Offshore Pipeline Design, Analysis, and MethodsContents List of Tables ist of Figures 1 roauetion Tt Genel 12 Overview of Oil and Gas Productions VAI” dentition of Prospect Areas 122. Acquisitions of Rights and Permits 128. Exploration Phase 1.24 Development and Production Phase 1.2. Types of Subses Pipelines 1.31” Flow Lines ale Lines) 132 Gathering ines nett Line) 133. Trunk Lines 134 Loading [Uno ling Lines 2 rtazarde ana Protection Concepts ‘1 Hasand Determination Marlse Survey) 212. Elemente of Survey ait 2m 23 aie | aus | aoe dey Oceanographic Data Soll Investigations Echo Sounder/Bethymetry Dats Sie Sean Sonar Method Subbottom Profiling Method “Magnetic Anomaly Detection aa Design and Protection Concepts 21" Rowte Selection 222 Pipeline Protection Methods 3 otgnevahatons and Poe Parameters Bt 32 33 a4 35 36 a7 35 a9 ‘General, Inermal Pressure Buckle Analysis 331 Gene 332 Local Buckling 338 lek Propagation 334. Buckle Anestre Hydeolynamie Foren Vorer induced Oscillations Pipeline Soll Stablity Analysis 361 Settlement and Flotation 53.2 Soll Stengeh Deterioration fects of Large Soil Movements Effects of Seabed inegularites ‘BAI Stems Due to Low Depressions ‘382 Streses Doc to Elevated Obstructions Scour and Erosion estan wetods an Analysts a 2 43 a ‘Genera! Tay Barge Method 421 Deseiption of Method 422 Lay-Analysis Methods 44221 Beam Method (Small Dellectons} 44222 Nonlinear Beam Method $223, Neural Catenary Method 44204 Sulflened Catenary Method 41225 Finite Element Method 4216 Method for Thick Concrete Coating 4227 Dynamic tects Reet Barge Method ‘Tow Method 481 Make-Up Area 442 ‘Types of Tow installations 4421 Sustace and Below Surface Tow 422. Offottom Tow 4423 Botom Tow 18 1» a5 Prpetnetrnching Methods "S1Generl 52 Factors Afecting Baral Requirements 521" Hydrodynamic tees $522 Spans and Obseructions $523. Stl Strength Deterioration Due to ‘Wave Loading 524 Fishing Activites 525. Anchoring 5. Pipe Trenching Methods S31 Teng Metod, 532 Mechanial Cutting 533. uation Method 534 Plowing Mechod 54. Technic! Evaluations and Limitations Sat Soll Parameters 542 Water Deh 543. Pipe Sie and Weight S44 Production Rate S45. Sa Sate 546. Trench Stbilicy S47 Spoil spon 58 Conceptual Evaluation 536 Trenching Regulations and Experiences S31 Gull of Meco (USA 562. North Sen S421. United Kinglom Si Norway 5423. the Nethelands $43 Taran 5 estalia ‘57 Comments on Regulations and Experiences 6 Pe conncton an Poston Systeme 2, Picine Connection Sytems 621 Hanged Method 622. ‘Ammowbere Welding 623. Hyperbaric Welding S24, Methate! Cometon (S241 Biptnh Mate Systems 135, a a8 18 133 3 136 1 16 1 6242 Cameron 6243 Gaipper 6248 HyaroTech {625 Comparison of Connection Methods 163 End Postioning Methods 631 General 1622 Intaton and Termination Method 633 Strighein Tow Method ‘634. Deflection with Buoyancy 7 sense Ppstine Repair Systema 7" Genera 7. Reps Methods sn Practices TN Sorace Welding 12a Hyperbaric Welling 1723, Mechanial Connectors 74 Full Ecilement Sleeves (Clamps 75, Feible Pipe Repair 73. Stocking Programs for Mechanical Repit Tools YA. Compaton of Reps Methods Fat Technical Fates 74a. Experience 143. Weather Sensei, 144 Relay 745. Time and Cort 8 rrpaine risers aN cena 82. Racr Systems 31 Hanged Connections 22. Hyperbere Welding 23, Mechanical Conner 824. Sebsen Aemombene Welding 05. Surace Welding 825 Tube mesied £27 Revewe | Tube £28. Bending Shoe 29 Buco Ree 8:30 Comparison of Methods @al0l Teche! Compaion 2101 Economies, Le 1. Mw 13 Ns ie 146 ue ir se 155 156 157 18 1a 1a. 18 1s te 16 166 166 16883. RiserPipline Flexibility 31" ineral Pressure 832 Water Temperature 833 Contents Temperature 38 Residual Tension #35, Soil Peto 836 Design Options 184 Typical Now Sea lnstallations “Amoco Montone NOC Dualin Tela NOC Thiasle ELPNorge Frigg Field BP Fortis Mobil Beryl and Statord OXY Piper Field Philips Ehofisk Complex 8.49 Shell Epro Brent System Bibiogaphy Index ia 181 181 1a) 181 i 162 18 185 183 188 186 ee ise 185 186 190 aa an 32 33 a s1 52 53 sa n List of Tables Special Considerations Pipeline & Riser Installation 0 Uniable Areas Buckle Propagation Pressure Recommended Coeficient for Pipe Design exposed Pipe) Pipe Properties Formulas Comparison of Pipelay Analysis Methods Major Underwater Trenching Machines CConeepeual Evaluation of Trenching methods (Oiishore Ppeline Burial requirements Pipeline Tenching Experiences (Comparison af Pipe Emergency Repair Methods m2 9 ia i 165,ua aa 22 as a5 a 28 29 an 33 33 3a 33 36 a7 38 39 310 3 Ust of Figures Schemati of Hydrocarbon Production Soll Piston Corer Piston Cater Operation ‘Side-Scan Sonar Fish Seafloor Mapping Recorder Seafloor Mapping Record ORE Sobbottom Profiling Systexa EG&G Boomer sled Subbottom Profile Record Flow Diageam of Route and Weight Design ‘Typical Pipeline Buckle Modes ‘Types of Buckle Avestan Hytrodynamic Fores on Pipe ‘Delniuon a Lear Wave Parameters Regions of Validity of Wave Theales Summary—Linear [Als] Wave Characteristics ‘Wave Lengh and Height Variations with Depth ‘Drag Coefficient vs. Reynolds Number Drag Corffcen for Diferent eulgan-Carpenter Value Lit Coeticiene vs. Reyolde Number Vorter induced Oxcillauons Variations of Stouhal Number Stouhal Number vs, Drag Coficent Pipe Stablty in Sols Storm-dnduced Bottom Pressures 2 ir 15 16 y 8 28 3 3s a a a 31 3 316 307 38 319 320 321 32 303 38 328 326 a7 a 3 a5 46 4 a 0 an an pity aa as ay ois a9 20 an tb 43 24 a5 sa 32 Soll Force Coefficient Soil Force Over 6 Pipe Pipe Configuration Due to Low Depression ‘Maximum Suess Due to Low Depression Stress a Midspan Deflection at Midspan Induced Pipe Spans Pipe Dis to Elevated Obervction Span Due to Elevated Obstruction Marimum Stress Due to Elevated Obstruction Modes of Grain Transport ‘Current Velocity for Sediment Transport ‘Conventional Lay Ba {Conted Pipe fits (Coated Fel oint Pipe Over Ramp ‘Stem Ramp Support, Diving Bll Diving Bell and Decompression Chamber Sectional Singer for Lage Sized Pipe Floated Stinger Prior eo Suabbing Suanger Drawbar Section Stinger Hinge Stinger Roller Supports Conventional Lay Barge Method ‘Typeal Tension and Stinger Va EBD. of Pipe Suing Coated Pipe Bonded Sines Stlnes Diseibution ‘Maximum Stes v- Assumed Stes ReehBarge Method Tow Sting Make-Up Yard Suslace Tow Below. Surface Tow RAT Method Of ctom Tow Bostom Tow Pipe Teaching Definitions [et Bae Mlustaton Spoll Removal by Comprested Air Sind Flidzstion Burial Method snanganacss ol 101 ie 103 ot 106 m na 155 56 6 83 &a 65 86 8 68 69 610 am 7 va an 82 a3 8a 85 86 a7 e6 Pipe Bending During Tenching Spotl Removal Panciples Big Inch Marine End Connector (Cameron Collet Connector {Gupper Grip and Seal Connector HyatoTech HyaroCouple Connectors Pipeline initiation Pipe Termination Pll Head ‘Suaighela Tow Deflection with Buoyancy Vertical Deflection DraweDown Technique ‘Subsea Repair by Fesfonge Mechanical Connectors Subsea Rept by Gripper Mechanical Connectors, Subsea Rept by HyavoTech Mechanical Connectors Lockheed Riser Connection System Pipe Pick-Up steps for Riser Secting Riser Lower Elbow [Tube Tur) ‘ise Setting Procedure Riser Setting Continues Riser Clamped Position Riser Clamp Iverson of Pipe Pll Through Tube 17 nS 19 10 1a as ue ir 150 1 158 159 10 161 m in 13 173 4 5 We or 14 General ‘The everinreasing demand foro and gas has resulted ina substan- tiainereae of ffsbore projects forfindingand producing hydrocarbons. Since the fst ofshore pipelines were lid in the Cull of Mexico, {howsands of miles of pipelines have been constructed esha in ‘avout area ofthe world incline North Sea, the Gull of Mexico, {he Meditenanean, Australi Southeast As, and Latin America. Some Pipelines were installed in water depths of nearly 2000 fe ipelins as [ifgeas Sein in damaeter were also installed. variety of construction equipment was used to instal these pipelines, including the conven ‘onal lay-bage method rel barge, and varios ul and tow methods. "As here intallatons were made in increasingly deepwater, special lead techaieal and design problems hal to be solved An liore Pipeline installed et any water depth must be designed such that i ‘maintains les integsty during construction and during operating lifetime During constriction, the pipelines exposed to various bend {ng seses a4 iad rom the surface vessel to the seabed and de 0 lateral currents and various dynamic conditions. After the pipe rests 03 the seabed, tis exposed to several potential sks of damage due towave sd current conditions i the area, oi instability, anchors, fishing ‘aus and other hazard “Ate the pipeline size hasbeen determined based on the flow condi- ions and fietion characteristic, the pipeline design work ‘yprealy| Involves the evaluation of wave, cure, and bottom conditions along, the pipeline soute frm which selection ofthe pipe parometers can be ‘made. This involves the evaiation of soil sengthe understate and2 | ere Pine Design, Aras, and Matods stom conditions and idenifeaton of the bottom features to define any Slope movement tendencies ad nits of unstable areas, Pipe route is selected wo minimize force of posible soil movements ‘on the pipeline and to avoid any obstructions or hazards which may secur along the pipeline route, Specifeations of pipe materia and Specie gravis are made so thatthe pipe can rest by eynamic forces and maintain vertical stablity during its hfetime, The deen ‘work also typically involves analysis ofthe pipeline under operating ondtions including pressure elects, there! expansion, a stoma Toads on the pi ‘Other considerations include section of the most feasible and ‘economic method for installing the pipeline and connecting le to = ‘lshorefocity. These lso include protection methods tncuding ‘enching ofthe pipe below the seabed and riser installations. In deep ater ad for elaiely larg diameter pipeline, the design work alse fnvolves an analysisaf the buckling chaecerstisof the pipeline under ‘arlous conditions and specifications of buckle arrestor such tat a ‘siden buckle i lealy Lite. "This bok provides noverviewo the vaio principles and practices of ofthe pipeline design and methods. Ths toclude determination ‘snd evaluation of the various hardy protection method ncoding ‘teaching installation methods and analy of the various method buckling analysis and selection of the various pipeline paemetey, ‘connection methods and analysts, ser installation sod analysis, per ‘ons analysis, and other specialized problems. Design formas ie aso resented wherever applicable. Exarmple problems ae given tollustate says and calculations of common subnarine pipclne design prob let Tis provides the bsic and various prncpisof ofsbore pipeline sign ina Concive manner and canbe used as efrence book orbs ‘esis of olshore pipelines. 1.2 Overview of Oll and Gas Production ffshoce pipelines have an important sole inthe overall tasks of feterco and pcb. hema lag Pine chow the vatious apecs ofthis rom the inital sages of acquiring gh fo search foro nd gst the pint where production ofthe byroca. Sons teint The anout phat can grea be dived i ue step |) sdentfcton of prompetareas 2 oisining the ghar ‘xoloration, (3) exploration phase, fe] development phase al Poe ‘Reton and taneporation phase. + Geological & geophysical investigation «Figs survey Field development study & design [Pest submarine pipaine, Including sizing, coating, methods & operation ‘asin & abe roduetion eauoment LT Schematie of hydcarbon production4 | Otehor Pipira Design, Anas, ae Maho 1.21 Kontitention of Prospect Areas ‘This phase defies the general geological areas where potetilby- rceabon prospects may exist, Tis ually based onan evaluation of ‘the archeologieal and geological histories of the area, with posible ‘stodyof geophysical and sels data ofthe areas. 1.22 Aequlatons of Rights and Permits Alter preliminary searches to define potential aes of hyocatbon seoriate comple te pt del eplortary well nose {Scat aque om tyson United Stats these ights ar rally aque though uc tm apcic cts im an othore leas slecondesed by the stats for Stuttowned lands and hy the Boren of Land Management of the Deparment of Interior forthe federally owned aeas ofthe Outer (Continental Shell These righ canals be obtained from overments So foegn counties by certain cmuactal apeement between the ‘erating eompanin andthe owner governments or atonal ol coe funics Gten forega governments have provitons to sare in the Fydrcarbons produced they are found 1123 Exploration Phase ‘The operating company conducts various geological and geotechnical surveys in the are to anes the pons of Sing ol pgs the Specie ace It dhe survey dat indeates that hydrocarbons may be found inthe specific cacy, tenexploratry wells ae dlledinthe are, Spratling aldo vant pe dling es depending upon water dept inthe aes Jackeup Tas, which ean oat stowed to site then act on ate for dling can be used in relatively shallow water. nelavely deep water, other typesof dling fig te wed inclning the sip shape delling gan the semiubene ‘i lve The vel canbe moved in order aan onion during dling However, ia very deep water, the moot System is either supplemented or replaced bya Syamic positioning System for sation keeping ‘Ales che dling vessel positions on sit, che casing pie driven below theseabed and cemented in place, The blowout prevento sacks ‘ex installed in plac to minimize aks of ablowout, whlch may occut det accumulations of ol snd gas dung deiling During the iling Imwcducson | 8 ‘hase, varios data can also be collected on the formations down the ‘welthole After the exploratory wells dled other confirmation well say also be drilled and further data may be gathered to estimate snd onfirm the oll and gas reserves which may be produced ffom the 1.24 Development and Production Phase Altec ll iedoration relating to the goloicl an geotechnical data ofthe eseroi is analyzed and corelaed with information ebuained ‘rom exploratory ling technical and economic stale for develop. ng he field and producing the hydrocarbons begin. Ther nce an fraluntion of altcratives for building an efshore fed socture fot Ahling end producing, multiple structures for driling and producing ‘seein yates with ancora doer dig Or producing system. "Fiet-development studies are done to evaluate the various develop- ‘ment ltematives andthe time schedeles and cot sociated with theteeltematives, Other development options include definition of the number of waite led sce of te mow ele pe ot oductonfaclity, ol and gas processing power generation yn, nd otber operational factors. Because of the cost and tine velvet Gonstoctng an ofshore producing fat, ts generally dena to Aland produce using the same faciiy, Simultaneous dling and rdcton is voretimes undesbleor tity reasons, andaten hee ie Sec lie non ‘Veious types of production faites exit, including surface and tubes production ystems The surface production sytem typiclyt ‘ade up ofa xed eishore plaorm equipped with both ling 2d ‘Production equipment. Oi, gs, or both at transported co shoe ia submarine pipelines. In other cases, che erode may be transported by Submarine pipeline oan ofshore terminal then lead tos ame ‘hich then tanspors the endef sre, ‘The subsea production system ypicly is made uf floating vessel which bas both dling und production equpmcay La the pobecs ‘rodction system all dried well ae completed on the sabe, These ellsrconneeedo and supported anobes template The era's ‘hence asthma pln tan sere emia whee free {ote a worage and a wanipottion ality, The sin vantages to aubsea production lactis ne thatthe pdcton ye ‘existe con than fedplatoms, ican be wsedinvery esp wate,6 | Ofenere Reine Design, Aras, and Motos tnt on ny -surtace production facility. The system is also desirable in remote areas: Seo eee cae enn spo estates me ire oes cece nemo Sian uate fecaancnrerurcts eeueemed aeamemeenerieree ti pwn bo ene re era pact cee Eiaknsearetaeererron feces ech arora Saati dn sacar arenes cae 1.3 Types of Subsea Pipelines ‘There are four general classifications of ofshore pipelines, depending ‘on theline funtion, Certain pipe sss and operating pressure may also be azeocated with each line carsiScation. These cassfeatons ate flowlines or intaleld lines, gathering lines or interline, crunk lines, and loading (unloading! lines. 1.31 Flowiines (trate Lines) A fowline connects a well to aplatfonn or subsea manifold. Usually the line hab asmal diameter and may be bundled. Flow inside of eay beat high pressure, The Howline i sed where reservoir peste sulfcient co ow the fluid through the line without boost (pump ot comprestor. 1.32 Gathering Line (ert Les) ‘A tating ine cones fom on ine) plato to neher pla ad's uly «sal co medium date line ean Se Ange ance, The ne ay bes bundled lps, contest ot twophae flow. Tr sage of opening grsure etry between Tab 14 po ow ne liners done by boone puny comprer Irwvoveton | 7 {ors which ar oftninstalled onthe plato patering line ay also ‘tansnt the product rom a dling platform ta seprste prodecion 1.39 Trunk Lines ‘Atwunk lin handles the combined flow from one or many platforms ‘oshote. Thelneis usualy oflaxgedameterandcanetherbeol or us, Booster pumps or omprestors must be provided at intermediate plat forms fr very long trunk lines A trunk lie is wsualy 2 common cai, catying product owned by many produces 1.34 Loading (Unloading) Lines ‘These lines usually connect + production platform and a loading facility ofa subses mand ands lading facility. The lines ean be sual orlarge diameter and carry liguoniy. Connection maybe fom shore facility toan offshore loading or unloading ternal, asin the case of the Lousiana Ofshore Ol Pore LOOP, Loading lines are usually shor, ranging fom 1 to 3 miles long, although in the case of LOOP, the ubloading lines about 21 males ong ‘The loading facility may be temperary, suchas an extly production facility to provide imited product shipment until gatheoger a tun line canbe completed. The loading line can be used with «permanent loading tacit for small yeservois and in cemove areas, Several considerations ate usally made to determine the sizeof the Pipeline, These considerations inlode the type of hydtoceto com {ents being pumped into the pipeline, Svoughps in the pipeline which §s the volume of contents tobe wansported by the pipeline pup and compressor capacity atthe pumping sation, pressure loecs along the Dipelie lenge and he pipeline out details, From allo hese consid. ‘rations calculations canbe made to sie he pipeline wo the requced ‘hroughput i obtained with minimum los of energy Determining the size of « submarine pipeline hae many similer ‘aspects sizing an onshore pipeline The main considerations involve flow and bydraulic calculation to account forthe ftom late Se {een contents and the pipeline and to insure an efficient mode of ‘sanaporing the contents tos gven location, Throughout tis book, ill be assumed that the pipeline size hasbeen determined, and other ty 3) whee: 0, =e(s J Bal "=e ete te omen {Computer programs have been developed by vasious organization o ‘edict che collapse pressure of pipe under the combined Infuence of ‘essure, axial forces, bending and accounting pipe out of roundness ‘An approrimate expression forthe extiel combination of bending ‘moment (Ml and exteral pressure [ie reported inthe DnV code (my, B Gy zo 5} Where: M.~ eitial bending moment when P = 0 Pe = cited net extemal pressure when M= 0 a= 14 E Die Pe 13.8 Buckle Propagation Labora eprint ons hsing conde by Bul colanis rnioea prelate ease “loetomy pemgtng hie“ Tedcahes eats euros ny Naveen ence Sytvatrcanchngiecakunttnine cesses ek ‘Design Erautons ane Ape Parameters | 27 and propagates slong the pipe, causing collapse ofthe pipe along i ‘uaveling length. The driving energy which eves buckle propagate 1s the hydrostate pressure “The nature of «propagating buckle is that «greater pressure levels required to inate a propagting buckle (aed buckle initiation pres Sue, than the pressure required to maintain propagation ofthe bck alled buckle propagation pressure PAs a consequence to this a buekleinitlsted isan oltshore pipeline propagates and eollapes the line until the external presure Becomes equal tor less than the propagating pressure Th asumnes that pipe properties (particularly Wal thicknes| remain the same. A number of propgating buckle ‘odes have been pated fom experimental eades These are shown, nBgure 3. “Theoretical and experimental investigations were made by various ganizations to study the buckle propagation phenomenon and tO determine the backle propagation pressure foofisore pipelines. These ‘sedles have resulted in simila, ater simple expressions for ealeulat Ing the propagation pressure [,: RY ey (Battelle) Bs) 671 second expression becomes: Boiaser (SY a) Acompaisn of he propagating pressure ascalculted by these exes sont is shown in Table 31. As scen inthis, consberable deren ‘oted between the results for low Dit ais, whereas the result te Smilarfor ange Dt ratios. The expression reporcedby DaV is considered vey conservative forthe low Dit ratios is interesting to note that he propagation pressure depends only on ‘he pipe yield stress and onthe Bt satio and does aot depend on the Stress state of the pipe. The nature of easing a buckle in the pipe ‘pends on the pie parameters ae wells extemal ores aplid on he pie, In contrast, ce propagtion phenomenon addreses the pipe brcide wavelng due to hydrostatic pressure alter a buckle has been invite25 | aber ipsine Desgn Anaya ans Mato -6- =} ‘Bending Buckle buckle -o- -SS4 og-bone buckle -o- -E> Fiatening buckle 1 plea pipeline buckle mode 8.34 Buckie Areatore ‘As state, apipe localized buckle initiated by excessive bending daring laying. anchor dent, or anyother cause propagates long the pipeline Desig Eaters ana Pie Parts | 29 Talo 31 Buete Propagation Prnaure Peon Re © ‘Rime None Yas "Rae or Desi, Comin adipsia "Seimense plac length a longa the hydrostatic pressure exceed the propagation pres ‘sure This could damage substantial length ofthe line and elt in {eat economic losses Tr would als be very uneconomical to desta the pipeline with ufScient wall thickness sch thatthe propagation depth [eonesponding to propagation pressure] would be greater than water ‘pth along the pipe length. Accordingly, meanshave been ound tim ‘the length of damaged pipe by the us of buckle srestors Tn principe, the buckle arestr isa segment of pipe suonge than the main pie, tho equsingadtional energy to plascally deform and flatten it This i usually doe by increasing the wall dicknes of the neste to withstand fltening by 3 propagating buckle. ‘Varios types of extemal snd intemal buckle srestrs exit inching Aovegral ing welded ring, welded sleeve, hesry-vall egal linet, snd grouted face ing buckle sestors. Thee aeilustrated in Figure 3.3 Spd ar listed sfllows ‘ toepal ing «heal ring withthe same ID and a greater OD than the pipe—the mont fective extemal pe 1 Welded ring sleeve welded onto the OD af the pipe sleeve ID snd pipe OD i grote Fre rng are ally sae fom heavy wall pipe ad are economia, but they are bet ted to shallow wate0 | Otho Ppsne Design Anaya, and Meta Internal ring buck arrestor “TET Intogel rng buckle arestor Welded ring bucko arrestor Poe Welded sloove buckle arrestor Pe: envy wal integral onder Pipe. Poe. Conccete weight coating 32 per of backs arors sig Erabtons and Pipe Paanetrs | $1 ‘Total sng section of eavy-wall pipe with the same OD sod ‘snallerID than te line pipe Tiss the most effective ype, but he ‘smaller ID may reese pipeline pgging operations. Da nl sn ne gon te i ep ae os me rns re ginetinetyecn meses SXSRLEN dtqpasptenc peers Sone ieneienr ete rs Cle ipa Sod glee iniyetratamoa cee poker atetantrecer tite Shcmee en ice eee Neri Sch certo cps pea pcs Seto ns nin ping he pre em tit gobhattdaat ocimc etter aslates ree Sie cee cra sebagai scbhadirtadieeeetes aetet erates see its ntteaega Seen eerie eas ee sbbigurenumne name efron Sears eres eee set Ci eas SS Siagiurmmha Shonhdccd a ect teienn ines eter amen gore chemise ster amitimettrges shot sama tae weed Sy Sete eect is Teer age treme men in wp ere ee ae weatieaor inte eer apes {Std for cach segment Diferentbackesrestor designs and spacings Ses tems wee cena id ab rah paket trae ‘Gurements of various water depth along the pipeline route. A single Smee a ta plier nee Etienne crtritctitagn rym22 | Oso Poe Oetign, Ati, and Mer ‘The length of a buckle arrestor is selected so i is longer than propagating buckle wavelength ands the buckle des not penetrate the ENrestor For this purpose, restos are classified into longand shore Long frst ae defined enerally as those witha lends diameter ato (LiB,)0f2 wo 5, Anestors of L/D, sation of leas then 1 are generally ‘lasiled as shor arrestor, These fatios can range between 025 and iD, ratios of 1 to 2 cam be elsif a intermediate ratio. ‘Along nepal buckle arrestor, which consists of thik pipe segment (og a length (Land a yield tess [Yea reso buckle propagation where the et byes pressures lest han the cross. oer presse (equal w propagating pressure of the meson of ths exe. 89) provided thatthe buckle aesto is ong aa that Dy ees han 40 ‘Along sleve‘ype ee rng extemal buckle aresor which has «wall thicknes (i) and ye tress [,) can resist buckle propagation where the net hyostatc pressure () is ess than the rose-ver presse. The ‘maximum allowable pressure for along ee rng external buckle aes ‘witha minimum annular leszance between pipe and atest rng [se Arcam be conservatively estimated kom the following expressions Pas wl) sox)" nea paisy(2)* tore >a 10) romeo e(e)" 1 = pipewallthicknes in 1D = pipe outside tel dmeter, in. Y= yield stress of pie [ot 0008 sea), p Y= yield sues of aresto (a 0005 sta, pi [Note that these formulas are valid forlong buckle arrestor and wheres ‘snug ft is accomplished, as in the ease of a freng arestor shore Design Evauatons and Rs Pranats | 39 buckle arrestor [shorter in length than the pipe the croasoverpreanure wil decease, “The freeing buckle arrestor i more practical than the intega-ype welded arestr. This eliminates the adiltional welding and any prob lems which maybe associated with the Welding. The losesngleeve should havea minioum clearance betwesn ie and the pipe wo tht the ‘maximum potential ol the buckle arestoriseaized, yet this minim Clearance should be allowed for ease of installation and to tininze litional stesses in the pipe dising pressurization. in practice, the fReeringartestris made withaslightsnnvlar ga, and rout materia thea applied co il this gap. sete are used chen ‘84 Hydrodynamic Forces ‘The submarine pipeline can be subjected tothe combined effect of steady currents, oxcilatory currents, and waverindvced forces while ‘esting on the teabed. To evaluate the sabity of pipe due 10 these forces a freeboy diagram of these forees acing the pipe cross section is shown in Fgue 33. These forces include the fllowing: 1 Submerged weight ofthe pipe and the weight of dhe content 1 Frietion resistance force between the pipe andthe seabed Alief review fst presented ofthe oscillatory surface wave theo Waverinduced panicle velocity and acceleration neat the seabed and bottom pressre can be calslated sing these thei, “A definition of the varios parameters fora spe sinusoidal pogres- sive wave i shown in Figure 3.4 The linear (Ary wave they at be ‘sed fo describe osllatorywave characterstics where motions ae ‘lle, where the wave amplitudes small Higher order theories such Stokes 2d, th and Stirorde theories canbe used to predict more ccuately wavecharctenstia ora eave having large ampitae Als, long. initesmplitade waves propagating in shallow water can best be eae by Caoidl wave theory. Waves that ae not oselatory and do notexhibitatrough canbe desebedby the solar. wave theory Regions ‘Ol validity ofthe various wave theories ae shown in Figure 3, ‘To illusuate hydrodynamic force calculations prevented in this sc| Otiore Pine Coton, Aris, ad Memoce Free-team velocity, Us ' Friction resistance,» = Flow velocity in boundary layer, see © = Slope of seabed, Stee plpe > Seabed W = Total submerged weight of pps, Including concrete coating and wrap, ste! pipe, and contents, ft Fo = Drag fore, b F, = tnertiaoree, 10 F. = Lit force, te N= Normal fore, i> 13. Rydrodami ces on pipe 34 Deaton of near wove parameter (fer Sore Poston maa 19) tion, consideration is made of the linear, small-amplide oxilatory- ‘wave theory. Formolforesleulatng the diferent wave characteris 2 Tuneton of wave height, pesiod wave phase angle and water depos te given in Figure 3.6 Tes important to note thatthe deepwater significant wave height and wave direction change atthe wave travel into shllow water duet Combined fies of sholing reaction, dfaction, ftom, percolation, 4nd reflections. An ustration ofthe changes inthe deepwater wave length [ls shown in Figure 3. for diferent water depths ‘Sothe pipeline remains Sable onthe seabed summation fll forces ‘the pie st sasly the stati equim equation given by. Horizontal forces (x Fy + Fy W sin @ = 0 ay Vertical forces (yk N+ F. — W eos @ = 0 ey Where che symbols ate deseribed in Figure 3.3, pipe is rating on the seabed with litle embedment into the sete helt esiing oe canberelatedothenomaloce "I298 | Of Ppine Design, Anas, ars Methods teen poe * 95 ay ogi of eo ser or rion Baun (313) ‘Where isthe lateral rtion coefclent between pipe suface andthe seabed ‘Combining equations 3.11 and 3.12 and using Equation 3.13 yield Fat R+ lh Weos 6) = Wsine [pas esi Eraions and Pp Pramas | 27 T= wave period, = time 56 Summaries Any) wave carci (fer Shor ron Newel isng ‘The minimum pipe submerged weight [W) for an air lled pipe during ecstuction and fr materia filed pie dung operation can then Be Setemined wang Equation 3.14 5 the fom: wo Rae rane was Fora level seafloor with @ , Equation 3.18 becomes: wenden 8 ‘The flow-induced drag and inertia forces on the pipeline can be calculated by adopting an expression derived by Morton 1930] for omputing the herizonal foxes induced by a uniform iid How overs ‘ylinder These forces are ven by: = teaver a7)38 | Oeore Posing Cetin, Aras, end Memos Fy = em (2D) (dude) 18) Where: Fo = deag fore per unit length of pipe, Ibs y= inertia fore per unit length of pipe, bs fp = dente of ud, 2 sage for sea water D = pipe 0D, Uy = ttleciv harzoneal waterprile velocity lover pipe height, tse : jp = Hata te ae ection cover pipe, Hse Gp = Byatedyamic drag coeficient Gu = hydeodynams inertia or mass coficient “The total fore is combination of an ineri force pus a dag fore on the pie. The inertianforce component is desived fom an analysis of forces on a body in an accelerated flow ofan ideal noaascous ow. The velocity and acceleration tems du othe combined elect of waves and curents must be evaluated over ce pipeline depth andthe free ite sated over the ppelin diameter. Typically the velocity and acceleration terms are evaluated at 1m above the seabed based on standard wave theories as desribed ear, A boundary lye is then assumed ron Ima ‘shove the seabed to ce seabed where te Velocity terme vanish “The 1/7 powe law is omamonly used to approximate the boizontal velocity profile [U)vesus depth in the boundary layer: vy a (3.19) ‘Where: U = horizontal particle velocity a ‘eigh y from the seafloor in che Boundary layer, see = seated or ealulated horontal particle velocity at height y fsee Asstated above U, isusully calculated in there stream at about In above boom. In eat, depth ofthe boundary Iyer depends onthe bottom roughness and ow Reynolds’ number. “Te eliecuive velocity (U,]t0 be used in Equation 3.17 can be obtained from the following averaging expression: Design Eavators ans Pp Pears | 92 Bee Ua DOS OND SOF OF u = Water dept, = Deepwater wavelength, ft = Wave lengt 37. Wave length ond Big weaions with dep 1 s few wo40 | Ofte pine Design Aras, and Matos Substtating Equation 3:19 in Equation 320 yields the following: Uj =0778 UIDye a) ‘The Iie force [R) can similarly be obtained from the following tocvur any ‘The maior difculty in calculating lit, drag, and inerial forces is determination of the lift coefcient, drag cocfHcien, and inertial ‘otfcient. or steady low conditions, the dra coefcient (Cy depends fn the flow Reyaolds sumters and'roughness of pipe surce. The ‘Reynos mumber is defined bythe following: RD, (3.23) Where: » = kinematic viscosiy ofthe Hid about 11D 10" fee for se wate] Pipe roughness colficent (ki defined a: k li, D Where: ¢- = height of roughness Extensive measurements have been made for fi ocficient ina unidirectional, steady state flow over Donsteady flows. Dag coefficients were measured a function ofthe Reynolds number Results are shown in Figure 38. Generally, the dag, eclficlent vases om 0.6 10 20, depending on the flow Reynelis umber. “Although dag coetcients have been measured forsteady ows dese results ae usualy use fr osellatary ows associated with waves by ‘electing the maximum value ofthe combined curtent and wave induced ‘elocty over the pipe section. Because oct ofthe low varies ver the Pipe dameterdue to boundary-layer effects, the fective velocity used respond ‘oevalute the flow Reynolds number then determine the co Ing dag cotBciene Experiments to measure dra coefclent fora waveinduced oscilla sory flow over pipe showed thatthe dag cotfsient depen onthe ‘esi Erauntins and Pp Paranets | 41 20 ost Roughness coetiient % & 04 ky = 002 os ke = 0.0007 02 o45 @ 2 945 Re 38 Drag coficiet vz. Reynolds number afi ove) Reynolds number pipe roughoes, ss well a the Reulpan Carpenter number [which defined sence ur Ke J i (224 Where: T =osellatry wave period, sc, ‘An ilstration of the vation of drag coelcent with Reynolds ‘number fo constant values of Ks shown in Figure 39. This ca alto be ‘ied to determine the dag coefcient fora particular appliation, Hew: cer use of Figure 3.8 for detemining the dee coefcen is adequate for ‘offre pipeline design, ‘Experiments have also been conducted inthe pat for measurement of£2 | Otwtor Ppain Dein, Ay, ane Mees 2 Drag eoaTTaAT od og 0 Fe x10-° ° a rr a ynoide number 39. Drouin for ifferen Reales Carpenter vel er Sapkay) ofthe Iie cotRcient(C.) and the inertial coefficient (Ca. The life fcelfcen also depends onthe Reynolds number and pipe’ fcelficent kl forasteady-sate ow. The lt coefcent [Cy] dependson the Reynolds mumber aswell as the Keulepan-Carpenter number fr brilatory flows, Variation of the it coefficient versus the Reyaolde ‘umber for steadpatte flows shown in Figure 310. Tavesugations the neta coetScient Cy] fr anonetcous, acceler sted uid ow over «pipeline have shown that che mean value of Cy erally vas from 15 (6 5, depending on the Now Reyaole ‘Based on the above discussion, recommended valves ofthe hyrody- ‘amie coefficient, (a Cu and (Cu tobe used for calling hydro “dynamic frees onan lshore pipeline ate summarized in Table 32. asin Erabatons and Pipe Peametrs | 43 20 18 19 os 04 02 {Gl coefficient, 02 ox o4s) m 2 345 Feynolds number Re 310" conficant va, Reyne amber Table 32 Recommended Couture for Pipe Deion (Expoted Pip) ees 50% 10: Biyrecloce isk We pubmed weit fie I 1 Efnig moment fn ne pip, ine EQUATIONS Wa 268 (08 D8) We = BRO +20) DY, = Connon cot dey, War = Big (D+ 25420) (0426), = Wet cstdenny Is> Ws Wart Was We Blois (OSa stay womb 1 = gop Devin Evators and Ape Parameter | 6) ‘3.9 Scour and Eroslon Inthe sur zone and areas where bottom currents ate large in mag: nitode, bottom sediments may be erode, suspended, and deposited lsewhere. This can cause pipe exposure, loss of suppor, and pipe Spanning resulting in the potential of Seplacement,nbratio, ad ‘dmage tothe pipeline, “The mechanism of sol erosion is complex and is slated to soil properties. Considerable research has been condvcted in the pat on fediment transports due to water flow above river beds. Moc ofthe research i in general apeement on the ination of mction of sed ‘ents consisting of snd sl, o gravel. The nition of motion ofan ‘equres leas current velocity than that needed for the inition of ‘motion of clay particles. This is due tothe cohesion between the clay arcs ‘To illustrate this phenomenon, consider fa bottom sedbed con taining snd with water lowing above When the velocity slow, the scabed particles will not move: As the flow rat is ragally increased, Sediment grains begin co move (the sequence of this movements ‘lusteated in Figure 3.26, Initially, the movement consists of random rolling and sliding of Individual gain. As the flow ate increases, urbulenceinereass est the seabed and more patcies ol nd aise nea the seabed. This ist Incipient motion isrelered to an the threshold of particle movement ot fet seabed Av the low at is increased, more particles move, with Some ited of the seabed fra shor trajectory before falingbackan the seabed. The transporation of matter in tis way is sometitnestfered {0 a sltaton of sediments, ‘As the low becomes more rrbulns, some ofthe sediment particles willbe ted increasingly higher above the seabed until they are in Suspension and canbe transpored withthe fw. The mote tbulent thelow isthe more particles rein suspension, At very high lw ees, ‘the flow will auseiegulaities on the seabed known as ripples The suspended patcles are free totrael inthe mined ow unt the velocity decreases to aleve uch that the particles eanot remain a wspenson ‘ny longer. This velocity is known sb the eeting velocity, ‘The minimm flow velocities fr parce erosion, sarpension, and settlement depend on the sil properties, including gran size end specific rvity. However, the vanation of speci pavity sal since ‘most ofthe sediment particles are quartz with an immeaed specific iavity of 165. Therefore the sediment wanspot velocity for send can be stued based on the graimsize diuenbution of sedaments70 | Ose Paine Deon. Ay, ard Wath Low flow velocity Intermediate low vlocty A LOVE). he cee High flow velocity 326, Mode of gin anager Many theoretical and experimental effort have been madein the pst to quantify the relationship berween the flow ate and the velocities sociated with sediment ransport. lot have ben generated tle {tate the minimum erosion velocity, transport velocity, andthe deposi ‘ton velocity ofthe sol particles venus rain sae ofthe sand sediment, 1 shown in Fgure 3.27. ‘Measures to protect the pipeline fom scour include burial of the pipeline to sufficient depth of cover and anchoring the pipe Burial ofthe ‘ibe can be effective ifthe line is buried beyond the depth of expected ‘rosion during pipe lifetime. Determination othe amount of ection {piven area is complex. However in most cates, and prticalany in Sand an estimate can be made of the depth of esto, Design Eattons and Ape Parameter | 71 Grain size, 6 w__e7 330-38 ‘Moon velocity, cmisne “Transporation Deposition os ooo oo) orto ain size, mm 1) Moan volocy at m above seabed, 2) Mato graie ao assumed uniform, 700 27 Conent velo for sediment taperInstallation Methods and Analysis 444 General ‘There ae various methods of submarine pipeline installations, in- lading the layarge, ree, otto pul tow, and other methods. Some of chete methods are more sited fot & parcular aplication than ‘thers, Certain method are prtcalany sted for amalllameter pipe installations others ae pariculsiy sulted for deepwater installations ‘A desripton is given in this chapter of the most common Pipe installation methods. Also, vaous techniques of laying analysis are presented and discussed ‘42 Lay-Barge Method “The most common method for submarine pipeline installations isthe lay barge method Since the fst box shaped lay barge was introduced, ‘arias ienprovements and modifications have been made to extend the Tay capabilites. Three fren typa of lay barges exit, inching ‘ventional box hal ship shaped Barge, and semisabmesble. "The semisubmnersble costs more to contrat than « convention barge ora ship-shaped vessel. However, the response motions ofthe seminibmesible ay vee re much move favorable than those for the burg or the shipshaped verse. For example, semisubmersbles can ‘sualy operate sigiieant wave eights of upto 15~17 fzom any lection, while box or lay tages can operate in significant wave highs of up to Sf from any direction. Ship shaped lay vessels can usualy operste at higher signeane wave heights of up © 12 fin the cave of head sas ‘Bor bull barges are generally roquiredtoseckshelered water much less severe weather conditions then those required for ship shaped nd semisubmerible hulls, The incteased stablity of semisubmerible hulls has also allowed development of large stinger, which, in ura, allo laying large-diameter pipe in relatively deep water. ‘Development the ship shaped and semisubmersble-hll la barges has madeit possible to operate in severe weather conditions such athe [North Sea and 0 extend he working season in these ares. Examples ofthe box hull ay barge is Bown & Root BAR 347] Ray -MeDermote & Co's lay barge No. LB-29, and Sanvs Fe interationl CComp's Cherokee. Examples of ship shaped lay barges ae the ETPM 1601, and Netherlands Oishore Co's Sea Lian. MeDermot’s Viking Pipe, Saipem SP-A‘s Castoro 6 and Brown & Roots Semac I are ‘examples of the semisobmesaible lay vessel 1421 Description of Method Anillustration of conventionally barges shown in Figure 4.1. Lay bares use essentially the same method for laying pipelines. Pipe 1s 444, Conventional ly bargeAelivered to the lay barge in singe or double Length jlnt (20-040 length) bya cargo barge, shown in Figure 42. Several ofthe laigelay barges ae capable of handling 804 pipe ois [A deck crane tenses the pipe storage racks on the lay barge. During laying the crane wanales pipe rom sorage racks to an automated rack {or "feeding" pipe to the lineup table. The lineup table is the Sst Postion (wk station) of dhe pedeson line for welding the pipe end ‘ondestractively examining the wes Lay barges can ave’ to 2 work Stations depending onthe sizeof the barge andthe diameter th pipe being welded ‘Afterveldingthe pipe ont, the felon coated with comosion costings and weight coating sometimes) ab shown tn Figure 43. Pipelaying operons contin, with pipe supported by the barge rollers howa in igure §4]and stinger belore moving tothe seabed A ‘ern roller ona large-diameter ly barge is shown in Figure 45 Esch ofthe ll designs can further be categorizedby the location of {he production line, ether eente line o side mounted. Side mounted production lines provide forthe most efficent se of deck space and Inetaaton Method aed rays | 78 & 43. Cased fl ont eck equipment. However, they also subject the singe, stinger hitch, tnd ppetohighe forces during roll andyaw tan center. ine mounted rodueton line. ‘Centerline operations generally require duplication of deck equip: ‘ment for pipe handling in addition to lenient ue of deck space ‘Mest lay barges designed or operation in severe-weater conditions use the centerline mounted production lin, sine lower infuced loads on the stinger hitch and pipe are more eritical thn te los in deck space tffleney. ‘The production line of aa barge limited to latlling single line. lfmaultpelinesarereuired he barge mut retrace thelay path foreach line or it may modify its deck operations to use portable rel. fn situations where one o two small-diameter lines 1- n are equied78 | Ost Piptne Desgn Anaya, ans Metod ‘nconfunetion with single age diameterline maybe possible toset ‘up temporary production ines. ‘Conventional lay barges equreaitonal vessel to support laying operation. The spread generally includes one o more anctor handling ‘ug, cargo barges, and cag for supplying pipe and other materiale Diving suppor is normally required far inspection of pigeon the seabed snd for pipe subsea connections In shallow-water operations, diving fan be supported dvecty from the lay barge. However, in deepwater operations a diving support vessel equipped with sremate-contolled ‘hile (RCV) ora manned submersible maybe needed. Diving-systern Iretaaton Memos aed Anas | 77 components are shown in Figures 4.6 and 47, ncluding the diving bell ‘nd the decompression chamber ms 'A pipeline is initiated by Positioning an anchor onthe sa loo bringing the anchor cable over the barge singe, and attaching toch caso the ft pipe jin The barges moved forward by taking cable Sree one eager sd etingot ale on he ste “The bare tinge elp suppor the pipe a forms an -curve asthe pei lye Stinger have developed frm suai hin signs, or ‘ally used in shallow wate, othe carved, sectional, aculed sng78 | Otsnore Ppsine Cos, Aras, and Memos rs required for deepwater operations. Tensoning machines positioned Song the production line provides old-back force tolat the curve ture of che pipe as I descends tthe ear. “Acurved sectional stinger fr large ameter pipe in relatively deep waters showa in Figures 46 and 49. Stinger sections vay a length although each section is typically 60 ft long. The draw-bar section, own in Figure 4.10, connects the stinger tothe barge hitch, Singer sections ae connected through hinges as shown in Figare 4.11. Stoppers Instaaton Moods and ray | 72 427” Divig bell and decompression chember se wsed to contr! the minzoum rads Rolls [shown in Figure 6.12] ‘at intlledon the stinger sections to suppor the pipe ding lowering “The maximum depths to which conventional ay barges ean operate sre governed by: ‘Capacity ofthe barge mooring sytem, 2. Senger size, 2 Tensioner eapacey, 4 Pipe diameter and wall thickness. 5 Pipe weight coating i equre) In general, lay barges can be grouped bythe water depths for which ‘hele mooring systems are designed: [1)t0 350 f(t 00%, and 3] 0 1000. There ie alimited numberof pipe ly vessels current capable of mooring with dynamic-posiioning asitance and laying pipe in water depth exceeding 1,000 fe The Castoro6 i in ths bow of| tor Ppine Desa, Aras, and Metod 48 Sectonl singer or lrgesized pipe ‘4.2 Lay Analyal Method ‘An illustration ofthe pipe suing being lowered from the lay barge to the seabed is shown in Figure 4.13. Two region can be dented the loverbend region and the saghendseplon, The overbend genealy ex se om hts ee eck ore he be ray down the stinger othe iff poin wien pipe sno longer supported the ramp or stinger. The sagbend region generally extends rom the Infection point tothe touchdown point (TDP! Pipe curvature the overbend region i urually controlled by proper Instatan Matos and Anais 49° Plated singe ort stabbing Positioning ofthe ramp supports and by controlling curvature ofthe Singer In genera, the overbendsadise of euvatrefncluding singed) Sn seleced such thatthe mastmam bending sues athe pipe oes oe {exceed 85% ofthe minimum specfed yield sess MSYS) The bending ‘Stan is piven by: > waa) 2 » Where:D = Outside steel diameter of pipe, R =Overbend radius of curvature, fe(tear Pn Desi. nay ar Matos 410 Sige ewer section Note thatthe units of D and R mast be dhe sme. The corresponding ania bending ses 5 a= 2) cy Where: E = Elastic modulus = 30 x 10" psi ‘Therefore the minimum overbend radius can unl be selected fom: ED 43) i, DF Where: oy = Minimum specified yield sess of pipe ‘D> Design factor, usually 085 ‘The above analysis assumes tht che pipe as » uniform bending radius over the barge and singer support In reality, the pipe bende Insateson Mateos and Ans | 8 ‘moreover the support than in between, andthe oveibend tes sully Increases atthe supports and decreases between the suppor, ‘Computer programs and elaborate methods are vals for accurate ovethend analysis. In these cases, alse conservative design entra ‘edo determine the minum oben curate Incerain cay, Bipe is allowed to excced the yield sires in the ovebead, sod sain sera since defections can be cone) ae tned in pace of the imitingsrese criteria “The sagbend stress analysis mainly done to determine the tension andstingerlength requirement forsale laying In general th ight the04 | Chine iptne Design, Anaya, ans Matos 4412: Suingr oer oppor Sagbond region Pipe oth i" jomeee mon Ser —— ae ‘stinger Anchor line fension is the shorter che stinger that can be uted. Often a plot of pibesagbend steses and required singer lenge se plowed vers fension a shown n gure 44. These plots ae then used foratadeo Aetermination of tension and singer length ty | i |< — Increasing stinger ength | ‘414 Typical enson ond tinge variations8 | ofeore Posing aon, Aras, and Metts ‘Several methos exis for stesanaysinf pipe the saghend region, sneluding the beam method, catenary method, stiffened eatenary, nonlinear beam method, nd de Bete dilerence method. Generally, the beam method yields accurate results i hallow water, whereas the fatenary and stienedcatenary theories Yield accurate result in ‘epwater aplistions. Both the nolinearbeam metod and finite ‘ement method yield accurate results forall water depts. A brie ‘Somparison of these various analysis methods is given i Table 4 Teble 4.1 Comparison of PipeLay Anaya Methods maaan Method Anplicaions Conitons Valley Tinearieam thary Show water Satid Smal deci Nonlinear theory” Aldea Satied General Neve rete Nocatisbed Away fom ends, camay De Tate Stoned atenery Deepwater Satisfied Salles Faiteslement method Alldepte —Sitsied General 4.221 Beam Method (Small Deflctons) Inthis theory, the pipe suspended spn in the saghend is modeled as beam segment se shown in Figure 415. However, deflections are sumed small Le tei oe ‘The governing bending equation is ~ge er {% 7,2 is ae -7,8% a) ‘Where: q) = Unit submerge weight of poe, Ibe EL = Pipe bending stiffness, Ibe 1, Z ifeceve lower pipe tension, 1b Irstoaton Meteo and Aras | 7 Deana an yol=0 tsi $8} 0 np ot) 4 Bio-0 a yuan wa a Sum ws) (= Ot infection point) Now: T=, +48 410) “Theory is applicable fr small defections ony, a in shallow-water splletons. uf a 418. POD. of pipe sme44222 Nontiner Boam Matnod “This theary considers the nonlinea-bending equation of «beam to Aeseribe the bending of pipe apes. The theory Is applicable in both Shallow and deepwater and ie vali foreland large deflections os weal “The governing diferental equation is: faut Sariale in equation 411 results na more complex diferencia equa ‘on for | than fora ‘Four boundary condone are needed to solve the dierental equa: ‘on, and an addvonal boundary equation sneededtsolveforthe span length since ite not known prio ‘The cbove difretial equation apd coresponding boundary equi ons ate usually eat as «boandary-value problem and ae solved ‘umerically. The nite difference method of approximations hasbeen ‘sed suocesflly to provide the solution. 14.228 Natural Catanary Method “The natural catenary theory can be used to dseribe the pipe span zn yom te nde, avy um ef nt at seabed and the oper pie pint nea cing, The method is Epplicale where the ppe lass f very small the boundary cond “To lubrate the method, et El =O in the nonlinear beam bending ‘gation 4.1, The following equation i obtained: = Tysecte A i an Tse tena) Inetaaton Mato ard day | 08 ‘This asthe soltion tnt Bec (3) Where: = constant (© =0, pip slope ~ Oat seabed which the ‘amilar governing equation fora natal catenay, ‘The span length a i given by: oars BE - Te aan() eu ‘Themariemum saghend strain canbe approximated from the minimum curvatre, where ac hentig i, «= PL (ass 1D = Pipe outer stel diameter ‘All unies mut be consistent in Equation 4.15 ‘The catenry equations can then be used to estimate pipe configu ton away fom the ends where pipe sities is amal, i deep wate, oF ‘where the tensions wey lage such that the ension term in Bqution| {lis predominant over the sifnee term, 44224 stoned Catonary Method ‘The stifenedeatenary method is different fom the catenary method in that che boundary conditions are satised, In this method, the noolinearbeam diferential equation is slved sseymptodically, bat ‘souming thatthe nondimensionl tem ai very small, ondat 'S =Pipe span length [characteristic length) ‘This theory provides accurate results of the pipe configuration, in cluding pipe reions near the ends However, the theory applicable ‘whete the pipe stitnesr is mall rin deep water,0 | nore Posine Oat, Aras, and Matos 4.25 Finto Element Method ‘Asin the case of the noninearbeamanalyis method, the finite clement pipe spon enaysate aplieable in all water depths for small or Itagedeflecsons “Fhe pipe span is modeled a8 2 system of connected finite beamt clements, Bending equations ae developed foreach pipe element and Sunday conditions matched between elements, The system equations [re chen developed into a matrix frm and olved using matic tech "Oy "proper selection of the pipe-element length, deflections of each pipe Cement canbe kept mal ually with ropes local coor [ke syrcm This maker i poral tose the ina fom ofthe bending Siren equadonforeadepipe cement or desrbedinecton 4221 ‘4.226 Method for Thick Concrete Coating tn certain pipeline installations, may be neceasary to increase the pipe submerged weight suliently to withstand hydrodynamic ores {the seabed: Thismay requie «large thickness of concrete coating on the pipe Ara reel, when pipe ls bent, sucha ring installation by « lay burger bending tresses are fvensifed atthe Belé joints due (0 ‘elution in fecal ness at these [ns ‘Procedures for calcolatng intensified stueses in pipelines with ex teeme concrete coatings during laying can be developed based on the ‘ictie atinee concept: The pipe elective stifess can be used (0 ‘determine the pipe statc configuration, then Using stress intensifies ton factor at the eld join find maximum bending stresses inthe Pipe string. This allows use of varios pipedaying analyses methods "Wen pipe is bet, one potion of the coring is subjected to tensile forces sl another portion is subjected to compressive loads. Since tenalesuenpthof concrete leneglipible the cnerete portion n tension {ls and the neveral ax of the composite cross section of pipe and ating shifts, "ending trestes inthe outer fiber of steel pipe increase onthe tensile side an detente on the comprssvesid. At the Geld joints, pipes bare txcep fora comosion eoatng or freshly aplied concrete which offers Ute addon ites tothe pipe. Therefore, bending stiffness ix fedced atthe feldoin, and adaitional curvature cure at theoin tO Balance the bending moment in concrete-costed pipe. Ths increases bending stresses atthe Bed flat ostsaton Manage ans Anais | 91 ‘Shift in netel ane can be calculated from the equilibrium of forees applied at the eros section (igure 16 Ian ideal bond between the ‘onerete jacket and steel pipe assumed, then costed-ppe "bonded fexual stiiess (Keane calculated direc as shown in Figures 16 “However, experimental studies have shown that when concrete “ct fe rete I, gs 0 Cont ted pip eng Conc campeon Shit in aul os BP a soak, tSodA,=0 (Waar cow B, G/B, =B. GR) esi yc yt i nd NEE tt tt KE, FA) +E, 1136 Cased pipe bonded sesscoated pipe i bent, slippage occurs between the concrete coating and Interfacing materia, chus reducing compressive stresses in concrete. “his slippage is caused by shear forces between concrete and the {interface material which inhibit the coating from Increasing lxsl stiffnes ofthe pipe. Length of pipe over which slippage occurs depends ton coperete thickness and strength and maximum band ates between Feand interacing mate ‘Studies by Magho tl. 1970] measured pipe length over which slippage ocetss plo f the product of bo scress and afected slippage lengdh vs concrete thickness were obtained fra given concrete crush ing senath ‘Bue to this slipping behavior, a Nerul stillness dstebutin along ‘hejointisassumed, es shown in Figure417-Stifnest the pipe endsis| eto tt -20) la a a | * Amel ses ve ? oan ] 4 ue Le" + SN ‘omens t + 1 Eur 1,5 nl teh pe 1 itl bonded sites fated pipe y= ci ste of canted pipe {197 Seo dion Irtoaton Matos and Anaya | 8 that of bare pipe which increases over the affected length wnt full potest of the concrete coating Is realized. Length of pipe where ‘bonded sins of costed pipe is reached is termed I. “An expression developed by Wilbot and Merwin 1967| ean be used 0 ‘estate elective pipe suliness Kar 21K + KE (66) “Where K; 05 (ke + Ky L) Pipe ot length =k see pipe stillness slippage occurs over the entize length ofthe pipe join, Sexual seifiess of the pipe oi is Kae = + KAD fa Where: K,= dhe reduced value of pipe sities (K]when fll potential of Kes oe reached valuation of Ky requis an experimental procedure. However, conservative approach isto asome that fll poteatial of additonal ‘concrete sfines reached at the pipe joint midpoint and that stifness Siesbutoa utatshownnhgsresi7 Ese wie hips Ke = IK + KID (ss) ‘Conceming sre at fc joints, to satisfy equllrium ofthe pipe join, the bending moment induced in the coated section of the pipe ‘ust be balanced by an equivalent moment atthe Beld pint ‘Since flexural siness of the feld joint is less than the effective stiles of coated pipe, sess are increased in he Mel joine.Efectsof pipe weight and ata tension must be inluded when caleulating these The effects of tension variation and addtional bending de to pipe ‘weight slong a single pie joint are neglected, then, fora gven mean Tad, stress intenaieation st che fed joint i f = maximum ste onthe field joint maximum ‘tree in coated pipe 19)24 | otra Apsine D28gn Ansys and Meno 1M at) ee =(M) It + aK ‘Mf = Maximum bending moment inthe pipe “Therefore, sres.intensification factor fra given mean radio i 1) fd) TE + 420) ‘oilluratethis analy, suspended pipe sing conBigurtions were calculated fo sever pipelines where uniform sees wat assumed slong the pipe string, Variation of pipe dplacements vs. bare ipe iar Sonded-costed stiles abd elective sine ae shown Figwe 17 "Bip dpiaements are dimensionless, so thatthe numberof pipe parameter which eed ob consisered sre reduce, This done when ‘Svadngdplcements by apie charset length / Nomaalied Stllness i obtained by dvding pipe arumed suties by bare PPe ‘Stiles For example ate pipe sormalizel sis = Trcich of the thee diferent pipe slinesses sede, maximum sotconfedseainthesaghend at ben dteined nd nomad by Aiviing by the moximum setend sees for the bare pipe. This nor ‘malized seas shown foreach he clelated pipe configurations Figure 418. When normalized sess equals one, maximum saghend ‘tas uaa that for bate pipe. igor 418 bows he the sxicnis shed stein he pipeline substan ineeaed when ncresed pipe stiffness dae to corte outing in cnsiered Furthermore, use of ecetive tines es ea ensereative snd moe reali anes than seo the boned cored Sine ‘Analysis of thin dat ls shows hit increasing pipe tension as most ‘no elect on the sagbend bending semen for very heaty ‘pslins For oat spplistion along sige ceded which would ‘ally oppor he ielne othe seabed. Tis procedure canbe sed {Denim tannin sens nthe pipe string parca she Bld Jnit during laying Elecine pipe exo sles nealated on the i of censn geneaiaed experimental esl Tole aze made along the pipe, elective stiles of the pipe is seduce, andres ntenrdestion the field joint decreases, Pete Ste can be made by sawing the soncite coating or tg eng oni. Where: InstaletonMetoas and soa | 95 Notes: V OF aa, ‘earsceinc eae TF ser, / oo ee | ona} aba 4 Ly art — 7 Bi AL Z on] ee \ ta 418 Mariam swe sed ies ‘4227 Dynamic Etects ‘The previous discussions on pipe ay analy have dressed static analy ofthe pp wring n sesiy, he pipe sting extending frm tensioner to the sealoor subject dynamic exctions doe barge ‘otlon and to direst hydrodynamic action on he pipeline and stings. " ealy design stor, med that design factor of 085 {limiting overbend ses 83% of il would be adeguatetssount {oraddtional dynamic reser onthe pipe inthe ovtbead epion, A ‘more coneratv allowance was ass fr pipe the sogbend region98 | Ofetoe Posie Design Ansys, and Mths Stace plpe was not supported cere. Ii important to note that these sllowances were adeguate where layog was done in calm to moderate ‘weather conditions “Aimore important consequence of the pipe-sring dynamics isthe tension variations inthe pipe. The basge motions, parca heave ‘motion, ca cause significant change nthe pipe tenon, especially in Aeepwater applications. This mst be earefully examined i design f \entloners fo dep water of for severe envionment applications “The pipe and barge dynamics may also cause pipe slamming on the supports and result in coating damage. An adverse llc of barge 2nd pipe dynamics tenis damage tothe singer or the singer hitch ‘Dynaonic analysis ofthe pipe string i comple, requiring computer sided solutions. Computer analyses perormed by the author of bended pipe spans and loaung production riser have shown tht dynamic easton variations can be as large as thive times the sate ‘ion in deepwater applicstions. These tension variations ate tainly ‘aused by motions ofthe surface laying vessel 4.3 Reet Sarge Method ‘The rel-barge method of laying submarine pipelines uses a contina- couslengthof pipe coiled ontoareel. Assembly of thi pipe stings done ‘ashore, and nondestructive testing ls competed pronto coiling the pipe. Because of colling no concrete coating canbe ised snd selatvely |ieavy wall thicknesses are tequzed 0 avoidpipeatening and, nse cases, to provide additional weight fo pipe stability onthe seabed This ‘method of insllavon is ustrated in Figure 4.19, Pipe bundles canbe installed bya ree barge The pipes ae banded together as they ae loaded on spools atthe shore laity. Thenemberof pipes per bundle dependson thee size and pipe diameter fthebunde Istobe compose of pipe of various diameter ema benecessary tute portable eels and complete banding during the lay operation. Maluipe feels ae not required because of reel limitations but because of ‘Straightener imitations. “Two configurations for el barges are ine: the vertical reel, such the Santa Fe Apache, nd che horizontally mounted ree, suchas the Santa Fe Chickosow. Use of the vertical rel i advantageous ia ‘Nopreader bar and lowered on the guide wires tthe seabed ace the assembly son bottom and the connectors are landed onthe sso bay adiveroperatescontroato poston each coanecor and [Sctun the ole fingers to grip the mating hub and eet the seal. The “SEnlmadeby eacheonnettor then preterted 9 confirm ntegsity ofthe Pee Cnmscton ana Posting Syne | 198 {1 Bipnch marine end connector (courtey Big Inch Marae Steins ac) czpeetin ad te cain and sport equpment arene Fou ses ae norm wd prvi the eu nl move ment the connectors and oscommodatemialigument. The ‘normally about 150 ft long, immene TRcspoolis "Cameron cnnetor stem is lusrated in Figure 82. (6.243 Grtpper ines fe te Grp and Sl Mechanical Coupling GSMO) ‘perl Conecr ange ak {CBC efor bow coe"40 | Ofer Poane Deen, Anais, rd Watts Seaton, Colet Connector 6 trough 20° aeatin Section, Colt Connector 22" and Lager {52 Camron calle sonnet nartary Comer rn Wok Pee Connection and Poston Stans | 141 ‘don and repats. The GSMC unit incorporates metal tension and com Pression gripping collar and sot packing in eylinder which slip over pipe end Iris ct and sealed by uightening «sess of stad ats, and ltimay beemoved om te pipe loosening thems, The GACFL anit {8 balljoine flange with metal-metal seals “The Gripper Metal Seated Couplng|GMSC) uni ia metl-to-metal, cated version ofthe GSMC uae I slips over and seal guns he cut tndotapipe The GMSC unit has no provision fr length adjustment It {Pntended for ser epirs where the ner pipe can Be machine et 0 provides smooth sealing surtace Tcouldalsobe used toatach a ange for Biting to pipe on the teed, provided thatthe pipe end were ‘aching ct. “The Gripper Mechanical Pipe Cap device is variation ofthe GMSC. ‘uit, with an end ap and soft packing gland "The Gripper Pipe Length Commpensaor(GPLC] device i alipjoit Intended for new constuction, Metal seals atest agunet« machined Clindriel surface The GPLC unis edna spool, with aGBCEL unit Steach end ‘An illastiation of the Gripper mechanial connector is shown in Figure 63, (6.244 HyaroTech HyeoTech manufactures several product for pipeline connections. “The main products include the HydroBallHydroCouple system, the ‘aisaligning Mange (MAFL andthe HydroBall swivel and ias-cu fang. Dillren combinations ol these products can be used to suit he specie pplication "Pine early HydroBall/HydeoCouple (HB/HC) system was device Incorporting two connectors on either ide of separable ballin. The HiydoCouple connector were sliped over the end of the pipes tobe joined. Elastomer seals inthe HyCovple connectors were set against {he OD ofthe pipe, andthe Hyroball unit wa ct nd sealed ia place. ‘Then the locking tension and compression lips were set Thissequence swat required because the early HydroCouple units could not be se ‘ovedizom the pipe ater the slips werese since epoxy wasuseda the Setting fd Theeatly Mark Land Mark THB/HC units were sedi the Philips’ Ekoisk complex, which inches platforms inthe Ekofis, Wiest Ekoisk, Albusjel, Cod, Ea, and Fldfisk Fields. The complet lie in 280 t6 240+ water dep, ‘Ekofisk was orginally developed using HydroTech’s mechanical,142 | Otthare pene Cobgn, Ants, nd Meness (63 Gaps pend wea oanecton (oarasy Gripe Ine) ‘oe Conecton and Peston Syst | 143 ‘connector for rier tien and subsea connections. A number ofthese ‘onneetors experienced leaks and were removed. Thee leak related ‘principally to the "hot al” problem. The oll pipelines operated at 230-240. and were not orginally designed wo accommodate the bigh degree of thermal expansion experienced in adaition, cycling arous lines caused the seals in the onginal Mark IT HC unite to fa Subsequent product modifations have resulted inthe Mark IV and Mark V HydroCouple units. The Mack 1V HC units include improved ‘sipping and sealing mechaniams along with temperate compenas ‘on, and have not experienced leakage The Mark WV unt i hyeaulc set, with separate tension and compression slips The seals ate Separately actuated metal contained elastomers. The Mark IV tool ‘Mlustested in Figure 6 ‘The Mark V unit isa more compact tool with intrtting tension and compression slips and metal-consined ele The slip and seals se st simultaneously by tightening ring of bolts. {25 Comparison of Connection Methods ‘A meciic comparison of the competing inline connection methods anony be made when the particulars of given nwtaation are known, ‘These include the fllowing factor ‘Location, including water depth pe se and material grade Contents of the pipeline. Operating pressure and temperature ranges. 1 Pipeline installation method. ' Contractor and equipment svalabiiry, "Potential fr damage after installation and eas of repair incase of damage 1 Regltements for piging the line. Location of connection with respect to structures and pipeline ‘Requirements fr trenching the line 1 Expected operating lifetime of plpeline ‘Prior good or poor experience with + connection method. Such actorsoften restric the choice of aconnection method toone or ‘few alteratives. Other factors which ae then considered ina sele tion of connection method inciase sconom, ehebllty, simplicity, serve, and avalabiity,pe Comecion ans Poevoning Sats | 48 (4 ston sensei tenes ant) seam AYN nO A WOR a9 14 | Ofte Rosine Oosgn, Asay, and Meds ar oy onan Aer) sap omeewo svateaDeipeH AL EH 9 we14s | Ofenere Petne Design, Anas, and Matos ‘Economic enkings of candidete connection methods vary, depending on thei on slain In ep weet uae wang tmposile and mechanical connector my have the lowest inst nt, However, the tora lifetime esto mechanical connectors snot Set known with any cera. “Thete i ot yet conclusive experience that mechanical connectors are au reiable aba weld over the 20~30-yearietimeof «pipeline. This an change nthe fate asthe level of connector operating experience increeses and intllation methods are ened {6.3 End Postoning Methods 6.31 General Ina pipe-connection systems, pipe ends must be pottoned within certain cance 0 make the cnmecton. The amt of tolerances Spends om pipe ie wate depth ad he mee coanectog method. eerpeieaets cra where tnere comnts arto bemadein Akepwater neato. ‘lthods est of pipe end poiining with various stages of ute or development. These method nelode: TPR di enon nmin 2. Seige in ow 2: Pipedeicion methods ‘Because of ificules in taitaining the surface support vessel on location in deep watered eeanges generally salve more complex trowedues than in shallow water. deep water, the acura of [erumenaton edo lost pipe ede on bottom an roan pat {the connection prosedue lnrramentstion exits wid the Oe of tom eanspander fr accermtepontoning 632 Inlation and Termination Method “The ination method, also known a he lay away method, uses 3 predetermined pois on the seafloor as an anchor position. A eable 5 ‘is fom the anchor to the pipe lay vestel and connected toa pall head ‘on the fst pipe joi, as thown in Pigre 65. This eble ls used to provide the ack tension reuired to earl the pipe saphend stresses ‘ti sufcent pipe ison the seafloor ioe Connection and Potoning Syme | 147 Lay barge ‘Anchor tines Pipe ‘Stinger loexa-man ness End target “Termination of + ppeline from laying vesel is acompliabed by ‘welding pl head fhe last pp on igre 6.5. A cable rom he ‘esses abundonentrereval winch connected fo he pl bead and {Beveael moves arwatd sige winch to munain rege tension. ‘Tolerances af nd potions canbe inte ange of 100 150 fe These tolerances ae atected by water Spt, pipe sie, scuracy of the “qbznie ptm aris mosh heigl an hn the laying cable ‘epenfing on the dea metho and material tobe wid, ier toleraneer may be seqiedToleranes can be improved in sever] aye: The most common way into atch several cae evenly spaced Sher length of 0 oa00 hom the pe ed anit teppei he Sea oer BY moving ee ly vere ona anchors, theo hep ey Severn " eral esel movements, cach requiring reposting om he Li cableson the pip and/or vessel snchor nay be que oct nal {olerances of 19 020 Sealer acrerentl movements ce ade by sing single cable stached tote pipe ly-down head. The ay ‘esse abandonmentreteval winch tt ik ip the ie tnd {he vse eositons to move the pe end ‘Prepuation clon for tolerance improverents can be considerable apdshoulde craiatedonacasyTo perform a epir with onc of thee sleeves the pipeline most ist te completly exposed ty iting These sleeves ae spit in half sally thd eld toptcher by a nomber of studs and nuts Units for subsea Installations are binge oaclitate assembly ont the pipe. The sleeve Js lowered on guid wires tothe seabed in an opened position, closed found the cleaned pipe, and positioned ove he leak Stade ad te Se then inserted and sghtend to fore the aot packing aainst the Pipe OD, "Fae spitsleve i low-cost way to repirasmal ea ora weak spot in pipe. Although Plidco and Daspt stock standard lengths, many operators maintain stock of pi sleeves co mest their anticipated 1728 Flexible Pipe Repair Flexible pipe, as manufacared by Coflexip can also be used for subseappalie reps. Coflexip pipe is avaliable with flanged-end onnections or with pais ends which could be welded toa mechanical ‘conaetor Lengths of pipe most be prepared on land tothe required Iengths ina repair situation the required length ofa pool cannot be ‘known unt the damaged pipe as been inspected andcut As ares it Iselther necessary to supply mote han enough flexible pipe, or toad ‘pi spool on ite fo give gros length adustments Coflexp pipe provides large axial and angularadustments, which can preclude the need to fepostion the pipeline ends prior to making « fonnection, Moreover, the Coflexi pipe remains permanently exible ‘This can be an advantage in cass where pipe failure occurs due to pressure of dhermal ellects or do t seabed movernens. 73 Stocking Programs for Mechanical Repl Tools “Mechanical connector sets have production lea times of upto dor 6 months forthe larger pipe sles. Connectors for emergency pipeline fepaies muse be produced and stored in anticipation of ed. A Aifferent sized connectrisrequied foreach ppesize. Many ofthe age Pipeline operators have auch stocking progtins “Thien ga tranumieion companies operating inthe Cuff Mexico havejoined in program stock connectors for use in making repais. ‘The RUPE progam, "Response fo Underwater Pipeline Emergencies,” covers pipeline repair reqlrements from Sin. though 36 diame fers. Three mechanical connectors and acessories in each pipe sae [except 22‘in.and28-in are stocked, riper connectors ate stoked up ‘rough 20a. HydeoTech ool restocked in dhe lager sizes "RUPE hs recently added pit sleeves tits tacking program. Pidco| units ate stocked through ID in. ste, Gripper in 14 uaough 2 tnd HydroTech over 20, "This program le only viewed as another repac option. Other repr methods ate also considered when a repair emergency arises, andthe ‘one bet alee wed 74 Comparison of Repalr Methods Relative merits and disadvantages of surface welding bypebase welding and mechanial-connecter rept methods are considered and ‘Maluated in hissecton in many cases therelative time requirement, Installation costs, and availablity of equipment influence the selection ofthe method for repair ofa particular pipeline Srlace welding aad hypebarie-welding methods provide a continu ‘ous welded pipeline, which s considered tobe «definite advantage by ‘mor operator. In general, mechanical connector repairs ate the leat conty and mose rapidly completed, especially in deepwater. Surtace ‘welding is more enpensive and of somewhat longer duration then repre made by meshanicl connector, The surface welding methodslso has ester weather sensitivity and is Limited to water depths of {bout 300 f, depending on pipe size. Hyperbaric welding the most expensive and mest time-consuming repairmethod Ieegute skilled welder-divers and lay barge or special ‘ese to handle the required manipulating frame and welding habia [Approved welding prosedurer are reqied forthe speesBe pipe tobe repaired regarding wall thickness, matenal grace, welding fod, 135 741 Technical Features Welding methods require expensive srface-mpport equipment. The surface repairfargediamete pipeline in dep watermay requitetwo Pipelay barges to lit and suppor the pipe saely during the welding fperatin, Repairs using mechanical connectors can be performed fom {Sal work barge or large work boat. “Thehyperbarie-welding method requires very specialized equipment, a large allgament fame, anda welding halt The requirements fr ‘mechanical connectors depend upon the manufacturer and can include fpecialrigging and Atrames to suppor the connectors dusing installs {on on the bottom. “The surface welding method is most limited in terms of pipe diame- ters andwaterdepehs. Although this methodhas been used for repas © Pipes lager than 30s. ndimeterandin water depth exceeding 300, Fels most commonly employed fr pipes upto about ISn. in ameter snd water depts of less than 300 fe The exact limitations for this ‘method depend heavly upon the size and capabilities ofthe surface ‘ese weather conditions and submerged weight of the pipe tobe [ied to the asics, The pipe le commonly dewatered before hit Hyperbaric welding has been demonstertet Ia the North Sea at water fo of mechanics] connectors “The primary disadvantage ofthe surfaceweling method is that ifthe pipelines buried, is necesary to uncover log engs|S00 or more) ttppe om ether side of the break to it the pipe ends tothe surface, ‘They ithepplne so be eb ng length of pipe mus he “Theprimar disadvantages of hyperbaric welding aris igh cor and the ime requlted forrepaiby this method. The peimary disadvantage of ‘he mechanical connector method ie the need to have 4 tock of sunsea noone napa aysas | 18 ‘connector inthe nz of pipe tobe repaie, since the ime required to ‘rode connector canbe many months, Such delay would eliminate The mechanial connectors from consideration for epi ofan operating Dieline, A summary of the technical comparisons of emergency reps methods is given in Table 71 ‘Welding ‘ee Smet ‘ay bene) Lay Barger Wak pe et) mca to roel Special Bargedavte —Aligument frame, Depends on pment ‘reine babes” anulacrer Limitatoce Shallow water ot 36in dimeter, $040. damenr SuallGometen om MS WD. Gercapabier Weather ih Moeste Low ‘Acvantges—Highes-qulty Welded repair Fast low-cost, wa Disavanages Unbury ong Mot expensive lang Mast tock ca Teng ope on tear e, eles nei fer ial” SRlweterive, seesze Bei Grmve denned eine 742 Experience Experience includes the general contactor’ experinceleiabiiy and prior operator experience witha specie repait method. Most Idline resis in che Gul of Mesico have been ose using surface ‘welding and mecheniea-connecton methods. tn the case of pipe and "ser sepals, moseexperience hasbeen by the surlace-welding method for “mallsiometer pipe or shallow-water depeh. In relatively deep water {350 fe or greater and for lsge-dameter pipe, ser repairs have been rade using the mechanial connection method.118 | oMsnare Peeing Deb, Anais nd Mahoce 748 Weathor Sonaiviy ‘The surlace-weldng method is most sestive to weather during the repair operation. Ths is beeause both ends ofthe pipe must belted to the surface, leaving the suspended postions cxpoted to vious Inydrodynami forces. In genera, the surface welding method can be ‘edn very calm weathet only particularly where tw barges ae ured rollfe the pipe ‘subsea-epair methods, Including mechanical connection and hyper bare welding, are less sensitive to weather conditions than sudace welding. On the other hand, most vessels performing subsea mechanlcal-connecion sepals ae smaller than the fllsied barges Fequired forsulace repair and thos canbe sensitive to weather in watt ‘pus greatr than 200 fe 744 Avalabty Major pipe-lay contractors have the equipment to perform surface welding repairs. Surface welding requires detailed stress analysis to confirm thatthe pipe ends can be safely lifted tothe surface. Lit ‘Schedules can be prepared asthe bare is beng mobilizes Hyperbaric welding requires mobilisation of the aligiaent fame, habitat and sturationdving equipment. I new welding procedures seroquiredorf welder divers mastbe equaled thestartof the work ‘ay be delayed. Mechanical connector hardware must be avaiable in stock beease production led times ean be 3 ot ¢ months. This mich delay would eliminate connectors from consderation for many ‘emergency pipeline reps 745 Time and Coste In general, surface welding and mechanical connectors ae the fastest methods for pipe repair, Hyperbare-welding repairs consume much ‘more time to perform, resulting n higher cst, Mechanial connectors se usualy the leasecostly method of repair. Serface welding would be ‘most expensive if ewo barges are requied to lit the pie ends to the surface as can be required or lrge-sameter pipe snd in dep water Both time estimates and cost estimates will depend heavily on the ‘eeumstances ofan actual repair seuatin, including the eaipment Sutsea Pine Repair Systems | 167 used, the sil ofthe construction crew including diver water depth, ‘weather conditions, and other factors which ae situation dependent “The importance of thor installation time is magnised in bad ‘weather seasons, where weather windows of 7 days or lese my exist beeween sterms.I'arepair can be made by one method in the span o short weather window, both the time aad covt advantages wil be ‘magifed,Pipeline Risers 184 Genera [An important consideration in the design of offshore pipelines is connection to surace fclites. Often, the pipeline on the seabed is ‘oanected to ariuer which extends to srlace producing fey "Many types of pipeline risers have been used in the pst, inloding risers that ean beset on site and preinstalled ses that ean be eon fected to the pipe on the seabed by a subsee tein afzangement Selection of ¢panicular installation methods influenced by several factors, including water depth, projec schedule, economies, and pat form desig. Specialized sna of he pipeline snd riser ae neded 0 ensure lenibility ofthe connection and safety of the system "The vsious systems of pipeline nse! installations and connections re descbed in this chapes. A comparison of these systems and Aiscusson of system flexibility ate alse presente, 182 Riser Systeme Several methods exist for connecting a subsea pipeline toa pein: stalled existing] riser on a platorm, These methods are similar to ‘udpoin pipeline connectians described in Chaper 6 end include he following” {Flanged connections sHypertanic welding 1 Mcchania! connector, 1 Subsea atmosphere welding Pome Hear | 158 ‘Methods use for installing srs onsite include the following: «Surface welding method. shrrube. Reverse ube £8.21 Flanged Connections ‘Flanged connectons ate widely weed for pipline-serde-ns. Long pipe epols,fabristed in sig aboard a work vessel are usually used ‘with flanges, Altematively, swivels have been used o accommodate [Thguler misligaments between the pipe ana ise. The spools normaly ave night angle or Zbends to provide Hexibiliy in accommodating thermal and pressure expansion. In some cases, ariclaly in lange Siameter pipelines, rotating anges ae used fo case the instalation, ‘Some operators favor Ganges, while others favor hyperbaric welding “The advantage Dangsin that hey permlteaserrepis inthe event of ‘ieline/ier damage ce coronion. There have been some reports of Teaks, and they ean take long time to locate Bu this not genealy regarded ata tar factor for eiminating Ganges, 18.22 Hyperbarle Welding Hyperbaric welding ha been used most fo pipeline tie-ins in the deep waters of the Now sea. Hypebari-welding contactor Include Taylor Diving Comes, BOC'SSOS, nd StoleNiels “The method involves welding pups between the ser and aspoo and between the spool andthe pipeline. The aerage duration forcompleting hyperbaric welded eer In 20 ays, with 12 work days neaded fr the {urwelds required for typical ier The hyperbarie work chamber and ligament frame ate normally banded by pipe-lay barge, a derrick barge, or large work vessel, 18.23 Mechanical Connectors [As stated in Chapter 6 these connectors include thse of ig Inch Marine Systems which makes the Flexiforge eser-connection system,170 | Otstee Pps Oeson, Any end Mees (Cameron elle connector system, Gripper riser system, and Hyso- ‘Feeh tues esin system. Several rierconnecton concep use these 1824 Subsea Atmosphere Welding Lockheed Petroleum Services (LPS) has 2 pipeline riser connector |PRC) system (Figure 1| which provides a welded connection between, Fis end rier at the seabed under atmoephere pressure Asa eeu & Figher quality weld can be obtained than in hyperbaric welding. The sytem conte of habitat chamber which sa permanent part f the lator and into which pipe is pulled. After ppe is pulled into the ‘chamber, the chamberissealed and pumped dry. Apupjoint welded ‘he pipe and iter under semospheri pressure “The method is advantageous when a bundle of several lines are robe joined inside one chamber. 1 has heen used to make three main ‘connections inthe Thistle Field in 1976andfor several owline connec "ons in Brel. Alehough installations performed so ar have used diver Assistance, the system asthe potential foruse asa "diverles" eonnec tion system £8.25 Surtace Welding ‘The surface welding method is use for simultaneous instalation of pipeline and ser Ils most widelyemployed for pipelines up to about ‘Sdn in diameter and in water depth to sbout 350. "nth method, pipe est dom bottom nese he platform. The ay barge isthe pipe fo the autlace ung davien buoyancy devices of both A carefily planned pick-up procedure isusedso that pipe isaely| ted without overstressng. A lustatin ofpick up stepsisshown it gre 8.2, Theriser elbow Figure 8.]is welded tothepipeend, and pipe {sradualy lowered othe seabed with aditiona vera pipe sections staked on and welded tothe pipe. This procedure is llustated in Figures 84 and 8.5. The se f then actin position ext tthe lator ig and clamps are installed fasten the riser tothe lator feg as shown in Figure 8.6. A epical clamp i shown in Figure 87 (0.26 Jobe Method. Methods of pipeline-iter installations particulary suited to deepwater installations include the jtube and reverse tube pull 1 toctleed rie conection stem methods. The eae pll method involves connecting cable threaded through a preintlled abe from the platorm to a pull head onthe Ieading end ofthe pipe The cable is connected toa surtace cane ox palling winch meunte onthe platform or thelay vessel. Aste cable ‘winched in, the pipe enters the tube andi plastically deformed a174 | Ofsrae pein Ossi, Ants end Methods Paine ser | 175 6, Riser clamped postion pulled through the tube tothe surtace. The method i illustrated in Figure 86 ‘The Faube mouth s usually place s few fet above the seabed, end the pie spans fom the mouth tothe seabed. This allows for fare plaorm ettlements and reduces pipe bending et the mouth of the Fube: Corrosion protection of the pipe inside the Fiube is viewed 8 problem by some operators, particularly the gtrenemission| ‘companies,176 | ofeere Petne Design, Aras, and watoae Deepwater platorms frequently include a numberof "spare" tubes to promde for posible future requirements for pipeline installations. [Pubes are especially suited to iatallaton of flwline bundles, since bundle of several lines maybe pled st onetime. An important aspect for appliation ofthe }eube method to arge-dametr pipeline nists t the accurate determination ofthe pulling loads and the forces exerted fon the platform sroccure by the jube. An industry sponsored progam Conducted by Applied Otshore Techacogy ln, of louston hasterted Inthe development, physical verifications and NeKimeasurement ver ‘cations oft dtaied computer program for analysis ofthe abe pall problem 11.27 Reverse J-Tube In che reverse} ube method, the pipes intated a the platform deck. nd lowered though the) ube. The ppe shed in position and fed ato {88 station of pp all hough Fue the tube by a gripper mchine on the plain deck. Is downward pling fore is needed a eable may extend from the pul head om he Bie, go down dough the tube, ext a the bottom, and connect 0 palling winch tthe surface. The pull force maybe provided by asurtace ‘esse or by another pulling arrangement. “The reverse Jtube methed has been used for Exxon’s Hondo Field pipeline risen. The pipe tamadeupn a vertel position onthe platorm Aeckand polled progesively down and ehrough the ube as addtional Joins pipe sre aided tothe trlling end ofthe pipeline. Since only one Welding station is used, the installation Is very slow. Pipe make-up Aleupe other activites onthe platform dec, auch a dling Siac she pipe cannot be weight costed the revere eube method it Umited to about In ameter pipe. This ze and smaller pipe can be170 | Ottrore Rosine Ds, Arayes, sna Menoae ‘made sufSciently heavy tobe stable on the seabed when led with sit Without use of weight costing 8.28 Bending Shoe “The bending shoe method of installation invaves laying then tr sminating the pipeline onthe seabed wit length extended pat the laorm, The fee end of pie then pulled by a crane winch andor {saint the bending shoe reinstalled support fixed ada nest he bse ofthe plato, until he ppcin is bene into avert poston ‘he vse 9 then acuted by tightening prenaaied clamps onthe lator lex “The Bending-sboe method was developed by Shell il Co Shell used ‘his sytem succesfully inthe Bren il ofthe North Ses and inthe Maui of New Zand The benassi saa Aiveres instalation of large ameter, degpwater concrete coated ee ‘er. Corosion protean ean be sesmplahed using anaes and wot ing the camps fom the plaorm. Thermal expansion and soil move. ‘ents are aceommodstedby allowing the pipet expand away from he ‘ening shoe daring operation 18.28 Baretoot Riser ‘This method was also developed by hell Oil Co, The pie i ad to the platonn and set into petntlled clamps a8 adaitional pipe fealled ont te riser, Extreme cae taken using this method £0 pipe oes ot buckle as is se in pace To date, his method has not Been ed, {8.210 Comparison of Methods £2101 Technical Comparison Inthe US. Gulf of Mexico, most ssers have been surface set or ‘ngd.ubes have also been widely wed in deper water, Hypebase ‘welding isavallablebut hasnt often been uted becuse ft high cost Poni Rae | 173 Mechanical connectors have been usd for few rset ins primatily ‘ogsinenperience with them. Water depthshave exces 00 inonly ‘few cae, so sophisticated ae tie in methods have no been required. ‘The most commonly employed methods for connecting pipeline risers in the North Sea aze ith flanges, hyperbaric welding ot 8 ombination ofthe two, Recent installations include provisions for ‘ermal expansion and platorm movement ss appropiate, eng. angle bendy, Z-bends, and swivels. Spools are often 100 ft cr nor long. Flanged connections are cot elective and offer tlatiely easy 1 placement of corroded o damaged sections of pipe. Swivels in he spol ‘wll peed alignment. Hyperbari welding is costly a great depths. The method has been demonstrated at more than 1,000- water depehfor36 in. pipe Pipeline legit ts good, bt ater repairs are expensive ‘Mechanical connectors ae favored by operators for specialized riser sieving. The Philips experience wich eusy-model Hydrocouples was oot, but later models have given good sevice. “The bendingshoe riser hasbeen used ence by Sell on Bren A feld sand on Maui A fed in New Zealand. Results have ben favorable, and ‘this method may be good for argedlameter, deep water installations, ‘The Jue has been used only for pipe diameter up to 12 i. This method is fast and eos elective bv has not yet been ectully done k lage ameter. Provisions for thermal growth and cathodic protection may be difiui to apply, But these problems have been tolved fr specie cases Surface welded and stalked riser intallations have no deepwater applications. This method is nots suitable choice fo arp-icmetet Aeepwater applications, “The North Sea experience with ppsine riser installations lsat ‘bro ange of solutions applicable vogue situations, Neatly ery lator illustrates range of problems, which prevents application of “stock” solution tothe problem ofrise design, The aporan asales ontents—compesition and temperature, ‘Design operating etme of installation ‘Incorporation of provisions for reais 1 Avalbility of «proven, cost efiective solution, 1 Project eng180 | OtehrePiptne es, Ana, ane Memede ‘8.2102 Economies Surface set and ange riers ave usualy the lowest cost forisers in ‘ypta about 300 water dpe, alehough )ubes may beless expensive {Sr din. and smaller sien, "The follwing sre approximate order of increasing cost forthe most common deepater pipeline scr installaion methods serube. 1s Faged 1 Mechanical connector. 1 Hypeane welding Riser installation and connection costs wary widely, portant var sles inclade pipe size, water dept, genguaphic area contactor work loa and. weather season. It necessary to crate the cos of ser installation alternatives for a specific project to determine the loweseeos sltemative. Even then, the lowestcost method may be passed over in favor af another method which offers apparently lower Betme eos, lower isk or ready availability 3 Riser Pipeline lexity A pipeline and riser system shouldbe designed to remain flexible uring operation. Various syrtems are avaiable to accommodate Pipeline movements due to pressure and thermal elects, These systems Include expansion loops, Mexble ier, and thermal growth riers ‘ems using Cameron Hexible swivels, ‘Varlous frees may be imposed ona subses pipeline, easing i 0 rove axially, eg, t0 row and contact. Other forces ail tend to ‘esteain the pipe movement, due to the following effects £8.31 Internal Pressure Subsea pipelines are Ini filled with sir at atmospheric presse Pressurizing the in causes the pipet row logitinall. The result ingore enereted athe end ofthe pipeline depend upon the size nd ‘wal thickness ofthe pipe and can be great for large-diameter, Reavy: wall pipe. Paine Aer | 181 (0.32 Water Temperature At the time of lying the pipe wall assumes the temperature ofthe ‘surrounding water, usually aound 80" TO. AS dhe seasons change, the water temperature will rie and fal, causing the pipe to grow of ‘contract. This elec ets over the entire pipe length 1833 Contents Temperature ‘When did Bows int a pipeline a tem surrounding water temperature, heat i transferred into or ot ofthe Die. Tis causes the metal temperature tose above or fal Below the fmbient water temperature. The change in metal temperate ened ‘wth or contraction ofthe pipe “The elfectof temperature diferential diminishes with distance fom the crip. The elfct is greater for ol than fr gat pipelines. Gas wll, ‘usualy reach the surrounding water temperature within Loe 2 miles fom the origin. The thermal effects of hor oll may extend for many miles A detailed analysis ofthe het eranaer ie required to determine {he logarithmic temperature pofle song the pipeline for exch specie ad the resting growth or contraction ofthe Pipe (8.34 Realval Tenslon Alte pipe Iai onthe seabed, esd tension remain in the line

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