© UC3M/TSC 2008 57
 1.6 Basic Signals
ƒ Continuous time
Complex exponentials x (t ) = Ce at
− Particular cases C ∈R andy a = jΩ 0 (imaginari o puro)
(Pure imaginary)
x (t ) = Ce j Ω 0 t = C ( cos ( Ω 0 t ) + j sin ( Ω 0 t ) )
– Phasor representation Im {•}
x (t )

Ω 0t
Re {•}

− It is a periodic signal

IfSi x ( t ) = x ( t + T ) ⇒ e j Ω 0 t = e j Ω 0 ( t + T ) = e j Ω 0 t e j Ω 0T ⇒ e j Ω 0T = 1
jΩ T j 2π 2π
e 0
=1= e ⇒T =
© UC3M/TSC 2008 Ω0 58
 1.6 Basic Signals
ƒ Continuous time x (t ) = Ce jΩ 0 t = C ( cos ( Ω 0 t ) + j sin ( Ω 0 t ) )
• Complex exponentials
− Periodicity. Comparison with discrete time x[ n ] = Ce jω 0 n
jω 0 n jω 0 ( n + N )
Im {•} For
Para que x[ n ] = x[ n + N ] ⇒ e = e
x[ n + 1] jω 0 n jω 0 n jω 0 N
ω ( n + 1) x[ n ]
⇒ e = e e
0

⇒ e jω 0 N = 1 = e j 2 π k
ω 0n
Problem : N ∈ N
Re {•} ω0 k
⇒ = ∈Q
2π N
… Examples
π
j n
8
Is e periodic?
3
j n
8
Is e periodic?
59
© UC3M/TSC 2008
 1.6 Basic Signals
ƒ Complex exponentials
− Periodicity. 3
π j n
j n 8
Is e 8
periodic? Is e periodic?

Im {•} Im {•}
n=3
π n=2 n = 18
ω0 = n =1
8 n =1
n = 17
n=0 n=0
Re {•} n = 16 Re {•}
n = 15
n = 14

π 3
ω0 8 = 1 ∈Q ⇒ N = 16 ω0 3
= = 8 = ∉Q
2π
© UC3M/TSC 2008
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 1.6 Basic Signals
ƒ Continuous time
• Unit step ⎧1, t > 0
⎪⎪ 1 uε (t )
u (t ) = ⎨ , t = 0 1 1
u (t ) ε →0
⎪2
1 ⎪⎩ 0 , t < 0 L −
ε
2

0
ε t
0 t 2 2
⎛t ⎞
• Rectangular pulse Π⎜ ⎟
T ⎝T ⎠
Π (t ) ⎧ 1
⎪1, t < 1
Π (t ) = ⎨ 2
1 ⎪⎩ 0 , otherwise
T T t
− 0
2 2
−
1 0 1 t ⎛t ⎞ ⎛ T⎞ ⎛ T⎞
2 2
Π⎜ ⎟ = u⎜ t + ⎟ − u⎜ t − ⎟
© UC3M/TSC 2008
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 1.6 Basic Signals
ƒ Continuous time
• Unit impulse: δ (t )
− Signal centered on t=0 and of infinitesimal duration
− Generalized function: it is characterized by the effects that it produced
on other functions and NOT by its shape
− Properties:
– Let x(t) be continuous in t=0
x (t )

∫
b
x (0) x (t )δ (t ) dt = x ( 0 ), a < 0 < b
a

a 0 b t
∞ ∞

∫ x(t )δ (t )dt = x(0) ⇒ ∫ δ (t )dt = 1

−∞ −∞
Unit area

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 1.6 Basic Signals
ƒ Continuous time
• Unit impulse:δ (t )
− Visualization
– Signal centered on t=0 and of infinitesimal duration
∞

– Unit Area ∫−∞

δ (t ) dt = 1

1 δ ε (t )
ε δ (t )
1

ε
⎛t⎞
1
δ ε (t ) = Π ⎜ ⎟ ε →0
ε ⎝ε ⎠
ε 0 ε t 0 t
−
2 2 δ (t ) = lim δ ε (t ) ⇒ δ (0) = ∞ 63
© UC3M/TSC 2008
ε →0
 1.6 Basic Signals
ƒ Continuous time
• Unit impulse: δ (t )
− Properties
Let x (t ) be continuous in t=t0
∞

∫
−∞
x (τ )δ (τ − t 0 ) d τ = x (t 0 ) x (t )δ (t − t 0 )
x (t 0 )δ (t − t 0 )
x (t )

0 t0 t
Attention!

x(t )δ (t − t0 ) = x(t0 )δ (t − t0 ) ≠ x(t0 )

© UC3M/TSC 2008 64
 1.6 Basic Signals
ƒ Continuous time
• Unit impulse: δ (t )
− Properties Independent variable
- Let x (t ) be continuous
∞

∫
x (τ )
x(τ )δ (t − τ )dτ = x(t )
−∞
δ (t − τ )

Integration variable
0 t τ
-Continuous signals can be expressed as a “linear combination”
of time-shifted δ (t ) functions
- Analogy with discrete time
∞

x[ n ] = ∑
k = −∞
x[ k ]δ [ n − k ] ∫ continuous time ⇔ ∑ discrete time

© UC3M/TSC 2008 65
 1.6 Basic Signals
ƒ Continuous time Remind
• Unit impulse: δ (t ) ∞

− Properties ∫−∞
x(σ )δ (t − σ )dσ = x(t )

– Relationship to the unit step u(t)

∞ ∞

u (t ) =
∫
−∞
u (σ )δ (t − σ )dσ =
∫ 0
δ (t − σ )dσ

δ (t − σ ), t < 0 δ (t − σ ), t > 0
δ (t − σ ) d σ = 0⎫
∞
t < 0, ∫
1 1 0 ⎪
∞ ⎪
∫ ⎬ = u (t )
Fixed interval of
δ (t − σ ) d σ = integration ∞ ⎪
0 t > 0, ∫ δ (t − σ ) d σ = 1 ⎪
t 0 t σ
0
⎭

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 1.6 Basic Signals
ƒ Continuous time
• Unit impulse: δ (t )
− Properties
– Relationship to the unit step u(t)
t −σ =τ
∞
dσ = − dτ −∞

∫ ∫ ∫
t

δ (t − σ )d σ = = δ (τ ) (− d τ ) = δ (τ ) d τ
0 σ = 0 →τ = t t −∞

σ = ∞ → τ = −∞
Variable change

δ (τ ) t ⎫
Moving integration 1 t < 0, ∫ δ (τ ) dτ = 0 ⎪
−∞
⎪
∫
t
interval
δ (τ ) d τ = ⎬ = u (t )
−∞ t ⎪
t > 0, ∫ δ (τ ) dτ = 1 ⎪⎭
−∞
−∞ t 0 t τ
© UC3M/TSC 2008 67
 1.6 Basic Signals
ƒ Continuous time
Integrator
• Unit impulse: δ (t )
δ (t )
∫
t
− Properties u (t )
x (τ ) d τ
− Relationship with the unit step u(t) −∞
⎛ ⎞
∫
t

d ⎜⎜ δ (τ )dτ ⎟⎟

∫
t

δ (τ )dτ = u (t ) ⇒ ⎝ ⎠ = du (t ) ⇒ δ (t ) = du (t )
−∞

−∞ dt dt dt
1 δ ε (t )
uε (t ) ε
derivator
1 1
2 L d•
ε
ε ε t
dt
− 0
2 2
ε 0 ε t
− 68
© UC3M/TSC 2008
2 2
 1.6 Basic Signals
• Unit impulse: δ (t )
− Properties
– Relationship with the unit step u(t)
integrator derivator
δ (t ) d• δ (t )
∫
t
u (t ) u (t )
x (τ ) d τ
−∞
dt
u(t) u(t) δ (t )
δ (t ) 1
1
1
L 1
L
0 t t 0 t
0 t
dx(t)
= x′(t)
∫
t

x(t) x (τ ) d τ x(t) dt
1 −∞ 1 1
T 1 1 T
2 T 2
0 t −
T T
t T 0 T t
−
T T T t 0 −
−1 − 0 2 2 −1 2
2 2 2
−2
© UC3M/TSC 2008 69