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Contents
History..................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Pueblo Revolt of 1680............................................................................................................................................ 4
Glossary................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Missions................................................................................................................................................................ 12
Mission Nuestra Seora de la Asuncin de Zia..........................................................................................................12
Mission Nuestra Seora de los ngeles de Porcincula de los Pecos....................................................................13
Mission Nuestra Seora de Pursima Concepcin de Quarai..................................................................................14
Mission San Agustn de la Isleta...................................................................................................................................15
Mission San Buenaventura de Cochiti.........................................................................................................................16
Mission San Esteban del Rey de Acoma......................................................................................................................18
Sagrada Corazon de Jesus Mission..............................................................................................................................19
Mission San Felipe de Neri............................................................................................................................................ 20
Mission San Gregorio de Ab....................................................................................................................................... 21
Mission San Ildefonso................................................................................................................................................... 23
Mission San Ysidro & San Buenaventura de Humanas.............................................................................................24
Mission San Jos de los Jmez......................................................................................................................................26
Mission Nuestra Seora de Perpetuo.........................................................................................................................27
Mission San Jos de Laguna......................................................................................................................................... 29
Mission San Lorenzo de Picurs....................................................................................................................................30
Mission Santa Ana......................................................................................................................................................... 31
Mission Santo Domingo................................................................................................................................................ 32
San Jeronimo Mission....................................................................................................................................................34
San Miguel Mission........................................................................................................................................................ 37
Mission La Purisima Concepcn de Hawikuh............................................................................................................38
Mission Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe de Zui........................................................................................................40
Mission San Diego......................................................................................................................................................... 41
Santa Clara Mission....................................................................................................................................................... 42
Resources.............................................................................................................................................................. 44

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Introduction
New Mexico has an abundance of Spanish missions. Though Californias are well known, well documented and
well preserved, New Mexicos missions are older. Many of New Mexicos missions were destroyed in the Pueblo
Revolt of 1680 or other disasters. Many have been abandoned and neglected, falling into disrepair or in ruins.
However, many have been rebuilt or restored, providing a veritable feast of Spanish Colonial architecture in
close proximity to Albuquerque and Santa Fe.
Some sites are free, a few have limited access involving calling ahead to request an appointment, and a couple
are part of state or national monuments with varying fees. Perhaps the separate rules and jurisdictions
complicate the creation of an official New Mexico Mission Trail, but for individuals with an interest in Spanish
Colonialism or the Missions of the southwest, there is ample opportunity to informally enjoy a Mission Tour in
New Mexico. This downloadable guide provides information and hyperlinks to resources. If there is a Mission
missing, please let me know name, location, year constructed and whether there is public access.
Spirituality is intrinsic to the culture in New Mexico, but it is expressed in an extraordinary number of ways,
from Christianity to those following the path and traditions of their ancestors (and everything in between and
beyond those two references). This is merely the beginning. Additional material is in development related to
historical churches, Penitente Moradas and other spiritually significant sites and traditions.

History
When you consider that the Franciscan monks were dispatched to communities alone, with no knowledge of
language, culture or traditions and no monetary or material incentives to offer, it is extraordinary that they
were successful persuading people to dOate their time and labor to the building of temples for a foreign
religion.
Though the Spanish built missions throughout the southwest, the oldest ones are in New Mexico. There were
so many churches built during the 1600s that the period is referred to as The Golden Age of the Missions. The
Spanish sent Franciscan Friars into villages to convert the locals, establishing Missions in larger villages, with the
priest traveling to smaller communities nearby. The purported motive of these missions was to save the souls
of heathens, though the actual purpose was to subdue and control the local population. Behind the professed
allegiance to God was the financial motivation of the crown. They needed the local labor pool to exploit the
resources of the region.
The oldest of the Spanish Missions in California was established in what is now San Diego by Father Juniper
Serra in 1776; however, the Spanish arrived in New Mexico two centuries earlier, with Coronado paving the way
in 1540 for the conquistadors that would follow. The Oate expedition entered the region in 1598 with soldiers,
colonists and a pack of priests. His contract with the Spanish government made his expeditions priorities clear:
"Your main purpose shall be the service of our Lord, the spreading of His Holy Catholic faith, and the reduction
and pacification of the natives of said provinces. You shall bend all your energies to this object, without any
other human interest interfering with this aim." Oate fulfilled his contract quickly and enthusiastically,
dispatching the friars to all of the major villages in the region.
Prior expeditions had focused on finding wealthy communities to conquer, with resources to pillage.
Permanent settlement and conversion wasnt the priority. That changed with Oate. According to Spanish
records, his expedition included about 400 men, 130 of whom were accompanied by their families, at least 8
Franciscan priests, 83 wagons and 7,000 head of cattle. When they arrived at San Juan Pueblo on July 9, 1598,
they were greeted with kindness and generous hospitality. As a result, Oate added the words "de los
Caballeros" to the name of the town.

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The Spanish decided that the beauty and broad expanse of the valley across the river from San Juan would be
the most favorable spot for their capital. The residents fo San Juan allowed them to occupy the houses in the
pueblo of Yunque until they could construct their own dwellings. Oate didnt waste time, dispatching small
parties of soldiers in all directions to make contact with all of the pueblos in the region. The newly claimed
territory, encompassing most of New Mexico, was divided into 7 districts, with a Franciscan priest assigned to
each district.
The missions were constructed based on available materials, ranging from the massive, magnificent adobe
edifices at Pecos and Acoma to the equally impressive stone construction seen in Jemez, Quarai, Abo and Gran
Quivira. The typical mission church included an artio, a walled yard in front of the church that often served as a
cemetery. It wasnt unusual for kivas to be located immediately outside the church yard. The front walls of the
missions were often flanked by one or two corner towers. These towers were usually topped by a wooden cross
and a bell. The bells were used to call the faithful to worship. A large wooden door at the center of the front
wall led to large, windowless interior spaces, usually devoid of benches or seats. The faithful would stand or
kneel on the earthen floor. The interior walls were adorned with colorful murals and carved santos, bultos, or
painted buffalo hides. Some churches acquired ornate altars and beautiful statuary from Mexico.
Fr. Francisco de San Miguel was assigned the Province of the Pecos, with seven pueblos on the east, and also
the pueblos of the Salinas country extending to the great plain. Fr. Juan Claros was assigned the Province of the
Tihuas, on the Rio Grande, including Piros pueblos, stretching to Socorro and San Antonio (Teipana and
Qualacu). Fr. Juan de Rosas was assigned the Province of the Queres, including Santo Domingo, Cochit, San
Felipe, San Marcos, San Cristobal, etc. Fr. Cristoval de Salazar was appointed to the Province of the Tehuas,
including San Juan (Caypa), San Gabriel, San Yldefonso, and Santa Clara. Fr. Francisco de Zamora was assigned
the Province of Picuris and Taos and the surrounding country. Fr. Alonza de Lugo was given the Province of
Jemez, including Cia, and many pueblos whose names have been lost over the centuries. Fr. Andres Corchado
was sent west of Cia, which encompassed Acoma, Zui, and Moqui.
In a report by Father Benavidas to the King of Spain in 1630, the priest referenced fifty friars in New Mexico,
serving over 60,000 natives who had accepted Christianity. He reported that the natives lived in ninety pueblos,
grouped into about twenty-five Missions with churches and conventos, and that each pueblo had its own
church.
Despite the dual mission associated with Christianity and Crown, the Franciscan missionaries and civil
authorities did not always get along, with Oate accusing the priests of inefficiency and several friars accusing
Oates administration of a variety of crimes against the natives. The friars requested Oates removal from
office to no avail. Despite the ongoing disagreements between church and state in terms approach and
interaction with the local communities, more priests were dispatched from Mexico City and the official Spanish
policies and protocols remained unchanged, leading to mounting frustration and anger among the occupied
communities. Priests destroyed sacred artifacts and banned traditional religious practices. The tributes
demanded were exorbitant. Frustration boiled over in 1680, with PoPay of San Juan (Ohkay Owingeh) uniting
the pueblos in revolt against the Spanish.
Though most of New Mexicos missions were destroyed in the revolt, the ruins of several have been preserved
as part of State and National Monuments or Parks. Many of the missions that survived the revolt have been
rebuilt or restored, providing some of the best examples of Spanish colonial architecture in North America.
Most of the missions seen today in New Mexico had been rebuilt before the first mission was completed in San
Diego.
San Estevan Rey in Acoma Pueblo was built in 1629. It is located in one of the oldest continuously settled Indian
communities in North America. Named after St. Stephen the King, the mission was described in 1760 as "the

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most beautiful of the whole Kingdom. It is the only mission church in New Mexico to survive the Pueblo Revolt
unscathed, making it the most intact, original 17th century structure in the United States.
The mission church of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Zui Pueblo was the most distant from the Spanish capitol in
Santa Fe. Although most of Zui is built of stones set in a mud mortar, the church is built of adobe. The original
structure was completed in 1627 and destroyed during the Pueblo Revolt in 1680. It has been rebuilt several
times since the early 1700s.
San Agustin in the Pueblo of Isleta was built in 1613. It may be the earliest of the extant mission churches in
New Mexico. Although it was also destroyed during the Pueblo Revolt, subsequent restorations have
incorporated parts of the original foundation and walls.
There are numerous historic churches, like Santa Cruz de La Caada outside of Espaola and San Jos de Gracia
in Las Trampas that incorporate traditional mission style architecture. Santa Cruz is one of the oldest churches
built for use by the Spanish settlers. The adobe structure was completed in the 1740s, decades before
completion of the first California mission. It contains some of the most magnificent examples of locally
produced Spanish colonial religious art in the southwest; however, neither Santa Cruz de La Caada or San Jos
de Gracia are considered missions, because they were built for use by the Spanish settlers rather than for the
purpose of converting the Pueblo Indians. Based on the number of missions in New Mexico, the historic
churches will need a separate page.

Pueblo Revolt of 1680

The Pueblo Revolt of 1680 was one of the most significant events in New Mexicos history. Though the revolt
wasnt successful in terms of permanently driving the Spanish from New Mexico, it was successful in terms of
curtailing the cruelty and exploitation exhibited by the Spanish prior to the revolution.
The Pueblo Revolt was not the first act of resistance. There were constant uprisings in the northern pueblos in
response to Spanish exploitation, abuse and oppression, with the Coronado expedition establishing a
precedent for the atrocities that would follow.

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The Coronado expedition was dispatched to the region in 1540 to look for gold, silver, the silk and spice routes
of the Indies and land that could be used for forced-labor encomienda estates, a common and profitable
practice in the Spanish controlled provinces of Mexico. The expedition was a commercial enterprise, privately
funded by Viceroy Mendoza in Mexico City and Coronados wife. 2000 troops, a mix of Spanish soldiers and
their Indian allies from Mexico, traveled to the Zuni community of Hawikuh, attacking and seizing the city,
despite the obvious lack of gold.
Coronado hadnt anticipated the harsh conditions. Marching across the arid terrain of southern New Mexico
depleted their food supplies. By the time he reached Hawikuh Coronados troops were starving, and
increasingly mutinous as they realized the reports of wealth and abundance in the northern lands were lies.
The Zuni were already aware of Spanish exploits in Mexico. The trade routes connecting Mexico to other
regions were well established, with those engaged in trade serving as the news outlets of their day. By the time
Coronado arrived at Hawikuh, the Zuni had relocated their women and children to their impregnable mesa top
sanctuary atop Dowa Yalanne. The warriors of Zuni stood ready to defend their communities, but the Spanish
prevailed, through a combination of greater numbers and weapon superiority.
For the next several months Coronado occupied Hawikuh, putting an enormous strain on the Zunis food
supply. Representatives from Pecos Pueblo traveled to Zuni to meet with the Spanish, offering to guide them to
wealthy tribes to the east. Pecos, as a large community, heavily reliant on trade with both pueblos and plains,
had ongoing conflict with raiding parties from eastern tribes. Dispatching the Spanish to territory of their
enemies, while allying with a new trading partner, probably seemed like a good idea at the time. While traveling
to Pecos, Coronados emissary encountered the Tiguex communities farming the fertile flood plains of the Rio
Grande near present day Bernalillo. Given the rapidly dwindling food supply in Zuni, Coronado decided to set
up his winter camp in one of the Tiguex pueblos, advancing with his troops to seize the community in the fall of
1540.
The residents were summarily evicted, with nothing but the clothes on their backs. Whereas many accounts
imply that the inhabitants of the pueblo complied peacefully, archaeological evidence discovered in the 1930s
suggests there was a battle. That seems logical. Peacefully yielding your town to an invader seems unlikely;
however, these communities were comprised of farmers, ill-equipped to defend themselves against a large
army.
Coronado used the village as a military base, demanding supplies from the Tiwa pueblos, as well as the Keres
and Tewa pueblos north of Tiguex. For the first couple of months the Spanish traded with the neighboring
pueblos, but as provisions became scarce the pueblos refused to give up more of their food. They needed it to
survive the winter.
Coronado ordered his men to take what they needed by force. The post-harvest cornstalks, normally saved for
cooking and heating fuel during the winter, was fed to the Spanish livestock, leaving the pueblos both hungry
and cold. Women of the pueblo were raped by the Spanish soldiers. By December the Tiwas retaliated, killing
some of the expeditions horses and mules. Coronado responded by declaring a war of fire and blood, which
we now call the Tiguex War. He dispatched a large force of soldiers to attack a neighboring Tiwa village, Arenal.
All of Arenals defenders were killed, including 30 who the Spaniards burned alive at the stake. The Tiwas
abandoned their community on the river banks, retreating to a mesa-top stronghold. Coronado couldnt breach
their defenses so he laid siege from January March of 1541 until the Tiwa ran out of food and water. They
tried to escape, but were captured, with the Spanish killing almost all of the men and most of the women. The
women who remained were enslaved for the duration of Coronados occupation. Though Coronado left in 1541,
and it would be 39 years before the Spanish returned, he devastated the Tiguex communities. They never fully
recovered.

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The Sandia Pueblo land grant was created in 1748 for several Puebloan refugees who had fled Spanish
occupation by living with the Hopi in western Arizona. Sandia Pueblo is currently the only Tiwa community
remaining in the area that Coronado attacked, although 15 other Tiwa, Keres, Tewa, and Towa pueblos still
remain on or near the same sites where Coronado found them in 1540.
When Juan de Oate returned to colonize the region in 1598, he brought both settlers and a pack of Franciscan
padres. Though the purported purpose of ecclesiastical involvement was to save souls, the underlying motives
were control, subjugation and exploitation on the indigenous people; deliberate cultural genocide, borne of a
sense of manifest destiny imbued by extreme ethnocentrism.
Oate divided the territory into 7 provinces, dispatching priests to each one. The process involved reducing the
number of pueblos through consolidation so the population would be easier to control, convert and tax, a
policy refered to as reducciones de indios. This empire building policy also provided a larger, more concentrated,
labor force for both the civil authorities and clergy to exploit.
A few of the Franciscan priests initially tolerated manifestations of the old religious practices as long as the
Puebloans attended mass and maintained a public veneer of Catholicism. Others werent as tolerant,
establishing totalitarian theocracies in their designated provinces, characterized by ruthless suppression of
religious practices and persistent abuse of Pueblo labor. Kivas were destroyed, ceremonial practices were
forbidden, sacred objects were desecrated or destroyed. The policy of encomiendas, which authorized demands
of fealty, tribute and labor from the natives, created a strain on civilizations that already struggled to survive the
winter months without starving. In response, the pueblos frequently rose against their oppressors, but the
uprisings usually involved a handful of pueblos, with insufficient warriors and weapons to be successful. Often
plots were discovered and ruthlessly crushed before they could organize effectively, with dissidents killed or
sold into slavery.
In 1598, Acoma refused to pay the food tax demanded by the Spanish. The Acoma leader, Zutacapan, found
out that the Spanish intended to invade Acoma. He was aware of the brutal and extreme retaliation
experienced by other villages. Initially, Acoma tried to negotiate. Oate sent his nephew, Captain Juan de
Zaldvar, to the pueblo to consult with Zutacapan. When Zaldivar arrived on December 4, 1598, he took 16 of his
men up the mesa and demanded food. After being denied, the Spaniards assaulted some of Acomas women,
provoking a confrontation with the warriors of the village. A fight ensued, leaving Zaldivar and eleven of his
men dead. When Oate learned of the incident, he ordered Juan de Zaldivar's brother, Vicente de Zaldvar, to
punish the Acoma. With about 70 soldiers, Vincente de Zaldivar left San Juan Pueblo in late December, arriving
at Acoma Pueblo on January 21, 1599.
The battle began the following morning, January 22, 1599. The battle lasted three days. On the third day,
Zalvidar and twelve of his men ascended the mesa and opened fire on the pueblo with a cannon. The
conquistadors stormed the village. Out of the estimated 6,000 people living at or around Acoma Pueblo in 1599,
at least 2,000 were warriors. Of the 2,000, about 500 were killed in the battle, along with about 300 women and
children. Approximately 500 people were captured and sentenced to a variety of punishments. Every male over
the age of 25 would have his right foot cut off and be enslaved for a period of 20 years (this sentence was
carried out on 24 warriors). Males between the ages of 12 - 25 were enslaved for 20 years along with all females
over the age of 12. 60 of the youngest women were deemed not guilty and sent to Mexico City where they were
"parceled out among Catholic convents, though some historians believe they were eventually sold into slavery.
Two Hopi men were taken prisoner at the pueblo, each had one of his hands severed. They were released to
provide a warning to other pueblos about the cost associated with defying Spanish rule.
Oates actions in Acoma were not only traumatizing to Acoma, but shocking and appalling to the other
indigenous communities as well. Despite cultural and linguistic differences, the pueblos and tribes in this region
were not strangers to one another. Through commerce, alliances, peace and war, they had interacted for

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centuries. News of conflict, uprisings, Spanish misdeeds, battles and war traveled fast up and down the Rio
Grande, with localized frustration and anger congealing into regional ambivalence and animosity towards the
invaders. Things didnt improve in the 1600s.
Backed by armed force and not reticent to use the whip to force the local population to comply, Catholic
missionaries attempted to eradicate the ancestral Pueblo world in every respect, dictating what people could
believe and how they could marry, work, live their lives, and pray. The Spanish civil authorities, clergy and
military vied for the tribute and labor of the local population, leading to persistent conflict between church and
state, with the inhabitants of the pueblo caught in the crossfire. Tensions increased among the Spanish soldiers
seeking wealth, the priests needing wealth to build churches, and the Indians whose labor and resources were
exploited by both.
By 1626, the Spanish had established the inquisition in Abo, one of the Salinas pueblos. Bernardo Lpez de
Mendizbal served as governor of New Mexico between 16591660. He attempted to curtail the powers of the
priests, prohibiting them from forcing the native population to work for free and acknowledging the right of the
indigenous people to worship according to their traditions, including performing the sacred dances banned by
the Franciscans. In 1660 he was convicted of heresy and condemned to prison by the Inquisition based on 33
counts of malfeasance and the practice of Judaism. The priests won and the policy of religious intolerance
resumed. From 1645 on there were several abortive revolts, after each of which medicine men were singled out
for reprisals.
The 1660s and 1670s were characterized by drought and unusually high temperatures, making life increasingly
difficult for both the Indians and Spaniards. Fray Alonso de Benavides wrote multiple letters to the King of
Spain, noting "the Spanish inhabitants and Indians alike are forced to eat hides and straps of carts. All of the
indigenous people, from the Puebloans to the Apache, Navajo and Comanche were starving. Apache,
Comanche and Navajo raiding parties became a frequent and persistent problem for the pueblos, ravaging
communities already beset by famine. With no food in the villages, and little in the way of commodities to steal,
the raiders took people, selling them into slavery in exchange for food. The Spanish soldiers and Pueblo
warriors couldnt quell the attacks. The Spanish exacerbated the tension by seizing crops and possessions,
leaving the Pueblos with nothing. The Pueblos attributed their hardships, and the prolonged drought, on the
disruption of their religious practices. A population estimated to be 40,000-80,000 in the mid-1500s was
reduced to an estimated 15,000 by the late 1600s due the impact of violence, forced labor, European diseases
and famine.
The unrest among the Pueblos came to a head in 1675. Governor Juan Francisco Trevio ordered the arrest of
47 Pueblo caciques, a Spanish term for indigenous leaders or medicine men. The men were accused of sorcery
and plotting a rebellion. Four were sentenced to hanging, with three executions carried out. The fourth man
committed suicide. The remaining prisoners were publically whipped and sentenced to slavery. When news of
the arrests reached Pueblo leaders, 70 warriors descended on the Governors office in Santa Fe demanding the
release of the remaining prisoners. Governor Trevio was forced to accede to their demand, because his troops
were far away fighting the Apache. With the Apache and Navajo becoming increasingly aggressive throughout
the region, putting a strain on limited military resources, he wanted to avoid provoking additional uprisings.
One of those released was Popay (Pop) from San Juan Pueblo (Ohkay Owingeh).
Little is known about Popay prior to his arrest in 1675. It is estimated that he was born in 1630, which means
he came of age during a period of enormous strife and hardship. Famine and attacks were decimating the
pueblos. The Spanish were unable to protect them and, instead, were aggressively eradicating their way of life.
Popay was described as a fierce and dynamic individualwho inspired respect bordering on fear in those who dealt
with him.

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After his release from prison, Po'pay retreated to Taos Pueblo, the northernmost outpost of the Spanish
Empire. The residents of Taos had a reputation for aggressively resisting the Spanish. Popay began to organize
and plan the rebellion. His objectives were focused and clear: drive the Spanish from ancestral land, eradicate
their influence and return to the traditional ways of life. He began secret negotiations with leaders from all
other pueblos. The extent of the animosity towards the Spanish is reflected in the fact that Popay was able to
travel to over 45 pueblo towns over a 5-year period of time, meeting with the leaders of each community,
without the Spanish finding out. Even the Apache and Navajo, who were traditionally perceived as enemies,
participated, though little is known about their level of involvement in pre-revolt planning. Po'pay was so
committed to the revolution that he murdered his son-in-law, Nicolas Bua, based on fears that he would betray
the plot to the Spanish.
He gained the support of the Northern Tiwa, Tewa, Towa, Tano and Keres-speaking Pueblos of the Rio Grande
Valley. Pecos Pueblo, 50 miles east of the Rio Grande, pledged its participation in the revolt, as did the Zuni and
Hopi, 120 and 200 miles west of the Rio Grande respectively. The Pueblos not joining the revolt were the four
southern
Tiwa (Tiguex) towns near Santa Fe and the Piro Pueblos near present day Socorro. The
southern
Tiwa and the Piro were more thoroughly assimilated into Spanish culture than the
other
communities. Popay couldnt risk confiding in them due to concerns about
their
allegiance to the Spaniards.
Prior to the arrival of the Spanish, there was no precedent for political unity
among the pueblos. They were separated by distance, culture and
language, interacting to trade, but otherwise maintaining their
independence and autonomy. Inadvertently the Spaniards had provided the key element necessary for
cooperative actiona common language. By 1680 all of the pueblos spoke Spanish.
From his base of operations at Taos Pueblo, Popay and his confederates laid out their plan and coordinated
their attack. The date set for the uprising was August 11, 1680. Runners were dispatched to all the Pueblos
carrying knotted cords. Each morning the Pueblo leadership was to untie one knot from the cord, and when the
last knot was untied, that would be the signal for them to rise against the Spaniards in unison. Each Pueblo was
to raze its mission church, then kill the resident priest and neighboring Spanish settlers. Once the outlying
Spanish settlements were destroyed, the Pueblo forces would converge on the capital to kill or expel the
remaining Spanish.
On August 9, 1680 the Spanish were warned about the impending revolt by southern Tiwa leaders and
intercepted two of the runners. The runners were tortured until they revealed the significance of the knotted
cord. The Spanish population of about 2,400, including mixed-blood mestizos, and Indian servants and
retainers, was scattered throughout the provinces. Santa Fe was the only significant town, with a mere 170
soldiers available for defense.
When the Pueblo leaders found out that the runners had been captured and their plan had been compromised,
they decided to start the revolt a day earlier. Runners were sent out with new instructions that the uprising
would commence the morning of August 10th. Due to the vast distance between Taos and the western pueblos
of the Acoma, Zuni and Hopi, those communities didnt get the memo regarding changes. They followed the
original timeline.
On August 10, 1680, Tewa, Tiwa, and other Keresan-speaking pueblos, and even the non-pueblo Apaches
simultaneously rose up against the Spanish. The Zuni, Hopi and Acoma were a day late. In Santa Fe, Governor
Otermin marshaled the city's resources to defend the capital. By August 13, all the Spanish settlements in New
Mexico had been destroyed and Santa Fe was under siege. Otermin began sending out heavily armed relief
parties to escort stranded colonists to the relative safety of Santa Fe. By August 15 almost 1000 people were
crowded in the Governors Palace, surrounded by an army of 2500 Indian warriors, with no water and limited

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food. In the meantime, over 1000 additional survivors from the Rio Abajo, under the command of Lt. Governor
Alonso Garcia, had gathered in Isleta, 70 miles south of Santa Fe. Neither group was aware of the other.
On August 21 the Spanish broke out of the Governors Palace, launching a costly counter attack to drive the
warriors from the city, allowing the refugees time to flee. They began the long trek south. The refugees in Isleta
were also heading south when they got word about the other survivors. They paused in Socorro, waiting for the
refugees from Santa Fe to arrive and then traveling together on September 27th to El Paso. The Puebloan
warriors shadowed them the entire way, essentially escorting them to the border, but they didnt attack. The
goal was not wholesale slaughter, because it would have been easy to eradicate the remaining Spanish as they
traveled south. The goal was expulsion; a violent rejection of Spanish oppression. The revolt cost 400 Spanish
lives, including 21 of the 33 priests in New Mexico; however, 2000 Spaniards survived.
After the revolt Po'pay became the leader of the Pueblo Alliance for a brief period of time. Pop and his two
lieutenants, Alonso Catiti from Santo Domingo and Luis Tupatu from Picuris, traveled from town to town
ordering a return "to the state of their antiquity." All crosses, churches, and Christian images were to be
destroyed. The kivas were restored. The people were ordered to cleanse themselves in ritual baths, to use their
Pueblo names, and to destroy all vestiges of the Roman Catholic religion and Spanish culture, including Spanish
livestock and fruit trees. Pop, it was said, forbade the planting of wheat and barley and commanded those
married in the Catholic church to dismiss their wives and to take others based on native traditions.
Many of the pueblos, unaccustomed to cooperative political action, and accustomed to autonomy, ignored his
orders. His effort to rule all the Pueblos was resented and he was considered a tyrant by many. Additionally,
there were Puebloans who had become sincere Christians, with ties of family and friendship with the Spanish.
Popay was deposed as the leader of the Pueblos about a year after the revolt, though he was reelected in 1688,
shortly before his death. After his death the de facto confederation of the pueblos fell apart. Opposition to
Spanish rule had given the Pueblos the incentive to unite, but not the means to remain united once their
common enemy was vanquished.
For 12 years, the Pueblos prevented the Spanish from returning, successfully repelling attempts in 1681 and
1687. However, the prosperity Popay had promised didnt materialize. Expulsion of the Spanish forces did
nothing to end the drought. Ongoing crop failure and famine, absent the Spanish military presence, led to
increasingly frequent and aggressive attacks by Apache, Navajo, Comanche and Ute raiding parties.
Furthermore, eradicating all traces of Spanish colonialism proved to be more challenging than anticipated.
Many Spanish commodities, like iron tools, sheep, cattle, and fruit trees, had become an integral part of Pueblo
life. A few individuals, influenced by the teachings of the Franciscans, rescued and hid the sacred objects of
their adopted religion, awaiting the eventual return of the Spanish friars.
In 1692 Diego de Vargas Zapata y Lujn Ponce de Len launched a successful military and political campaign to
reclaim the territory. In August 1692, Diego de Vargas marched to Santa Fe unopposed. He stopped in Pecos
Pueblo expecting a battle and was surprised to be warmly received. Pecos provided 140 additional warriors to
help him retake Santa Fe. He was accompanied by a converted Zia war captain, Bartolom de Ojeda, 60 Spanish
soldiers, 100 Indian auxiliaries, 7 cannons and 1 Franciscan priest. They arrived in Santa Fe on September 13
where he met with 1000 Puebloans, promising clemency and protection if they would swear an oath of
allegiance to the King of Spain and return to the Christian faith. They didnt go for it right away. Vargas had to
negotiate for several days, but after enduring a decade of endless raids, the Spanish were no longer viewed as
the worst enemy. The Spanish finally wrangled a peace treaty. On September 14, 1692 Vargas proclaimed a
formal act of repossession. Over the following month he visited other Pueblos, forcing acquiescence to Spanish
rule, sometimes encountering resistance, often receiving a warm reception.

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Though the 1692 peace accord was achieved relatively peacefully, it did not lead to a full restoration of Spanish
authority, due in part to changes in Spanish attitudes and policy. New Mexico was no longer perceived as
mission country, but as a buffer zone, protecting the precious silver mines in the south from the French and
British who were rapidly advancing their colonial footprint in the Mississippi valley. The inhabitants of New
Mexico were seen as potential allies in the game of transcontinental empire building, to be courted rather than
conquered. The self-sacrificing, martyrdom-seeking zealotry of 17th century Franciscan Conquistadors of the
Spirit abated.
However, that doesnt mean that there was no further conflict. Vargas exerted increasingly severe control over
the following years, again provoking ambivalence and open defiance. When Vargas returned to Mexico in 1693
to gather additional colonists and troops, he returned to Santa Fe to find 70 Pueblo warriors and 400 of their
family members opposing his entry. He ordered his troops to attack, resulting in a quick, bloody recapture. The
70 warriors were executed and their families were sentenced to 10 years of slavery.
In 1696 the Indians of 14 pueblos attempted a second organized revolt, launched with the murders of 5
missionaries and 34 settlers, using weapons procured from the Spanish. Vargas' retribution was prolonged and
unmerciful. By the end of the 1600s he secured the surrender of the last Pueblo town in the region. Many
Puebloans fled, joining Apache or Navajo groups. Some of the pueblos were never convinced to rejoin the
Spanish Empire and were far enough away to make attempts at re-conquest impractical. For example, the Hopi
remained free of any Spanish attempt at re-conquest; though the Spanish did launch several unsuccessful
attempts to secure a peace treaty or a trade deal. In that regard, for some pueblos, the Revolt successfully
diminished the European influence on their way of life.
The 1680 uprising was not an isolated event. The 17th century was punctuated by unrest and rebellion. Many of
the regions people had been conquered and abused, but they understood that despite greater numbers, their
foe was ruthless, organized, and well-armed. The Spanish possessed firearms and steel weapons superior to
anything the Natives could muster. But despite the odds against successful resistance, Spanish records reflect a
pattern of persistent plots and rebellion among native tribes who supposedly had been reduced to
Christianity and Spanish ways.
While the independence of many pueblos from the Spaniards was short-lived, the Pueblo Revolt gained the
Pueblo Indians a measure of freedom from future Spanish efforts to eradicate their culture and religion. Both
the Spanish and the Pueblos were decimated by the revolt and its aftermath. The Spanish adapted their
outlook and policies, which may have spared additional atrocities as they expanded their empire west into
California. Forced labor and tributes were prohibited in New Mexico. Furthermore, the Spanish issued
substantial land grants to each Pueblo and appointed a public defender to protect the rights of the Indians and
argue their legal cases in the Spanish courts. The Franciscan priests returning to New Mexico altered their
approach as well, becoming more tolerant of indigenous religious expression. Pueblo warriors and Spanish
soldiers became allies in the fight against their common enemies; the Apaches, Navajo, Utes, and Comanche.
Over the centuries of conflict and cooperation, New Mexico became a blend of Spanish and Pueblo culture.

Map

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Glossary
Apse: A large semicircular or polygonal recess in a church, arched or with a domed roof, typically at the eastern
end, and usually containing the altar.
Chancel: The part of a church near the altar, reserved for the clergy and choir,
and typically
separated from the nave by steps or a screen.
Convento: The living quarters for the resident priest.
Encomienda: A grant by the Spanish Crown to a colonist in America
conferring the right to demand tribute and forced labor from the
Indian inhabitants of an area.
Latilla: Commonly used as a traditional southwestern ceiling material,
laid
between beams or vigas.
Nave: The central part of a church building, intended to accommodate
most of the congregation. In traditional Western churches it is rectangular, separated from the chancel by a
step or rail, and from adjacent aisles by pillars.
Sacristy: A room in a church where a priest prepares for a service, and where vestments and other things used
in worship are kept.
Santo: A religious symbol, especially a wooden representation of a saint.
Spanish Reductions: The purpose of the Spanish Empire was to gather native populations into centers called
"Indian reductions" (reducciones de indios), in order to Christianize, tax, and govern them more effectively.
Transept: Either of the two parts forming the arms of the cross shape, projecting at right angles from the nave.
Viga: A rough-hewn roof timber or rafter, especially in an adobe building.
Visita: When a congregation had no resident priest and was ministered from a neighboring parish.

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Missions
Mission Nuestra Seora de la Asuncin de Zia

Zia Pueblo is a 600-year old community of Keresan-speaking people northwest of present-day Albuquerque. Zia
pueblo is located along the steep mountains slopes and deep canyons of the Sierra Nacimiento Mountains a
few miles northwest of Bernalillo. The flood plain of the Jemez River, and water drainage from the Pajarito and
Jemez Plateaus, provide water for crops and livestock. Za Pueblo is known for its unique pottery, redware with
white slip, and its symbols, particularly the iconic Sun Symbol that adorns the New Mexico state flag.
When Coronado arrived in 1540, Za Pueblo had two plazas, each with a large kiva, surrounded by 1-2 story
adobe structures. Fortunately for Zia, Coronado didnt spend much time in their community, setting up camp in
neighboring Kuaua instead. Don Juan de Oate assigned the first missionary, Franciscan Fray Alonso de Lugo,
to Zia Pueblo during his expedition in 1598. By 1613 a church and convent had been built by the women and
children of the tribe. Saint Pedro y Saint Pablo was the original name, but the church was renamed Nuestra
Seora de la Asuncin, or Our Lady of Assumption, when it was rebuilt after the Pueblo Revolt.
On the altar is the image of the Virgin of the Assumption, patrona and protectress of the pueblo. A silver crown
rests on her head and she is enveloped in a red mantle or robe so long that it spreads over the altar on all
sides. This robe is bordered with green, the shoulders are covered with white lace, and black veiling is thrown
over the entire figure. On her festival day (August 15th) the image is taken from the church and carried under a
canopy in the procession, before being returned for another year to its proper position in the church.
Fortunately, the original mission was not
completely destroyed during the revolt.
The priest assigned in 1694, Fray Juan
Alpuente. began constructing the existing
church immediately, completing the
structure by 1706. The residents of Zia cut
and hauled the pine vigas for the roof
from the Jemez mountains and made
thousands of adobe bricks for the
massive walls. It is unclear whether the
new church was rebuilt on the
foundations of the earlier building.
Za Pueblo is on NM 44, 16 miles
northwest of Bernalillo, NM, off of NM
550. The pueblo can be visited daily from
dawn to dusk, but is closed during some
religious ceremonies. Currently Zia does
not offer tours of the Mission. There is no public access other than on feast days or by appointment. No
cameras, recording or sketching is allowed. For more information call the Zia Pueblo Office of the Governor at
505-867-3304.

Mission Nuestra Seora de los ngeles de Porcincula de los Pecos

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Pecos Pueblo was known as Cicuye by the people of the pueblos. It was one of the largest, most powerful and
richest villages in the region when Coronado arrived. With a thriving, bustling community based on trading
goods with neighboring Pueblos and tribes from the Plains, they perceived the Spanish as a new trading
partner rather than as an enemy. Though, there may have been suspicions about Coronados intentions,
because it was Pecos Pueblo that gave Coronado a captive Indian from the Plains that lied to him about wealthy
towns to the east, trying to lure him and his troops to their death in Kansas. Coincidence? Seems unlikely. With
busy trade routes from north to south, and east to west, news of Spanish exploits and misdeeds in Mexico
reached this area long before the Spanish did.
In 1598 Don Juan de Oate arrived in New Mexico with settlers, livestock and an entourage of Franciscan
priests. As he trekked north, he claimed the land across the Rio Grande in the name of the Spanish crown. He
immediately assigned a friar to Cicuye, later renamed Pecos. The friar was a novice, with little in the way of
social skills or capacity to be diplomatically influential. He destroyed sacred objects, destroyed kivas, and
banned traditional ceremonies and religious practices. How NOT to win friends OR influence people, right?

Revolts and uprisings were not a new phenomenon in new Spain. The Franciscans got wind that trouble was
brewing and sent veteran missionary Fray Andrs Jurez to smooth things over in Pecos in 1621. His approach
was more diplomatic, compassiOate, and level headed. Under his direction Pecos built an adobe church at the
south end of the village. It was the most impressive of New Mexico's mission churches at the time, with towers,
buttresses, and huge pine-log beams hauled by foot from the mountains. Fray Jurezs ministry, from 1621 to
1634, coincided with the most prolific and vibrant mission building period in New Mexico. As a royal colony, the
region was in the throes of a Franciscan-led movement of mission building and expansion for Crown and
Christianity. Church and civil officials vied for the labor, tribute and loyalty of the indigenous inhabitants, who,
understandably, became frustrated, disgusted and angry with the domineering house guests.
Decades of Spanish demands and local resentment culminated in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. Pueblos, often
separated by language as well as distance, united under the leadership of PoPay to drive the Spanish back to
Mexico. The magnificent Mission at Pecos, like most, was destroyed during the revolt. The local priest was killed,
though locals loyal to the Spanish tried to warn him about the uprising. By the time Diego de Vargas returned in

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1692 with a small number of troops, he expected a battle, but opinions in Pecos had shifted. The community
welcomed him and provided 140 warriors to help him retake Santa Fe.
As allies and traders, Pecos became partners with the Spanish. A smaller church was built on the foundations of
the old one. It was completed in 1717, making it the first mission reestablished after the Spanish return. In
return for the loyalty and support demonstrated by Pecos, the Franciscans were more moderate in their
approach to local beliefs. Archeologists believe the kiva closest to the mission was built at the same time as the
second Mission. They also abolished the practice of encomiendas (paying tribute).
Today the ruins are part of Pecos National Historical Park, 25 miles east of Santa Fe, off of I-25. Visitors
travelling north on I-25: take exit 299 on to HWY 50 to Pecos village and south two miles on State Road 63.
Those travelling south on I-25: take exit 307 and proceed four miles north to the Park on State Road 63.
Summer hours are 8am 6pm. Winter hours are 8:30am 4pm. The fee to visit the park is $7.00 per person;
children 15 and younger visit free of charge. Pets are allowed on the trails (on a leash). More Information:
(505) 757-7241.

Mission Nuestra Seora de Pursima Concepcin de Quarai

Charles Lummis visited Las Humanas, known today as Gran Quivira, it the 1890s. His comments about the site
capture the scope and majesty of the long abandoned missions, "An edifice in ruins, it is true, but so tall, so
solemn, so dominant of that strange, lonely landscape, so out of place in that land of adobe box huts, as to be
simply overpowering. On the Rhine, it would be superlative, in the wilderness of the Manzano it is a miracle."
During the winter of 15811582 an expedition under the leadership of Captain Francisco Snchez Chamuscado
and Fray Agustn Rodrguez reached the five Tompiro speaking villages that comprised the Salinas group. The
villages date to the 1300s, based on pottery fragments found in the area. The pueblo was inhabited by about
600 people when the Spanish arrived.

The most well-known of the Quarai missionaries is Fray Estevan de Perea. He arrived in 1610, serving two terms
as the custodian of the Franciscans. He was the head of the Office of the Holy Inquisition, which was based at
Quarai. The presence of this office in the pueblo led to conflict, because issues between the Spanish civil and
religious authorities over Indians and economic matters were a constant part of community affairs. Being privy
to Spanish drama didnt endear the newcomers to the local population.

The church of Nuestra Seora de la Pursima Concepcin was constructed between 16271633. There are no
records specifying who was responsible or when it was completed. It was a Franciscan project, but was built by
the villages women and children. It was built based on a cruciform layout, with an altar in each transept. The
nave measures hundred by twenty-seven feet, making it one of the largest in the state. Originally the structure
was forty feet tall, nearly twice the height of most of the pueblo churches. It was intended to be awe inspiring.
Mission accomplishedliterally and figuratively.

The church is built with red sandstone similar to the stone used at Abo. Although the walls were built with
minimal amounts of adobe, the mortar contributed little to the stability of the structure, which depended

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primarily on the dead weight and thickness of the stonework. The amount of labor required to construct an
edifice of this size is staggering. Like Abo, the nave of the church at Quarai widens slightly near the altar, only to
converge past the transepts. The ceiling was constructed in the usual manner with vigas harvested and toted
from the Manzano mountains. The building faces south and is believed to have had two towers, though any
original towers toppled long ago. A description of the building from about 1641 referred to it as a "very good
church, organ and choir, very good provision for public worship. 658 souls under its administration." The
presence of an organ suggests that although the agricultural yield of the pueblo was meager, the profit derived
from trading textiles, animal products, and salt was considerable. The pueblo exported salt, pion nuts, hides,
cotton mantas, and livestock. In exchange, the triannual mission supply caravans brought items such as
ironwork, chocolate, and "certain things used for the divine cult." Trade with the Plains Indians yielded buffalo
meat, hides, and captives in exchange for Pueblo corn and cotton and Spanish horses and iron knives.

By the 1670s the Salinas missions were

collapsing based on a combination of
debilitating variables. Smallpox and
measles decimated the population. The
area was experiencing a decade long
drought. Plains Indians had adopted the
Spanish love for horses, which facilitated
their propensity for raiding, making them a
constant, potent threat. By 1678 all the
Salinas missions, as well as the pueblos
they served, were abandoned. The
survivors migrated to Tajique and Isleta
where they had linguistic kin.

Quarai is free to visit, as are all of the Salinas sites. The main visitor center is on the corner of Ripley St. &
Broadway St. in Mountainair. The site is open from 8am - 5pm. Hours change seasonally. For more information,
call 505-847-2585.

Mission San Agustn de la Isleta

Established in the 1300s, Isleta Pueblo is currently home to over 3,000 tribal members. The name Isleta is
Spanish for "little island". They are the southernmost group of Tiwa speakers, originally occupying a small delta
on the Rio Grande. Isleta Pueblo has always been a successful agricultural community, with land known for
producing a variety of crops, including fruits such as apricots, pears, and peaches and more common grains
and vegetables. Coronado passed through these pueblos in 1540, but he didnt linger. Isleta was said to be the
largest of the Rio Grande pueblos in 1915, having assimilated populations from neighboring pueblos as
drought, disease and raiding collapsed other communities.

The Spanish Mission of San Agustn de la Isleta, approximately 13 miles south of Albuquerque, was built in 1612
by Franciscan priests using women and children from the village as labor. It is one of the oldest, and most
impressive, mission churches in the United States. The building was designed to house the entire congregation

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on feast days and Christmas. The imposing edifice sits on a super-sized plaza. As you enter the church, it takes
a moment for your eyes to adjust. The light within the church creates an undeniably mystical ambiance, with
light directed artfully at the sanctuary and alter. The conscious manipulation of emotions through architectural
design was fundamental to the missionary effort. The point was to generate awe and wonder. In Mexico the
effect was derived based on scale, ornamentation, and precious materials. None of these elements were
available in New Mexico. What was available was dirt and light. San Agustn exemplifies the power of those two
architectural elements.
During the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, Governor Otermn fled Santa Fe with about one thousand Spanish refugees.
They headed south toward Isleta with the intention of joining forces with Lieutenant Governor Alonso Garca;
however, they arrived to find the pueblo deserted by its 2000 inhabitants. The refugees, now including some
Isletans, continued south, eventually catching up to Garca in late August at Alamillo near Socorro. From there
the two parties joined, traveling successfully to El Paso del Norte.

When the Spanish returned to New Mexico in the 1690s, the church had been destroyed other than the nave.
The current structure was rebuilt in 1716. How much of the original 16131617 church is incorporated into the
present structure is a subject for
debate, although the general
consensus is that the location of the
building is the same as the original
structure. If true, San Agustn would
be the oldest continuously occupied
church in the United States.

The church was built based on the

standard single-nave plan typical of
pueblo churches. The original faade
didnt have towers or buttresses.
Structural repairs occurred in 1706
and 1716, although there is little
information about the extent of the
reparations. In 1923, Father Anton Docher undertook major renovations. Appreciation for history didnt play
into his design plan. Two intricate Neo-Gothic turrets were added to the adobe base. A balcony was added to
the front and a pitched tin roof covered the church. The mismatching of architectural styles didnt work
aesthetically. By the 1940s many of the modifications had been modified by nature and man, with the porch
and balcony removed. The next round of renovations occurred in 1959 when the church was "restored" to a
more cohesive adobe style. The pitched roof was removed, the clerestory reinstated, and the wooden towers
rebuilt with adobe more in keeping with the structure. Pews were installed and the convento buildings were
renovated.

Isleta Pueblos modern commercial enterprises include the Hard Rock Hotel & Casino, a large casino with five
restaurants, 100,000 s.f. of gambling, entertainment, a sports bar and a gift shop, hardrockcasinoabq.com. The
church is still in use and is readily accessible to the public. (505) 724-3800

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1
Mission San Buenaventura de Cochiti
Cochiti pueblo is the northernmost of the Keresan language group. They are the descendants of the inhabitants
of Tyuonyi and Frijoles canyons, where their ancestors dug natural caves in the soft volcanic tuff. These
ancestral dwellings are now part of Bandelier National Monument. When Bandelier was abandoned, 2-3
locations were settled before the group slip in two, forming the pueblos known as San Felipe and Cochiti. Other
linguistically related Keres speakers include Santo Domingo, Zia, Santa Ana, and the western pueblos of Acoma
and Laguna.
In 1929 author and historian Earle Forrest described Cochiti as a nearly perfect pueblo: "Cochiti contains
everything that goes to make an interesting pueblo; an ancient catholic mission in the charge of a priest from Pea
Blanca, with two large kivas where members of the Turquoise and Calabash clans still strive to keep alive the religion
of their fathers in spite of the fact that most of these indians are Catholic, and a picturesque plaza in the center of the
village."

The mission in Cochiti, San Buenaventura de Cochiti, was completed in approximately 1628, though the exact
date wasnt recorded. Spanish records reference Cochiti but only as one of three churches and conventos
serving the "Queres Nation." The estimated date is based on the Nuestra Seora de la Asuncin monastery in
San Felipe Pueblo. Cochit remained a visita of Santo Domingo mission until the 17th century, although records
indicate they had a resident friar as early as 1637. A Spanish document from 1667 was the first to reference the
mission as San Buenaventura.

Unlike many parishes in New Mexico, the priest ministering in Cochiti wasnt killed during the Pueblo Revolt.
Legend has it that he was warned by a
member of the pueblo and escaped.
However, the church was destroyed.
When Vargas returned to New Mexico
to reclaim the region for Spain, he
ordered a new church built. How
much was constructed before the
1696 revolt in Cochiti in unknown, but
in 1706 the mission was still in poor
condition. Fray Juan Olvarez wrote,
"This mission has a broken bell
without a clapper. The Indians had
used all the bell clappers to make
lances and knives to defend
themselves against the Spanish. Irony.
Cochitis mission didnt get the
immediate restoration or attention of
others in the region. When Lieutenant John Bourke visited the church in 1881, he wrote, The church of [San
Buenaventura at] Cochiti [is] very old and dilapidated; the interior is 40 paces long to the foot of the altar by 12
broad. It is built of adobe and whitewashed on the insideAltar pieces showing signs of ageswallows making

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their nests in rafters. Ceiling of riven slabs, nearly all badly rotten and those which had been nearest the altar
have been replaced by pine planks covered over with Indian pictographs in colorsred, yellow, blue & black.
Buffalo. Deer, Horses, Indians, Indians in front of lodges, X [cross] and other symbols. Olla used for holy water
font. The cross had fallen from the front of the church and its whole appearance is strongly suggestive of
decrepitude and ruin.

In 1900 Austrian Franciscans took custody of the church. They wanted to distance themselves from their
predecessors. They authorized renovations to the mission that were severe, seizing the need for repairs as an
opportunity for modification and modernization. The walls were patched and re-plastered, a pitched tin roof
was added to the roof, topped with a 20-foot tall steeple that would have been more appropriate on a church
back east. The open balcony/narthex at the front was replaced by a portico of three arches, reminiscent of
Californias mission arches. Photographs from the period portray a structure so drastically remodeled that it
would be almost impossible to identify it as a Spanish Mission. Though there were those who protested the loss
of Hispanic colonial heritage, the renovations reflect a stark lack of regard for historical preservation.

Father Jerome Hesse, one of the Austrian priests, wrote about the remodel in 1916, The appearance of the old,
venerable church of the pueblo has been changed completely, to the chagrin of the archeologists, it is true, but
to our own great pleasure and satisfaction. Some years ago the mud roof was replaced by a substantial roof of
corrugated iron, and last year the interior of the church was renovated and decorated. First of all the bumpy,
crooked walls had to be made as even as could be done before plastering; then the damp floor of clay had to
make way for a regular wooden floor; moreover, through the inventive genius of our Ven. Brother Fidelis, the
rough logs of the ceiling were hidden by a selfmade, cheap but handsome ceiling; finally the interior was
tastefully decorated. The whole interior of the church underwent a complete change and assumed a rather
modern appearance.

In the 1960s New Mexican Franciscan Fray Anglico Chvez, the leaders of Pueblo de Cochiti, and architect
Robert Plettenberg collaborated, using old photographs to restore the mission to its original appearance. San
Buenaventura de Cochiti is part of Cochiti Pueblo on NM 22 at exit 259, 33 miles north of Albuquerque, NM. The
pueblo welcomes visitors throughout the year and celebrates feast days seasonally with dances. Photography,
recording, and cell phone use are prohibited, and visitors are asked to be respectful of tribal rules. Other
nearby attractions include Kasha-Katuwe Tent Rocks National Monument and Cochiti Lake. For more
information, visit Pueblo de Cochiti website or call 505-465-2226.

Mission San Esteban del Rey de Acoma

The drive to Acoma Sky City winds 20 miles through a vast canyon surrounded by mesas and steep cliffs. Two
solitary mesas rise from the flat canyon floor, like stark sentinels protecting the valley. One is Enchanted Mesa
and the other is home to Acoma Sky City. Originally the village was located atop Enchanted Mesa, the taller of
the two. Legends reference an enormous storm that caused a fissure in the mesa cliff, severing the rock face

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used for access. Without the hand and foot holds etched into the cliff, there was no way to ascend or descend
safely. Three elderly women were stranded on top. The majority of the community was stranded in the valley
below in need of a new defensive stronghold. In one version of the legend the 3 elderly women were rescued
by a thunderbird. In another version they were left to live out their days on top of the mesa, which wouldnt have
involved a lengthy wait without access to food or water. The remaining members of Acoma Pueblo set up a new
village on the adjoining, lower mesa top. The community that was established is still there, still inhabited,
making it the oldest community in the United States.

Charles Lummis, a journalist interested in historic preservation and indian rights, was clearly struck by the
landscape as he traveled through New Mexico in the 1880s, "And in its midst lies a shadowy world of crags so
unearthly beautiful, so weird, so unique, that it is hard for the onlooker to believe himself in America, or upon
this dull planet at all." There was no road to Acoma prior to the 1950s. The road facilitating automobile access
was created for a movie crew trying to make a film on top.

Living atop the mesas offered little advantage to the people of Acoma other than defense. Water supplies were
limited to a cistern pool and captured rainwater. Water was a precious commodity, almost a form of currency,
toted from distant springs on the valley floor. The jars were carried four hundred feet to the top of the mesa by
hand or on the head. There are no agricultural resources. In fact, wind and water insure that soil doesnt gather
for long on the massive stone monoliths. As a result, it was necessary to import the earth for the mission
cemetary from the valley floor. Loose soil would have been blown away so a retaining wall of stone was
constructed east of the church. The wall measures forty-five feet high in places. The ten years' work required to
construct the church is considerable, but evidently it took an additional forty years to fill the cemetery walls
with enough dirt for Christian burials.

Fray Marcos de Niza heard of the pueblo during his journey to Zuis Hawkuh in 1539. Coronado also passed by
Acoma, opting not to attack when he realized that superior weapons and horses would be insufficient to
overcome the strategic advantage afforded by the mesa top stronghold. In 1581 Espejo visited the pueblo as a
guest for three days. When Oate arrived, Acoma initially submitted to the Spanish demand for homage and
obedience; however, their compliance was short lived. They attacked a group of soldiers en route to Zui for
supplies, killing ten of them. When Oate heard about the attack, he dispatched Vicente de Zaldvar to attack
Acoma. It was a violent, bloody battle, with the Spanish emerging victorious. The pueblo was decimated, with
hundreds killed, including women and children. Oate, intent on establishing a precedent for dealing with
uprisings, handed down sentences ranging from mutilation to servitude. In total 600 residents of Acoma were
killed. 500 more were imprisoned. Men over the age of 25 had a foot amputated. The women were sent to
Mexico as slaves. When the Oate Monument was opened in 2003 near Alcalde, New Mexico, the bronze statue
of Oate was promptly vandalizeda foot was removed. Seems fair. An eye for an eye, a foot for a foot.

Construction of the San Esteban of Acoma mission was a 12-year project, completed in 1642. The church is an
enormous structure measuring 150 feet in length and 33 feet in width. The vigas supporting the roof are
fourteen inches square and forty feet long. They were reportedly brought to the mesa from the San Mateo

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Mountains 20 miles away. The inside height of the nave is almost fifty feet, equaling the loftiness of the Salinas
missions. The walls are almost 10 feet thick, constructed with approximately 20,000 tons of adobe and stone. A
choir loft spans the rear of the nave at the eastern end. There are no transepts. There is an element of irony
that the largest existing mission structure serves the most inaccessible congregation.

During the Pueblo Revolt the resident

priest, Fray Lucas Maldonado, was killed.
Whether the church was demolished
completely or damaged at all during the
revolt is still a matter of dispute. Fray Juan
lvarez visited Acoma in 1705 and found
the inventory scant and a single priest,
Fray Antonio Miranda, repairing the
church by himself. Reconstruction and
repair of the mission was completed in
1725.

By the turn of the twentieth century the

condition of the church had deteriorated to an alarming level. The tower bases were severely eroded by water
and wind. The nearest railroad stop was 15 miles away at Acomita, which meant building materials had to be
transported to the top of the mesa using human and animal labor. The restoration was a community effort. The
roof repairs were completed first to protect the nave. In 1926 the south wall was prioritized. The wall had
eroded 10 - 18 inches to a height of about eight feet, seriously destabilizing the base of the structure. The
church was built primarily of adobe but incorporated some pieces of local rock. It was virtually impossible to get
any new rock from the mesa because all the best material had been previously used in house construction.
Photographs taken near the end of the restoration or shortly thereafter reveal a very finished and polished
version of the Acoma church, looking almost as if the final polishing were a bit too perfect to be comfortable.

Today San Esteban is in a good state of repair following further preservation efforts in 1975 and roof repairs in
1981. Morning is the best time to view the church, when the facade catches the sunlight and reflects it back
across the campo santo. The interior of the nave is whitewashed and sports a pink wainscot with painted
decorations reminiscent of the motifs used on Acomas distinctive pottery. Above the altarpiece are paintings of
the sun and moon, native motifs mixed into the religious framework of Catholic iconography.

Established 1629, completed in 1641 and used continuously since, San Esteban del Rey Mission Church is a
National Historic Landmark located south of Interstate 40 on State Route 23 at Acoma Pueblo, NM. Guided
tours of the mission church and Acoma Pueblo are available for $23. Photography of the pueblo is allowed with
a permit/fee, but visitors are asked not to photograph the cemetery and interior of the Mission Church. For
more information, visit the Acoma Sky City website or call 505-470-4966 or 800-747-0181.

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1
Sagrada Corazon de Jesus Mission
Located about 15 miles north of Santa Fe on Nambe Creek, the Tewa Pueblo of Nambe has been inhabited
since the 14th century. Nambe means "people of the round earth" in the Tewa language. When Spanish settlers
arrived with the Oate expedition in 1598, several communities were established in the area due to proximity
to the capital.
The first church, San Francisco de Nambe,
was completed in 1618, though not
without friction and conflict between civil
authorities and the priests. In 1613 Fray
Isidro Ordonez was supervising the
construction of the church in Nambe
while Governor Pedro de Peralta was
building the Governors Palace in Santa
Fe. Peralta sent soldiers to Nambe to
gather Indians to work on the Palacio.
Ordonez directed the soldiers to return
empty-handed, provoking a serious
dispute between the civic leaders and the
clergy, both of whom relied on exploiting
the labor of the Pueblo Indians.
Frustration and anger exploded on
August 10, 1680. The citizens of Nambe
rose against the Spanish. They killed the resident missionary, Friar Tomas de Torres. They destroyed the church
and joined the other Pueblos to lay siege on Santa Fe.
When Governor Diego de Vargas returned to Nambe in 1692, he expected to encounter hostility, but Nambe
received him with open arms. A new mission was built in 1696; however, it wasnt large enough to
accommodate the large number of converts. Governor Juan Domingo de Bustamante offered to build a larger
church in 1729, paying for it himself. The expansion was completed in 1790, with the mission active until 1909
when an ill-conceived renovation project went awry, destroying the property. The current church was rebuilt at
that time.
Nambe Pueblo is on the High Road to Taos, between Espanola and Chimayo. The church is open to the public
and accessible. No fee. Nambe Lake and Nambe Falls are other noteworthy stops nearby. The historic
Santuario de Chimayo, site of the annual Easter pilgrimage is a few miles further north. Email
info@nambepueblo.org or call (505) 455-4400.

Mission San Felipe de Neri

There are very few remnants of Albuquerques Spanish colonial history left. Like many large metropolitan areas
in the southwest, the city is laid out based on an organized grid of roads, giving it a recent, modern appearance.
The remaining vestiges of adobe around Old Town, and predominance of earth tones, are a testament to the
architectural traditions of the past.
Albuquerque was the third villa to be established in New Mexico. Albuquerque was established to serve the
Spanish settlers streaming into the region. Communication between New Mexico and Spain was slow. The king
of Spain was responsible for gubernatorial appointments. When Diego de Vargas's died in 1704, the viceroy,
Duke of Alburquerque, appointed Francisco Cuervo y Valds as the interim governor. Valds resettled thirty to
thirty-five families on a piece of land on the Rio Grande between Sandia and Isleta pueblos, naming it "La Villa

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Real de San Francisco de Alburquerque" in 1706. Unfortunately, the acting governor was overstepping his
temporary authority by establishing a settlement without approval or authorization from the viceroy or the
king. Instead of being rewarded for naming a town after the viceroy, Cuervo y Valds received a reprimand;
however, the villa remained intact, though the patron saint was changed from San Francisco to San Felipe Neri.
A church was constructed in 1706, though the original structure was not where it resides today. The original
church was named San Francisco Xavier.
During the summer of 1792, heavy monsoon rains damaged the roof and adobe walls, collapsing the old
church. The current church was constructed the following year in the shape of a cross. It was built with adobe,
with walls that are 5 feet thick. A one-story convento for the Friars was added on the east side and the
westernmost room of the structure was a sacristy. Residents of Tome and Valencia did most of the work.
With the 1846 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo,
the New Mexico territory was ceded to the
Americans, with direct impact on Albuquerque
and San Felipe de Neri. Ecclesiastical ties with
Mexico were severed, with the bishopric
transferred to Santa Fe, which created a need
for a worthy cathedral. Also, the railroad
arrived, providing access to a larger variety of
materials and supplies.
New Mexico's first bishop, Jean-Baptiste Lamy,
had little appreciation for the traditional
Hispanic churches or for the passion of their
art. Medieval Gothicism replaced the
traditional adobe masses. Gothic touches were
added to the simple adobe structures in an
effort to project a more polished, worldly,
modern image. The railroad provided milled lumber, metal for roofs, Eastern styles and fashions, and stock
ornamentation. Father Joseph P. Macheboeuf, who had accompanied Bishop Lamy to New Mexico and
thereafter served as parish priest, began to renovate San Felipe de Neri. When the Italian Jesuits assumed
administration of the church in 1868, the continued the renovations initiated by Macheboeuf, adding a porch to
the entrance. A photograph from 1881 shows the dramatic transformation. The towers were stepped, creating
a smooth transition from the massive adobe base to the finicky detailing of the two-staged towers. Louvers
over the belfry, like those at San Miguel in Santa Fe or the old Isleta church reflect the change in architectural
style. On the porch there are two small end towers similar to the twin towers of the Santuario of Chimayo.
San Felipe de Neri sits on the plaza in Old Town Albuquerque. It is easily accessed. Mass is still held on Sundays,
with numerous activities and extra services around the holidays. There is a parking fee in Old Town, but
otherwise there are no fees to enjoy this historic church in downtown Albuquerque.

Mission San Gregorio de Ab

The people that settled Abo at the end of the 11th century were part of the Tompiro group, the same group that
established pueblos at Quarai and Gran Quivera nearby. They were the mountain relatives of the Piro who lived
further south. Located between the Manzano mountains and the plains to the east, Abo managed to extract
sufficient subsistence, augmenting agricultural endeavors with foraging and trade. There was little rainfall or
groundwater available for irrigation. A small stream south of the pueblo flowed intermittently throughout the
year. The pueblo was encircled by a wall with one entrance. The defensive layout was a necessity, because the
community existed on the edge of the pueblo culture, under constant threat of attack from marauding tribes
from the Plains to the east. The Salinas missions were sandwiched between two cultures, pueblo and plains,

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with a host of environmental obstacles and hazards. The communities have been referred to collectively as the
"Cities That Died of Fear."
Franciscan missions built during the seventeenth century were more ambitious than those built after the
Pueblo Revolt. The missions were intended to inspire, with most structures modified and augmented as long as
there was time and money available. The arrival of Fray Francisco de Acevedo in 1629 marked the first
productive missionary effort and architectural achievement in Abo. He chose Abo as his headquarters based on
the size of the community and the available resources. The export of pion nuts, and salta commodity
precious to the Spanish for mining as well as preserving foodled to limited economic prosperity for the
community, which was able to afford an organ for the choir loft within a few years of completing the mission.
After 1630 Las Humanas (Gran Quivira) and Quarai were made visitas of the wealthier community of Abo.
San Gregorio was constructed of sandstone, using materials and techniques similar to what is seen in Chaco
Canyon. The reddish-brown sandstone in the area is fissured in layers, making it easy to work with absent iron
technology or stone cutting tools. Although the walls of the mission were plastered, the stone that faced the
rubble core was positioned to reduce irregularities on the surface of the walls. The stones were rarely larger
than one foot square or more than four inches thick. Smaller fragments could be inserted as chinks into the
gaps left by stones of irregular size or shape.
San Gregorio is a continuousnave church, although there
are two vestigial transepts 2/3
of the way along its length. The
nave was approximately 132
feet in length, with width
ranging from 23 feet at the
south entrance to almost 32
feet at the end of the
sanctuary. The church was
almost 50 feet in height. With
the exception of San Esteban
at Acoma, it would have been
roughly twice the height of any
of the state's existing adobe
churches.
The construction of the mission complex at Abo occurred over the course of 50+ years. Excavations by James E.
Ivey, archaeologist and historian with the National Park Service, identified three major stages of construction.
The first phase occurred in the 1620s when the first church was built. A convento with a single courtyard was
constructed at the same time. From 1645 to 1649, San Gregorio underwent renovation and expansion. Under
the direction of Francisco de Acevedo, the apse end of the old church was demolished to make room for an
extension of the nave. New east and west transepts and an apse were added to the existing structure. The roof
was raised, and new walls were thickened to address structural demands placed on them. To strengthen the
thinner walls of the first church, buttresses were added. The convento was also renovated. By the mid-1650s,
the Salinas mission group was under duress. Drought, disease and attack from other tribes was taking a toll on
the once robust village. However, the daily challenges did not deter the Franciscan building ambitions. The third
phase of construction included renovating the convento again. A second courtyard was added for storage, with
corrals and pens for animals. Within 10 years of completing the third stage of construction, the pressures on
the community culminated in collapse, with survivors fleeing to Tajique and Isleta.
The arrival of the Spanish in Abo had the effect of a Trojan horse. At first the newcomers brought increased
wealth due to trade; however, the economic prosperity was quickly offset by several detrimental variables,
including exposure to the European borne smallpox and measles viruses, frequent attacks from the Plains

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Indians from the east, Spanish religious intolerance. Apache raiders from the south, and prolonged drought,
leading to famine. As early as 1671 there were reports of refugees from Abo arriving at other pueblos in the Rio
Grande valley. By 1678 only the ghosts remained.
From about 1800 to 1815 tentative efforts were made to resettle the area around Abo. Houses and utility
buildings such as barns, corrals, and pens were constructed for dwelling, ranching, and farming. These
attempts proved premature, with frequent Apache raids in the 1830s thwarting resettlement efforts. The
Apache wars deterred significant settlement until the early 1900s.
In 1938 the land was dOated by Fred Cisneros to the state of New Mexico. The property and buildings became
part of the Salinas Pueblo Missions National Monument in 1981. Located west of Mountainair, about an hour
south of Albuquerque, Abo is open daily. Dogs are welcome on a leash. There is no fee.

Mission San Ildefonso

San Ildefonso Pueblo is approximately 20 miles northwest of Santa Fe at the base of the mountains. The pueblo
and its plaza face Black Mesa. Originally the pueblo featured two plazas divided by a block of dwellings that
were still visible in aerial photos taken of the pueblo in 1950; however, a dispute between factions within the
community led to the removal of the dwellings. Todays plaza is open, divided by a road leading to the church.
The mission at San Ildefonso was one of the first missions constructed in New Mexico, becoming the epicenter
of Franciscan activity in northern New Mexico. The completion date of the first mission varies depending on
source, with estimates ranging from the late 1590s to 1617. The church was definitely operational by the time
Benavides visited the pueblo in 1629. There were numerous adjoining buildings attached to the church,
designed to accommodate a large number of people. Regardless of the care shown in construction, the mission
was not spared during the Pueblo Revolt. Fray Luis de Morales was the priest assigned to San Ildefonsos
mission in 1680. He had lived at the pueblo for many years and was held in high regard by many in the
community. A younger brother, Antonio Sanches de Pro, had arrived from Mexico three years prior to the
revolt. Both were murdered at the alter of the church.
When De Vargas arrived in 1693 to reclaim the territory, the community of San Ildefonso and the neighboring
pueblos resisted. The warriors gathered on the summit of the Mesita, which was virtually impregnable based
on the weapon technology at that time. The Spanish siege was unsuccessful. They returned the following spring
with two cannons. Neither of them worked, exploding on discharge, with not a single cannon ball lobbed. The
Spanish had no advantage and no victory. Though the Spanish eventually prevailed, San Ildefonso was not
compliant.

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The church must have been in relatively

decent condition at the time of the
Reconquest, or it was rebuilt, because
there was enough left to be burned during
a subsequent uprising in 1696. Two more
priests were killed. In 1706, the church was
rebuilt on a site just north of the original
location. One noteworthy element of the
missions construction, visible in
photographs from the 1800s, was the
"porter's lodge," which may have been
used as an open-air chapel. Open-air
chapels were a tradition in sixteenthcentury Mexico when the number of
converts was greater than the amount of
space available in the missions.
The new mission weathered the remainder of the 18th century and most of the 19th century fairly well, but by
the end of the 19th century time and deterioration necessitated repairs. Water leakage through the flat, earthen
roof along the parapet was a common problem in missions. Over time the water would erode the adobe,
weakening the structural integrity of the structures.
The church was demolished in 1905 and a new church was built on the original seventeenth-century site
adjacent to the plaza. The new church was a modern building, lacking the charm or historical significance of its
predecessors. By the mid-1950s the elements had so seriously undermined the physical integrity of the
structure that major repairs and renovation were deemed necessary. The simple, practical tin-roofed building,
characteristic of the insensitive remodeling of the late 1880s through 1920s, possessed no character and no
cultural significance to the adjacent pueblo. San Ildefonso decided to construct a new church based on the old
one depicted in early photographs. Cement stucco doesnt replicate the aesthetic of adobe; however, the 1969
remodel was a vast improvement over the 1905 design desecration.
The interior of the church is more authentic, with vigas and latillas used for the roofing. The single nave and the
prominent presence of the transverse clerestory return some of the character lost in 1905. The church faces
roughly south, which guarantees a continual source of light from the clerestory throughout the day. To the east
are a small convento and sacristy, and a campo santo fronts the church with its single cross.

Mission San Ysidro & San Buenaventura de Humanas

Salt was more valuable than gold in the ancient world, a critical commodity for preserving and flavoring food.
The salt extracted from the mines east of Mountainair supplied the region and was utilized as a trade
commodity, shipped to Mexico, the Plains and the Pacific. Las Humanas, or Gran Quivira, is one of the three
sites that form the Salinas Pueblo Missions National Monument. Salinas is Spanish for "salt beds." There are
extensive salt deposits east of the Tompiro communities. The salt was mined by everyone in the area and
served as trading currency for the Salinas pueblos.
Gran Quivera, aka Las Humanas, was established on the eastern boundary of the Rio Grande pueblos, one of
five Tompiro villages that existed near Mountainair, New Mexico. Based on ceramic evidence, inhabitation
began between the 7th and 8th centuries. The community was established on the edge of a vast desert occupied
by nomadic raiders, which posed a constant threat to the village. Water was precious and rare. About seven
miles west of the pueblo, wells 15 25 feet deep provided a more reliable source of water. Consistent

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agriculture wasnt feasible, relying on the moodiness of the summer monsoons, an unreliable phenomenon to
this day. Yet, a large community of several thousand people lived and thrived here, trading salt and textiles to
the pueblos and the plains for other commodities. Based on items found at the site, it was a major trading hub
for centuries prior to the arrival of the Spanish. Like Pecos and Taos further north, Las Humanas was an
important trading camp where the Plains Indians exchanged buffalo products for pottery, textiles and
agricultural products.
Within 100 years of first contact with the Spaniards, the population was decimated by European borne
diseases, drought induced famine and the ongoing hazards posed by raiders. The communities collapsed. The
survivors migrated to neighboring pueblos, with many of them joining Isleta Pueblo to the west or traveling
down the Rio Grande to join their linguistic brethren in the south.
According to the oral history of the indigenous people in New Mexico, this area was once covered by freshwater
lakes, with abundant fish, waterfowl, bison, and antelope. According to the legends, the lakes were cursed due
to one unfaithful wife "and for her sins the lakes were accursed to be salt forever." Archaeologists know that
the Permian Sea extended into New Mexico, leaving traces throughout New Mexico, including the gypsum that
created White Sands. The land was different in ancient times; lush, fertile, thriving with the megafauna of
prehistory. As the sea evaporated the area became increasingly arid. It hasnt changed much since Adolph
Bandelier wrote about it a century ago: "In this arid solitude the massive edifice of the church, with the mounds
of the pueblo, look strangely impressive. From the west the church can be seen miles away, a clumsy
parallelopiped of gray stone; from the northeast, through vistas of dark cedars and junipers, the ruins shine in
pallid light, like some phantom city in the desert."
The first friar to begin serious conversion work at
the pueblo was Alonso de Benavides. Written
records left by Benavides indicate that there were
six churches and conventos operating in the
district. In 1629 Father Francisco de Letrado
arrived. Benavides credited Letrado with the
building of the first church and convent. The
chapel, today in ruins, measured 29 feet by 109
feet, a considerable size for a first attempt.
Unfortunately, the span exceeded the carrying
capacity of the beams and load bearing walls.
Letrado was assigned to Zui in 1632, with Las
Humanas becoming a visita of Abo for 28 years.
The latter was a much larger community situated
closer to Spanish military and ecclesiastical
support, with more reliable water resources,
located farther from the nomadic groups that plagued Las Humanas.
San Ysidro is a single-nave mission without transepts. It is oriented on an east-west axis, constructed of the
local light blue-gray limestone, unworked, but positioned best side out. The stones were set in a mud mortar or
caliche. The pines for the great vigas, which were at least 33 feet long came from the Gallinas Mountains 20
miles away. The weight of the building was considerable, more than the thin walls could bear, which hastened
the collapse of the structure when the pueblo was abandoned in the 1670s.
The "small" chapel of San Ysidro, as described by Benavides, was among the widest of any of the missions in
New Mexican, second only to the early construction of San Jos de Giusewa in the Jemez Mountains. Latrados
errors related to weight and structural integrity was a function of having no prior construction experience. It
was his first attempt at building a mission.

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During the 1650s the Apache raided the pueblo, destroyed the church and took seventeen women and children
as captives. In 1659 Fray Diego de Santander arrived at Las Humanas, found the existing chapel in ruins and
began construction of the church and convento of San Buenaventura, just west of the San Ysidro mission. The
population of Las Humanas was already in decline. By the 1660s, the population had dwindled from the
informal 1627 census of 2000 to approximately 1000. The San Buenaventura Mission wasnt complete when
Fray Santander left with the surviving inhabitants of Las Humanas 3 years later.
The conflict between the interests of church and state were an ongoing problem for the inhabitants of Las
Humanas, who were caught in the crossfires of two entities intent on exploiting their labor. Until Santander
began his residency, Las Humanas was administered from Abo. Nicols de Aguilar, the alcalde mayor, relocated
to the pueblo in the 1660s as the executory for Governor Bernardo Lpez de Mendizbal. Mendizbal had no
love for the church. As Santander was trying to rebuild the mission, Mendizbal was waging a campaign against
his efforts by forbidding the Indians to work on the church's construction. Motivations were financial. Indians
working on construction could not be tending flocks, weaving, or growing corn. And if crops and other goods
were produced for the mission, the friars were accumulating wealth in direct competition with the governor.
Father Latrado replied to the governor that a church was needed to bring the word of God to the Indians. The
governor replied "that churches with costly ornaments and decoration were not necessary; that a few huts of straw
and some cloth ornaments, with spoken masses, were ample." Latrado was not deterred, nor were the faithful of
Las Humanas. Despite the threats, construction continued.
Although the width of San Buenaventura is less than that of its predecessor, the nave is about 27 feet wide,
with a length of 109 feet. Like San Ysidro, the church is aligned on an east-west axis, with the entrance facing
east. The extensive convento south of the church included a full sacristy with access from the south transept
and living and storage spaces. Further south a large corral was built with an adjoining stable. As the pueblos
population declined, the missions flocks and herds were moved to Abo, where food and water were more
plentiful and the Apache were less frequent visitors.
By the middle of the 1660s conditions in Las Humanas were dire. As early as 1663 Aguilar had reported that
"the wells are exhausted and there is an insufficient water supply for the people, for their lack of water is so great that
they are accustomed to save their urine to water the land and to build walls." During the final years the drought was
so severe that no crops were harvested, with famine claiming many. In Las Humanas at least 450 of the
remaining population died within a few years. Fray Juan Bernal wrote about the plight of Las Humanas in 1669,
describing his experience seeing indians "lying dead along the roads, in the ravines, and in their huts. Conditions
were no better for the Apache. They were also starving, which precipitated more frequent raids. In Las
Humanas there wasnt much left to take so they took people, selling them into slavery in exchange for food. On
September 3, 1670 they attacked Las Humanas, destroying the church and killing many. That may have been
the final straw. The community had been crippled by raids and death and was abandoned in 1671 or 1672.
Gran Quivira National Monument was established on November 1, 1909. It was incorporated with Abo and
Quarai as the Salinas Pueblo Missions National Monument in the fall of 1988. All three sites are near
Mountainair, about an hour south of Albuquerque. They are open daily, free to the public. Dogs are allowed on
leash.

Mission San Jos de los Jmez

When the Coronado expedition dispatched a party to explore the Jemez mountains in 1540, they found several
Towa speaking communities along the Jemez Rivers and the canyons to the east. The villages surrounded a
larger community known as Giusewa, located where Jemez Springs is today. Casteeda, the chronicler with the
Coronado expedition, referenced 10 villages. Later, Espejo cited 7 and Oate mentioned 9. Giusewa means
"place of boiling waters" in Towa, which is a reference to the hot springs nearby. By 1709, in response to the
Pueblo Revolt and the need to defend themselves, the Jemez Indians abandoned the Giusewa site and moved
their community down the canyon to where their descendants reside today in Jemez Pueblo.

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1
Religious work in the Jemez district was assigned to Fray Alonso de Lugo. He concentrated his efforts on
Giusewa, where the ruins of the church of San Jos are found. Due to the need by Spanish civil and religious
authorities for indigenous labor, missionary policy was geared towards consolidating small groups of people
into larger villages. The practice was leveraged throughout the Spanish Empire, particularly in South America.
The communities created were referred to as reductions (reducciones de indios). The strategy was to gather
native populations into concentrated populations so it would be easier to Christianize, tax, and govern them. In
New Mexico this usually wasnt necessary, because people were already consolidated in pueblos. However, the
small villages scattered along the Jemez river were too far away from one another for the Spanish to maintain
adequate control so they consolidated the villages of the Jemez into three communities: Astialakwa, Patoqua
and Giusewa. Giusewa, the largest of the three, was the focal point of missionary efforts in the area.
Archaeologists believe that the first priest assigned to the Jemez district, Fray Alonso, built a small chapel on the
site around 1600, though there is no visible trace of the prior structure today. Fray Jernimo de Zrate
Salmern was assigned to Jemez in 1617, though historians dont believe he arrived in Giusewa until 1621.
Zrate Salmern founded a second congregation called San Diego de la Congregacin in 1622, which coincided
with construction of a new, larger mission. He may have upgraded the Lugo church or he may have demolished
the smaller structure to build the new one. Regardless the massive structure in Giusewa was completed
between 1625-1628.
Within one year the San Jose church and its convento were in ruins and the congregation scattered. Zrate
Salmern left the Jemez district shortly thereafter due to the constant conflict and instability in the region;
however, he was given credit for the construction by Benavides when the latter visited the area while compiling
his 1629 report on New Mexicos missionary efforts. Benavides noted that the Jemez people had been "almost
depopulated by famine and wars." However, he described the church as sumptuous and beautiful and the
convento as interesting. That implies it was still impressive in 1629. The year before Benavides visited, Fray
Martn de Arvide arrived in Jemez, reassembling the Indians who had abandoned the Jemez reductions. He may
have conducted repairs or additional construction (clean up) prior to Benavides visit. There is no record. He
attempted to resurrect the congregation and mission, but failed. The site was abandoned the year after
Benavides visit.
The church of San Jos de Giusewa was an
extremely large edifice based on other
missions in the region. It was 111 feet long
and almost 34 feet wide. It was built of
sandstone from the area, set in an adobe
mortar. The walls are as thick as 6 feet on
the west and 8 feet on the east. The walls
extended 5-6 feet above the roof, which
was likely for defensive purposes. The
Navajo were enemies and having the
Spanish in town did nothing to quell the
mutual ambivalence and animosity
between the two groups. Attacks were
common. For the Spanish, churches that
served as fortresses were commonplace in
Mexico and Old Spain.
The nave is oriented north-south, with the
main facade and entry facing south. The nave is lined with twelve low platforms, twelve by eighteen inches,
which are believed to have once served as pedestals for sculpture or lighting units. The floor is stepped quite
drastically in the chancel area, indicating that there have been efforts to minimize excavation. A door in the east

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connects the nave with the convent. The burial ground is to the south of the church. It extended almost to the
stream. Although the church was built of stone, its interior was finished with gypsum plaster. The windows of
the church were made of selenite, a rock easily fractured to produce very thin, translucent panels.
There are few references to San Jos from 1630 to the 1680 pueblo revolt. The assumption is that the newer
San Diego Mission, further down the canyon, became the base of operations for missionary efforts in the area.
Unlike the mission in Giusewa, the San Diego Mission endured. Founded in 1622, it was burned in 1623 and was
rebuilt by Martn de Arvide in 1626 or 1628.
The San Diego Mission is in Jemez Pueblo. Contact (575) 834-7235 or email tourism@jemezpueblo.com. The
Mission San Jos de los Jmez is part of the Jemez Historic site in Jemez Springs. It open Wednesday Sunday
from 8:30am 5pm. $5 Entrance Fee. Dogs are allowed, but must be kept on a leash.

Mission Nuestra Seora de Perpetuo

In May of 1598 Don Juan de Oate, accompanied by two Franciscan priests arrived in what is now known as
Socorro. They encountered a generous, hospitable tribe of Indians who provided them with a generous supply
of corn, which they desperately needed to augment their dwindling provisions.
When Oate ventured further north, the priests remained behind. Fray Alfonso Benavidez was so successful in
his ministry that he became known as: "The Apostle of Socorro. It was Benavidez that named the village
"Nuestra Senora de Perpetuo Socorro," meaning Our Lady of Perpetual Help, in recognition of the assistance
and supplies they had provided to him and the expedition. The name was later shortened to Socorro.
The two priests, with the help of the locals, built a modest little church in 1598, which they replaced with a
larger church between 1615 1626. It is the second church, with its massive walls and huge carved vigas, that
exists today. The walls are approximately 5 feet wide and the windows are placed high on the wall to repel
Navajo attacks, which were common at that time.
The Spaniards found out about the
silver deposits around Socorro. The
priests, wanting impressive churches
on par with those in Mexico and
Spain, used a lot of the silver to adorn
the mission. They made a solid silver
Communion Rail, a Tabernacle, and
sacred vessels used in the Sacrifice of
the Mass. The main body of the
church, built between 1615 - 1626,
seats about 250 people. In 1853
another wing was built to
accommodate an additional 150.
Originally the church was pure
Pueblo style architecture, but
restorations and repairs made after
the rebellion of 1680 have
transformed the structure, though it
retains traditional elements.

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The mission flourished until the Pueblo Revolt in 1680. Unlike many of the missions in northern New Mexico,
the priests were not attacked or repelled in Socorro. Instead, most of the Indians joined the Spaniards in their
retreat to El Paso. When news reached Socorro that the neighbors in the north had driven the Spanish from
Santa Fe, the priests and the community disassembled the Communion Rail, burying it with other valuables that
they couldnt take with them. The pastor made a map of the buried treasure, convinced that the Spanish would
quell the rebellion so they could return quickly.
However, it was over a decade before new settlers of Mexican and Spanish descent arrived in Socorro. When
they returned the church was dilapidated. The massive walls and huge beams were still intact though. They
restored the mission, resuming services, which they continue to this day. They never found the buried treasure
though. Several expeditions have come from Mexico to look for it. In the early 1980s there was a million-dollar
reward offered to anyone who found it.
The name was changed in between 1800 and 1801. During a raid on Socorro in 1800 the Apache inexplicably
withdrew. When one of the Apache captured was asked about the withdrawal, he responded that they had
seen a man with wings and a shining sword hovering over the door of the church. A petition was submitted to
the Bishop of Durango, Mexico to have the name of the church changed to San Miguel in honor of St. Michael,
the Angelic Protector of the people. The Church has gone by the name San Miguel since then.
San Miguel Church is the center of a 17,000-acre Spanish Land Grant. It was designated as being one Spanish
league (2.64 miles) North, South, East, and West of the Church. All surveys are described as running from the
center of the church.
San Miguel Mission Chapel is said to be the oldest church still in use in the United States. Located in Socorro,
there is no fee to visit the church.

Mission San Jos de Laguna

The San Jos de la Laguna Mission is perched on top of a hill, surrounded by the adobe dwellings of Laguna
Pueblo. The churchs white exterior provides a sharp contrast to the earth tones surrounding it. The mission
was built in 1699, after the Pueblo Revolt. The interior is 105 feet by 22 feet. The only openings are the doorway
and a small window below the twin bells, which are set in the parapet. The church was built with a single nave
and battered apse. About 23 feet wide, the span indicates that the roof vigas came from the mountains 30
miles away. San Jos is famous for its interior decoration; original Laguna art and rare early Spanish paintings
adorn the walls and altar. Red, green, yellow and black murals adorn the earthen walls. A portrait of Saint
Joseph fills the center of the reredos. He is flanked on the right by Saint Barbara, protector against thunder,
lightning, and sudden death, and on the left by Saint John Nepocene. The ceiling above the sanctuary is painted
with the Laguna symbols for the sun, the moon, the stars and a rainbow. All of the woodwork is intricately
carved, including the vigas and the latticed ceiling. In Laguna decoration plays a central role in the ambience of
the building. Laguna Mission of San Jos was the last mission built in the early mission period and remains one
of the best preserved.
A dam across the San Jose River, which passes at the base of the hill where the mission is located, formed a lake
from which the native name Kawaik is derived. Kawaik was translated into Spanish as Laguna. According to oral
history, the Laguna originated on the other side of the lake, possibly a group associated with the Ancestral
Puebloans from the Four Corners region. They settled at their current location around the beginning of the 15 th
century.
With a population of about 7,700, Laguna Pueblo is the largest Keresan-speaking pueblo. Historians
acknowledge that the ancestors of the pueblo have inhabited the area since at least 1300 A.D., but Laguna oral
history reflects a far lengthier history. Archaeological evidence confirms human occupation going back to 3000

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B.C. Like Acoma Pueblo and Zui Pueblo, Laguna is on the boundary between the Ancestral Puebloans to the
north and the Mogolln to the south.
Although Laguna shares a common
language with their neighbors in Acoma,
they dont always get along. Though the
mission in Acoma is named after San
Esteban, San Jos is the patron saint for
Acoma and Laguna pueblos. Long ago,
the priest of Acoma, Fray Ramrez,
brought a painting of San Jos to Acoma,
given to him by King Charles II. The
people of Acoma and Laguna believed
the painting had supernatural powers,
which they credited with Acomas
prosperity. Laguna, in the meantime,
was suffering. Diseases brought by the
Europeans had devastated their
communities and their crops were
failing, with meager harvests creating
additional hardship. Laguna asked
Acoma to loan them the painting, in the hope that it would bring them the same prosperity that it had brought
Acoma. Acoma wasnt enthusiastic about the proposition. The priest of Acoma insisted that they consider it.
After a year of contemplation and debate, Acoma decided to draw lots to let God decide. God decided the
painting should stay in Acoma. The citizens of Laguna were livid. A group broke into the Acoma church and
absconded with the painting. Father Mariano de Jess Lpez talked Acoma out of retaliation, somehow
convincing them to share.
Laguna prospered, which only enhanced faith in the paintings power. The decades and centuries passed.
Laguna didnt return the painting. Acoma repeatedly asked them for it, but each time Laguna adamantly
refused. The priests got involved againto no avail. Laguna was determined to keep the painting. Finally,
Acoma pursued the painting through the courts. The Pueblo of Acoma v. the Pueblo of Laguna was decided by
the Supreme Court of New Mexico in favor of Acoma. When the party from Acoma set out to reclaim the
painting, they found the image of San Jos resting against a mesquite tree in the canyon that separates the
pueblos. They decided that the saint "was in such a hurry to get back to his home in Acoma that he started out by
himself."
Church tours are offered daily. There is no fee. To get to Laguna, take exit 114 off I-40 between Albuquerque
and Grants. For more information, call San Jos Mission at (505) 552-9330.

Mission San Lorenzo de Picurs

Picurs was once one of the largest Tiwa pueblos, part of the Tanoan language group, but today it is one of the
smallest with about 1,801 inhabitants. In the past, they were frequently involved in affairs of state, vexing the
Spanish and playing political instigator on more than one occasion.
The earliest contact with Europeans occurred in 1581, with the arrival of Gaspar Castao de Sosa. Sosa was
born about 1550 in Portugal. While lieutenant governor of Nuevo Len in northern Mexico, he made his fortune
as a slaver. He and his soldiers raided north along the Rio Grande, capturing hundreds of Indians they sold into
slavery. He is also believed by many to have been a converso or "Crypto-Jew and was arrested for heresy and
"Judaizing" in 1589. He launched an illegal expedition into New Mexico, hoping to establish a colony and put

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July 2016

some distance between himself and the Spanish authorities, but he was arrested in Santo Domingo, tried,
convicted and sent to the Phillipines. There were no priests involved in his expedition.
The priests arrived with the Oate expedition. Fray Francisco de Zamora was charged with the establishment of
a permanent mission at Picuris. The mission in Picuris was federated with that of Taos into one district under
Zamora. By 1620 a small, rudimentary chapel was erected and dedicated to patron San Lorenzo. By the late
1620s the mission was thriving, serving several surrounding villages in addition to Picuris. Picuris was constantly
referenced for a lack of interest in conversion and a lack of cooperation with the clergy. Tupatu of Picuris was
one of the principal leaders during the 1680 rebellion. When the revolt broke out the resident priest was
murdered and the church burned before the warriors marched south to join the main attack on Santa Fe.
When Vargas returned to reclaim New Mexico for the Spanish crown in 1692, Picuris was deserted, possibly due
to concerns about Spanish retribution. Speculation. The church was in ruins. As he did with many pueblos,
Vargas convinced the inhabitants to return to the village. They either built a new church or repaired the old one;
however, documentation from Vargas in 1696 suggests that the mission was still in poor condition at that time.
The village was abandoned again in 1704, with the inhabitants joining a group of Cuartelejo Apache for two
years before returning in 1706 to rebuild their pueblo and the church.
The mission was restored again between 1740 1750. Unlike many of the missions, much of the work was done
by Fray Fernando Duque de Estrada. He lived at the pueblo from 1746 to 1747 and dedicated himself to the
restoration of the mission. He built a sanctuary, whitewashed the church, leveled and packed the dirt floor,
constructed a belfry, built a crenelated parapet around the entire church, restored the campo santo, remodeled
the convento and furnished the interior. By 1749 the mission had deteriorated again, with Estradas successor
writing that there was "nothing at this mission but disrepair and misery."
In 1769 Comanche attacked Picuris, completely destroying the mission. Governor Pedro Fermn de Mendinueta
ordered the removal of the existing structure, with a new church constructed in a more defensible location. The
new church was under construction in 1776. Unlike other mission building endeavors, which involved primarily
women and children doing the construction under the watchful eye of the local priest, the 1776 construction at
Picuris involved a civil contract to construct the church between Fray Sebastin ngel Fernndez of Santa Cruz
and Alcalde Salvador Garca de Noriega.

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Despite the new mission, the

inhabitants of Picuris werent
impressed and werent cooperative
with the resident Franciscans. When
Dominguez visited to submit his
report to the Spanish crown in 1776,
he chided the priest for doing all of
the work in the fields and the mission
himself. This was reflected in his
report when he wrote, The pueblo
does part of the sowing, cultivation, and
harvesting, but for the time being the
present missionary bears most of the
work. When I remonstrated him, citing
the custom among the Indians, he
replied: That since they are so lazy, even
in their own affairs, they are even more
inclined to let what belongs to the father
be lost, and so to avoid animosities,
gossip, etc., he considers it a pleasure to do it himself, even to the threshing of the wheat with six of his own animals.
However, things calmed down after the convento was completed in 1780 and the priest had, at least, a place to
live.
In the early 1900s the church was renovated. Like many of the renovations during this time, there was no
appreciation for heritage or history. The church was topped with a pitched, metal roof and a belfry, giving it the
old schoolhouse makeover that many churches in New Mexico endured at that time. The surrounding wall was
lowered. By 1935 it was barely three feet high in places. In the late 1960s the church underwent major
restoration. The pitched roof was removed, replaced by the traditional flat roof. Two small wings, like the old
Santa Clara, flanked each side of the pediment. The front faade and gateway were painted white, which
provided a stark contrast against the adobe environment.
The public is welcome to view the San Lorenzo de Picurs church and the Picuris Pueblo Museum. The pueblo is
located 24 miles southeast of Taos via NM 68, 518, and 75. Self-guided tours and permits for photography
within the pueblo are available to visitors. Visitors may fish for trout at Pu-La Lake by contacting the Picurs
Pueblo Fish & Game and Parks & Wildlife. There are also picnic and campground facilities. (575) 587-1601

Mission Santa Ana

When the Spanish arrived the Jemez mountains were the home of the Queres Nation. The only Queres towns
remaining are Santa Ana and Zia. All of the others that existed when Coronado and Espejo explored New
Mexico have been abandoned or destroyed. The pueblo is at the base of a mesa wall on the north bank of the
Jemez River. The location provides both protection and seclusion. Travelers tended to follow the Camino Real
along the Rio Grande or they would head east and west without making contact, making Santa Ana one of the
least visited pueblos in the region.
Santa Ana, originally Ta-ma-ya, was a large community. First contact with the Spanish occurred during the
winter of 1540-41 while Coronado was occupying the Tiguex village of Kuaua on the Rio Grande. He dispatched
a small number of soldiers to make contact with Zia and Santa Ana. The inhabitants of these pueblos welcomed
the Spanish, submitting to their demand for allegiance without opposition. As a result Coronado held them in
high regard. When he marched his troops east looking for Quivira he left a cannon in their custody, trusting that
they would take care of it in his absence. They did.

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Forty years passed before Espejo showed up.

In reports from his expedition he mentions
visiting five towns in the province of
Cumanes, the largest of which was named
Zia. He described it as a large, well populated
pueblo with 8 plazas and houses plastered
and painted in a variety of colors. The
inhabitants were as kind and generous
towards Espejo as they had been towards
Coronado, providing him with supplies and
textiles comparable to the finest linens
available in Europe.

When Oate dispatched the Franciscan

missionaries to the seven designated districts
in New Mexico, Santa Ana was among the
towns assigned to Fray Juan de Rosas. Zia was
assigned to Father Alonzo de Lugo who was located in Jemez. According to Benavides' mission tour in 1629
there were 7 churches in the Queres province in 1629, at least three of which were located in the Jemez Valley,
with Zia and Santa Ana considered the most important. After the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, Zia and Santa Ana are
the only communities mentioned on the Jemez River. All of the others were destroyed or abandoned.
In 1687, when Governor Cruzate attempted to reconquer New Mexico, General Reneros de Posada marched his
troops from El Paso to Zia, where he encountered opposition from the neighboring villages. On October 6 th,
1687 the Battle of Zia resulted in the deaths of at least 600 warriors. 70 were taken prisoner, with the younger
men condemned to slavery for 10 years. The older men were shot in the plaza.
Five years later De Vargas successfully reclaimed the territory. Zia and Santa Ana didnt resist. The reception of
the governor in October, 1692 was accompanied by an elaborate ceremony wherein both pueblos pledged
loyalty to the Spanish crown. Relics from that meeting are still treasured, including the cross that DeVargas
brought with him and the stone that he sat on during his meeting with the leaders of both communities.
The inhabitants of Santa Ana and Zia became critical allies for the Spaniards, which didnt endear them to their
linguistic brethren in Cochiti and Santo Domingo. Bartolom de Ojeda, who was war captain of the pueblo of
Santa Ana, was the leader of the Indians loyal to the Spanish in that province. He was involved in all of the
battles between the Spaniards and the pueblos between 1692 1696, helping to defeat resistance in Cochiti
and Jemez.
The mission, destroyed during the Pueblo Revolt, was rebuilt in 1750. The church is long, built of adobe, with a
tower, and a number of adjoining rooms to accommodate the resident priest and visiting clergy. Among the
notable items in the church are two santos carved from wood and a large painting of John the Baptist with Jesus
over the altar. The mission has been recently renovated, respecting the prior structure and style. To visit the
Santa Ana Mission, contact Santa Ana Pueblo at (505) 771-6700

Mission Santo Domingo

There have been four settlements near the current pueblo of Santo Domingo. The first, called Gipuy, was about
2 miles east of the pueblos current location. This was the second pueblo of that name to exist on the site. The
first was destroyed by flooding of the Galisteo River prior to 1591. It was here that Oate founded the
monastery of Nuestra Seora de la Asuncin. Gaspar Castao de Sosa rechristened the village Santo Domingo
when he stopped there in 1591.

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1
The layout of Santo Domingo was different from other pueblos in the area. Instead of a central plaza, Santo
Doming was, and still is, laid out in parallel blocks. The pueblo consists of 6 large dwellings, 2 are located below
the right corner of the newer church, facing east and 4 face south, with the church and convent in their
backyards.
Both the pueblo, and the first mission, were wiped out by flooding in 1605. They rebuilt the mission quickly,
with a new church completed by 1607 under the direction of Juan de Escalona. In 1619 Santo Domingo became
the ecclesiastical headquarters of the province. As in many other communities, the relationship between the
civil authorities and the clergy wasnt always cooperative, with both vying to exploit the labor of the population
for profit. This did nothing to endear either to the local population.
The church authorities became so powerful in Santo Domingo that the friars took over military matters,
constructing fortifications and storing munitions within the convento. Given the constant threat of attack by
Comanche, Ute and Apache raiders, it wasnt uncommon for the missions to serve as a place of worship and as
a fortress. That is why so many have windows placed high on obscenely thick walls.
Like the rest of the Keresan speaking pueblos, things didnt go well for the priests when the Pueblo Revolt broke
out. Within 2 days of the revolt starting, the 3 priests assigned to Santo Domingo were killed. Governor Antonio
Otermn and his party of refugees passed through Santo Domingo as they fled from Santa Fe to El Paso. When
they checked the church, hoping to find the resident priests, the doors were locked. They broke in, discovering
a mound in the middle of the nave where the three missionaries had been buried. The church hadnt been
damaged or molested in any way at that point so they took the ornaments, pictures and vessels with them
before fleeing south.
Based on Spanish records the
church was rebuilt when De Vargas
returned to reclaim New Mexico, but
an insurrection in 1696 may have
resulted in the destruction of that
one as well. Regardless another
mission was constructed in 1706
when the site of the pueblo moved
to its current location. Then, in 1740,
Fray Antonito Zamora was assigned
to the pueblo. He built a larger
church next to the first one, paying
for it out of his own pocket. By 1776,
when the first mission was being
built in San Diego, California, Santo
Domingo had 2. They sat side by
side, facing south. The older one
was relegated to burials, with the
newer one used for services.
Fray Francisco Atanasio Domnguez visited Santo Domingo while preparing a report for the Spanish crown in
1776. He reported that the church is adobe with very thick walls, single-naved, and the outlook and main door are
due south. The choir loft is in the usual place and like those of the Rio Arriba missions, and the entrance is an ordinary
single leaf door with a key. It is approached by a stairway of small beams between the walls of the two churches
mentioned. This begins from the front corners of both and is open toward the cemetery. In the choir there is a good
large niche for the musicians, who, at Father Zamora's expense, keep two guitars and three violins there.

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July 2016

The new church was built northwest of the pueblo, near the Rio Grande. As the river channel shifted, it moved
closer to the mission until the church was on the river bank. Repeated spring flooding damaged the structure,
washing 2 other churches away in 1830. The need for repairs was constant. Intense flooding in 1881 and 1884
almost destroyed the mission and the pueblo. Levees were hastily constructed, but they werent enough to
stave off the inevitable. On June 3, 1886 the Rio Grande claimed not one, but both churches. The new one was
the first to be washed away, followed by the old one and, lastly, the convento. Fortunately, everything inside
was removed beforehand.
Father Noel Dumarest was assigned to Santo Domingo on January 1, 1895, as part of his ministry at Pea
Blanca. He launched construction on a new church, build east of the pueblo on higher ground. Unlike other
churches built, renovated or remodeled at this time, the mission in Santo Domingo drew on traditional mission
construction, with an adobe nave and a twin-tower faade rather than the metal roof, peaked window, steeple
design that Archbishop Lamy favored. The sanctuary is inset. A three-part altarpiece adorns the front of the
church and illustrates the tradition of santos in New Mexico. The western faade is comprised of two towers
with a balcony between them, similar to San Felipe or Cochiti. There is a single wooden cross to mark hundreds
of graves at the site. Every year before the annual feast day on August 4 th the church is cleaned and
whitewashed, with the two iconic horses repainted on the front by local artists. Hundreds of dancers
participate, with thousands attending.
Santo Domingo Pueblo (now Kewa Pueblo) is located 35 miles north of Albuquerque and 25 miles south of
Santa Fe, NM, via the Santo Domingo exit on Interstate 25. For more information, call 505-465-2214.

San Jeronimo Mission

Taos is a UNESCO World Heritage cultural site; distinct, unique and enduring. The pueblo, in its current, multistory form, dates to the 14th century, which is about the time the Ancestral Puebloans abandoned their
communities in Mesa Verde and Chaco Canyon. However, the community, and many of the adobe structures,
are at least 1000 years old, making Taos the oldest continuously occupied community in the United States.
Acoma would have given Taos competition for that title, but they moved from one mesa top to a neighboring
mesa top after an intense storm shattered the cliff with hand and footholds, making their mesa top village
completely inaccessible. Taos, on the other hand, never moved. When the Ancestral Puebloans were packing up
and moving, Taos was there. When Chaco and Mesa Verde were thriving, Taos was there.
Taos, as the northernmost of the Rio Arriba pueblos, was on the boundary between pueblo culture and the
tribes on the plains. The layout of the community, with homes clustered together in multi-story arrangements,
surrounded by a wall, was designed to be defensible. Originally the buildings had no doors or windows on the
ground floor. The only entrance was through the roof from the upper floors, with ladders used for access. The
ladders could be pulled up when the village was being attacked, which was common, with Comanche, Ute and
Apache raiding parties frequently showing up in town uninvited.
There was one period of relative peace each year during the month of June. All of the tribes from plains and
pueblos would set aside their weapons and their grievances, momentarily, to come together for a giant trade
fair. Tamarn discussed the fairs at length while visiting Taos Pueblo in 1760 to report on New Mexicos
missions to the King of Spain.
When I was in the pueblo two encampments of Ute Indians, who were friendly but infidels, had just arrived with a
captive woman who had fled from the Comanches. They reported that the latter were at the Rio de las Animas
preparing buffalo meat in order to come to trade. They come every year to the trading, or fairs. The governor comes
to those fairs, which they call rescates (barter trade), every year with the majority of his garrison and people from all
over the kingdom. They bring captives to sell, pieces of chamois, many buffalo skins, and, out of plunder they have
obtained elsewhere, horses, muskets, shotguns, munitions, knives, meat, and various other things. Money is not
current at these fairs, but exchange of one thing for another, and so these people get provisions.

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First contact with Europeans occurred

during the Coronado expedition in 1540.
Pedro de Casteeda, chronicler of the
expedition, described the south and
north blocks of the pueblo, divided by
the river that both binds and separates
them. "In this village they do not raise
cotton or breed turkeys: they wear the
skins of deer and buffalo entirely. It is the
most populous village in all that country:
we estimate there were 15,000 souls in it.
Though 15,000 was an estimate, there is
no doubt that Taos was an impressive
community, far larger than most of the
other pueblos in the region.
The original mission was founded in
1617, but its position in the community
was always tenuous. Taos was a hotbed of insurrection and took every opportunity to oppose Spanish
authority. They were involved in virtually every attempt to overthrow the Spanish, whether as instigators or
participants. The first church was destroyed in 1626. When Benavides visited Taos Pueblo in 1629 to report on
the status of New Mexicos missions to the King of Spain, his visit must have coincided with a lull in active
resistance, because he reported that the mission was established and thriving. That didnt last long. It was
destroyed again around 1639 and the resident priest was killed (again). The Franciscans restored it. Twenty
years later it was destroyed again. Shortly thereafter it was rebuilt. Clearly they were a determined bunch. Little
did they know that a far bigger plan was percolating from within their walls, one that would erupt in 1680.
Po'pay, aka Pop, was one of 47 Pueblo leaders arrested by Governor Juan Francisco Trevino in 1675. They
were rounded up and convicted of practicing sorcery and plotting a coup. Three were executed and one
committed suicide. The others, including Popay, were whipped, imprisoned in Santa Fe and sentenced to be
sold into slavery. 70 Pueblo warriors showed up at the governors office demanding their release. The governor
acquiesced, because Santa Fe was already being attacked by Apaches and Navajo. He didnt want to further
antagonize the Pueblos. Perhaps he should have considered that prior to arresting and killing their leaders.
Hindsight.
Popay, from San Juan Pueblo, was described as a fierce and dynamic individualwho inspired respect bordering
on fear in those who dealt with him. After his release he moved to Taos Pueblo and spent the next several years
planning and organizing the rebellion. Killing the Franciscan priests and destroying the missions was part of the
plan. The coordinated uprising commenced on August 10, 1680. The two priests in Taos were killed and the
church was torched. There are no records about the extent of the damage, but when Vargas returned to Taos in
1696 he found the church being used as a stable and had it torn down, with a new church built by 1706, which
is the one standing in ruins today.
San Jernimo was a large church with massive walls and a tower on its south facade. At the time of its
destruction in 1847, it had withstood cannon fire and direct attack, evidence of its durability as a fortress. An
inscription on the clerestory beam of the church credited the construction, completed in 1726, to Fray Juan de
Mirabal, although there is no record if that date relates to a renovation of one of the earlier churches or
whether it was a completely new structure.
The convento adjoined the church, rising to two stories in places. Taos ongoing issues with attack are reflected
in the design. The tower of the church doubled as a guard tower, with a clear view of the surrounding plains.

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When Bishop Tamarn visited Taos in 1760, the situation hadnt improved much. The church and convento
were still standing, but the relationship between the
pueblos and the Spanish,
Comanche, Apache was volatile. Frequent raids and
attacks had
driven the settlers from their homesteads in the
valley.
They concentrated in the pueblo seeking refuge.
In 1776, when Fray Francisco Domnguez was sent
Mexico City to report on the Spanish borderlands,
he found Taos Pueblo surrounded by an adobe
wall. The village was so heavily fortified that he
described it as resembling "those walled cities
bastions and towers that are described to us in
When the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was
1846, New Mexico became a territory of the
States, a development viewed with apprehension
ambivalence by the Hispanic citizens of New
the sudden imposition of an Anglo
governor, Charles Bent, was from the Taos area, but
save him. He was murdered, along with several allies of
the new government and all Americans living in
Arroyo Hondo.

from

with
the Bible."
signed in
United
and
Mexico, who resented
government. The interim
that didnt
nearby

When word of the attack reached Santa Fe, troops were dispatched to quell the rebellion. The first battle took
place near Santa Cruz, with the insurrectionists forced back to Taos Pueblo, where they barricaded themselves
in the mission. The mission was barraged with muskets, cannons and a howitzer to no avail. The walls were 3 to
7 feet thick and virtually impenetrable. The Americans found an area of the church out of view of those inside
and began to chop at the walls with axes. Ladders were constructed so they could set the roof on fire. They
manually tossed artillery through holes created in the wall. As smoke filled the church and the holes became
openings, the Americans stormed the building taking everyone captive. With that, the uprising was quelled and
the San Jeronimo Mission was destroyed (again). One tower and fragments of the nave wall remain.
A new church was built sometime after 1847. The earliest photo of the current structure is from about 1885 and
depicts a church that looks somewhat different than the structure seen today. It was a plain, simple building,
with many modifications and renovations over the last century. The windows that line both walls have Gothic
flourishes that imply a rebuild during Archbishop Lamys tenure. Around 1920 a single turret with a wooden cap
was added. In photos taken after 1962, the twin towers were added, copying the design of churches in Las
Trampas and Santo Domingo. San Jernimo is now part of the main plaza; no longer relegated to the back of
the pueblo.
To see San Jeronimo or Taos Pueblo, contact (575) 758-1028. $16/adult, $14/children 11+, Free for children
under 10. Photography is allowed, but additional fees apply for commercial photography or video. See their
website or contact them directly for details.

San Miguel Mission

The chapel of San Miguel in Santa Fe is an anomaly both in purpose and structure. Unlike other mission
churches constructed at the time, San Miguel was built to provide ministry to the Indian servants who
accompanied the Spanish as they colonized the region. San Miguel features a single tower rather than the
typical flat frontal faade with twin towers seen elsewhere. However, the layout of the interior follows the
traditional pattern of a single nave, tapered sanctuary, transverse clerestory, and choir loft.

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1
The chapel was constructed at some point after the provincial capital was moved from San Gabriel to Santa Fe
in 1610. It was built at a distance from the plaza, in an area called Barrio Analco, which was land settled by
Spains Indian allies, including Tlascalan Indians from Mexico who had been granted special dispensation by the
king of Spain for allying with Corts in the battles against the powerful tribes of Central America. They worked
as miners, soldiers, scouts and colonists, aiding the conquistadors and missionaries as they advanced north.
Though they were valued as allies, the Spanish did not consider them equals, which is why they were relegated
to a piece of land at a distance from the central plaza. Analco is a Nahuatl word meaning across the water, a
reference to their district being on the other side of the river from the plaza.
As in other communities, the relationship between the civil authorities, the military and the clergy was volatile,
exacerbated, no doubt, by the
importance of the community as the capital. Each side
accused the others of
antagonizing and abusing the local
population, blaming
one another for the problems afflicting the
colony rather
than working together to address those
problems.
Attempts to resolve the conflict failed,
escalating
in 1640 to the point that the Governor, Luis de
Rosas, had the church demolished. A few
weeks later he was murdered when a
soldier, Nicolas Ortiz, serving as an escort
for the frequent caravans to Mexico City,
discovered that his wife had moved in with
Rosas while he was gone and was
pregnant with his child. Rosa was
immediately removed from office and
placed under house arrest. Ortiz, and a
party of masked cohorts, broke into the
house late at night on January 25, 1642, with Ortiz plunging a sword into Rosas a dozen times. He was arrested
and tried in Santa Fe. He was declared innocent and sent back to Mexico City, where he was arrested and tried
again. He was found guilty during the second trial and was sentenced to death by hanging. Somehow he
escaped, never to be seen again. Meanwhile back in Santa Fe strife and conflict continued erupting in 1680 with
the Pueblo Revolt. When the rebellion broke out, the pueblos killed the Spanish in their communities and
descended on Santa Fe. The Spanish gathered in the mission to defend themselves, until being allowed to
leave, with the refugees embarking on the long trek south to El Paso.
When Vargas successfully conquered Santa Fe he found the church destroyed and ordered it rebuilt, requesting
that it be done quickly rather than well. The poor condition of the chapel upset some members of the
congregation, but it was Agustn Flores Vergara who took action. In a request to the custos, an official in the
Franciscan Order, Flores wrote, "I beseech and entreat his reverence to grant me permission to go about in this city
and in other territories of this kingdom, with the holy image, to make a collection of alms which will be of assistance
in the execution of the chapel, in order to locate the image therein." His request was granted. He raised the funds to
repair and upgrade the church, hiring 15 workers, none of whom were native. By the end of 1710 construction
was complete.
When the Americans took over after the Mexican American War and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the
community was very different. Many of the Tlascalan Indians had fled with the Spanish to Mexico during the
Pueblo Revolt. They didnt accompany Vargas when he returned to reclaim the territory in 1692. By the time the
Americans took over, the church was in need of repairs and was only used for mass twice a year.
Archbishop Jean-Baptiste Lamy authorized the sale of the San Miguel mission to the Brothers of Christian
Schools on July 31, 1881. They founded Saint Michael's School on land just south of the church, utilizing it as a
school chapel. John Gregory Bourke, an army captain with a penchant for documenting his experiences and

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observations in voluminous diaries, visited Santa Fe in 1881. He wrote, "In this church are paintings hundreds of
years old, black with the dust and decay of time, which were brought from Spain by the early missionaries. With a
feeling of awe we left a chapel whose walls had re-echoed the prayers of men who perhaps had looked into the faces
of Corts and Montezuma or listened to the gentle teachings of Las Casas.
In 1853 Bishop Lamy built a stone altar, followed in 1862 by a new communion railing. In 1887 the lower part of
the tower was stabilized and capped with a metal roof, like many others renovated between 1880 1920. The
trend of the day, based on Archbishop Lamys architectural preferences, was a more anglicized look. The
wooden floor was added in 1927, and the pews were installed in 1950. During renovations in 1955 the pitched
metal roof and Victorian louvers were removed. In 1978 church authorities requested a "Historic Structure
Report and Master Plan," including a comprehensive history of the chapel and proposals for restoration and
maintenance.
Today the church is a popular destination for tourists and locals visiting Santa Fe. Barrio Analco is now
designated as a historical district, with the "Oldest House in the United States" across the street. The centuries
of mudding the walls have added to their mass, which was considerable when the building was originally
constructed. The majority of the vigas were added during renovations in the 1800s, with only two square ceiling
beams in the chancel remaining from the original construction. The balcony support beams and all the corbels
are beautifully carved, lending elegance to the simple, serene interior. The full-height reredos, which fills the
front of the sanctuary, is said to be the oldest in New Mexico, with a small figure of Saint Michael the Archangel
serving as the centerpiece. Dating from 1709 and brought from Mexico, the reredos has resided at San Miguel
since at least 1776.
San Miguel Chapel is open to visitors, no fee. They offer Latin Mass at 2pm as well as Sunday Mass at 5pm. The
Schola Cantorum of Santa Fe sings Vespers and a Gregorian chant Mass every third Sunday of the month at
4:00 pm. 401 Old Santa Fe Trail, Santa Fe. (505) 983-3974

Mission La Purisima Concepcn de Hawikuh

Esteban (Estevanico), a black Spanish slave originally from Morocco, was the first non-native explorer to
encounter Hawikuh. He was part of the ill-fated attempt to establish a Spanish colony in Florida, one of four
survivors. In the process of trekking across the southwest to reconnect with Spanish forces in Mexico City, he
assimilated the languages of the tribes he encountered. Based on his familiarity with both the languages and
cultures of the region, and his tales of wealthy villages and gold, he was dispatched with the scouting party sent
by the viceroy of Mexico to explore present-day New Mexico. He acted as a forward scout, traveling ahead of
the main party, led by Fray Marcos de Niza. Esteban was the first to reach the Zui city of Hawikuh in 1539.
Records over time repeatedly noted that Hawikuh was the largest, most important pueblo in all of Cibola.
The historic record and oral histories differ in terms of what happened next, but there is consensus regarding
the outcome. Shortly after Esteban made contact with the Zui he was killed, though the scouts accompanying
him were released unharmed. When they reported his death to the other members of their entourage, the
party returned to Mexico, fearing further contact with the Zui. Niza never entered Hawikuh. That didnt keep
him from adding to the rumors of wealth and gold in the north upon his return, prompting Viceroy Mendoza to
authorize, and finance, the Coronado expedition of 1540.
Coronado traversed southern New Mexico in June and July of 1540, arriving at Hawikuh in late July. As he
approached, he was disappointed to find a bustling, crowded community with no gold. The trip had been
difficult. His troops were starving and furious about having been misled. Coronado sent Niza back to Mexico

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City so his soldiers wouldnt kill him. Despite the obvious lack of gold, he ordered an attack on Hawikuh and
seized the city. It became his headquarters for several months.
Coronado documented his expedition thoroughly, including his initial impressions of Hawikuh, "As far as I can
tell, these Indians worship water, because it makes the corn grow and sustains their life." About the pueblo, he
reported that, "Although they are not decorated with turquoises, nor made of lime or good bricks, nevertheless they
are very good houses, with three, four, and five stories, where there are very good apartments... and some very good
rooms underground [ Kivas], paved, which are made for winter and have something like hot baths."
The warriors of Zui knew the Spanish were on the way and had already heard of their exploits further south.
Women and children were sent to Dowa Yalanne mesa top before the Spanish arrived. During his tenure in
Hawikuh, Coronado repeatedly expressed frustration that the men refused to allow the Spaniards contact with
the women and children of the pueblo. The 14 structures at Dowa Yalanne used as a refuge from the Spaniards
between 1540-1680 were called Heshoda Ayahltona, "ancient buildings above.
Having an extra 2000 people in the village quickly exhausted the limited resources of the community. The Zui
told Coronado about the pueblos farming fertile land on the banks of a river to the east. When Coronado
headed east to Kuaua, he wasnt expecting to find gold there. He went with the intention of setting up a winter
camp near an adequate food supply to sustain his troops.
Spanish missionary efforts began at Hawikuh in 1629. Don Juan de Oate assigned Fray Estevan de Perea to the
province encompassing the Acoma, Zui and Hopi pueblos. He built the mission at Hawikuh later that year.
The same lack of regard for indigenous culture and religious practices exhibited throughout the province
resulted in heightened animosity and ambivalence among the Zui, with the resident priest, Fray Francisco
Letrado, killed a few years later. The mission was burned. The Zui, fearing retaliation, abandoned Hawikuh,
retreating to the nearby mesa top to defend themselves for 3 years.
The mission was rebuilt by the late 1650s. It was frequently
by Apache raiders. During at attack in 1672 the
priest was killed and the mission was burned. It
was resurrected quickly, though the new edifice
didnt last long. The Zui aligned with the other
pueblos during the Pueblo Revolt of 1680,
destroying the mission for the final time. Both the
the Zui abandoned Hawikuh, never occupying it
again. The inhabitants took refuge with the other
five Zui pueblos on Black Mesa. The descendants
of Hawikuh and the Zui pueblos still occupy their
lands. Zui Pueblo is the largest of the 19 New
Mexican Pueblos, covering more than 700 square
miles, with a population of over 10,000.

attacked

Spanish and

Although Hawikuh was abandoned, it is revered and protected as a Zui ancestral site. All that remains of the
Mission La Pursima Concepcin and its convento are eroded adobe walls 2 - 3 feet high. Though it is one of the
lesser known, infrequently visited, sites, its cultural significance in undeniable. Hawikuh was designated as a
National Historic Landmark in 1960 and later included in the Zui-Cibola Complex National Historic Landmark
in 1974.

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The Hawikuh ruins are on the Zui Indian Reservation. The Zui Pueblo offers tours of the site for a fee. Visitors
should make reservations at least a week in advance to ensure availability. For tour information, please visit the
Zui Pueblo Department of Tourism website or call (505) 782-7238, ask for Tom or Kenny.

Mission Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe de Zui

Though the Zui were the first to encounter the Spanish when the Coronado expedition arrived looking for
gold, their land, and that of the Hopi, was located so far from the capital in Santa Fe that being assigned as a
resident priest was perceived as punishment, or penance, rather than as an honor or higher calling. One priest
assigned to Zui, Fray Jos, pointedly remarked, "If it had been chosen for a prison for those guilty of the gravest
crimes there would have not been a more severe decision."
Antonio de Espejo crossed Zui lands in 1583, followed by Juan de Oate in 1598. The first mission was
founded 30 years later, with the provincial governor, Manuel de Silva Nieto, and Custodian, Estevan de Perea,
trekking to Zui to attend the consecration. Perea described the reception of the priest, writing "There were
knowing people of good discourse; beginning at once to serve the Religious by bringing him water, wood, and what
was necessary." It seems likely that Perea misinterpreted the demonstration of acceptance and respect,
interpreting confusion and fear as compliance.
Between 1630 1631 Fray Francisco de Letrado succeeded Fray Roque de Figueredo. There were three
missions under construction in the Zui area, with one at Hawikuh dedicated to La Pursima Concepcin and
the other, at Halona, dedicated to Nuestra Seora de la Candelaria. The third church at Kechipauan was never
completed. When Fray Alonso de Benavides made his rounds to evaluate the territorys missions in 1626 he
described the churches as adorned and tidy. That didnt last. On February 22, 1632, as Fray Francisco de
Letrado attempted to gather the flock into his church, he was killed, with a second priest killed 5 days later. To
avoid Spanish vengeance, the Zui fled to the protection of the nearby mesa, Dowa-Yallone, aka Thunder
Mountain, as they had when Coronado attacked. They remained there for three years. This would become a
frequent pattern.
In 1643 the two missions that had been completed were restored, with the resident priest assigned to Halona
rather than Hawikuh. Spanish influence wasnt as strong on the outer periphery of the empire. Drought during
the middle of the 16th century created desperate circumstances for the pueblos, as well as for the Navajo and
the Apache, with the latter raiding Zui on a regular basis. In 1672 an Apache attack left the missionaries dead
and the church burned to the ground. Though the Franciscans quickly rebuilt at least one, if not both, of the
missions, the new structures were destined to meet the same fate as the others. The Zui participated in the
Pueblo Revolt of 1680. The resident priest was killed, though some legends suggest that he abandoned the
priesthood and joined the tribe. Well probably never know. Regardless he wasnt hanging out at the
demolished church when the Spanish returned.
When Vargas reclaimed New Mexico and sent emissaries to Zui, they discovered the church in an advanced
state of disrepair. The Zui had once again sequestered themselves on Dowa Yalanne to defend themselves
against Spanish attack. Vargas coaxed them down, promising not to attack, so they would return to their fields
and rebuild the church. He dispatch 11 soldiers to maintain order in the village and to make sure the mission
was restored.
Tamarn was unable to reach Zui on his mission tour of 1760, thwarted by intense heat. He was informed by
others that it was the largest pueblo in the province. The patron saint of the mission was Our Lady of
Guadalupe, and the church was deemed good. However, Domnguez did manage to get to Zui in 1776 to
inspect the status of Nuestra Seora de Guadalupe. He reported the population as 1,617 persons in 396

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families, which
10,000.
By

peeled

was a precipitous decline from Benavides' 1626 estimate of

1821 the resident priests were only sporadically
present, having abandoned Zui due to the
persistent Navajo and Apache attacks. When
Archbishop Lamy visited in 1863, mass was held
infrequently. By 1881 the church was deteriorating
and sinking back into the dirt that had given it
form. The windows were nothing but large
openings in the walls barred with wood.
The interior was in disarray. The fresco had
from the walls. Water and wind had
withered the adobe towers. The balcony
was sagging, held in place by a post.

Around 1905 parts of the roof were rebuilt, and

the width of the nave was reduced by 10 feet and its length by 20. The last restoration occurred in the 1960s,
conducted by the National Park Service. The church as it exists today is only part of the original complex. The
campo santo still fronts the church, divided in burial practice with women to the north and men to the south.
The original sacristy, baptistry and convent are gone. The interior was painted by the renown Zui artist Alex
Seowtewa with beautiful, life sized Kachinas.
The church is in dire need of repair. Tours have been cancelled indefinitely due to structural issues, though you
can view it from the outside in the middle village of Zui Pueblo. The interior is off limits for the moment. The
Kachinas are at risk, but cannot be removed from the walls without destroying them.
To find out more about the status and access to Zui Mission, please visit the Zui Pueblo Department of
Tourism website or call (505) 782-7238, ask for Tom or Kenny.

Mission San Diego

Tesuque, the first of the pueblos north of Santa Fe, is one of the smallest of the Tewa group. In contrast to the
large, clustered dwellings in Taos or the sprawling layout of Isleta, Tesuque Pueblo is centralized. The plaza, at
the center, is laid out east-west. Archeological evidence has established occupation on the site as early as 1200
A.D. Tesuque is also unique in that its church, dedicated to San Diego, is located on the plaza, though that
wasnt always the case. There is evidence that the pueblo, and the church, was relocated after the Pueblo
Revolt.
The original church was dedicated to San Lorenzo, with its founding credited to Fray Benavides in the late
1620s. It was torched during the Pueblo Revolt and the priest was killed, suffering the same fate as so many
others. When it was rebuilt in 1695 it was dedicated to a different saint. Why? The Pueblo Revolt of 1680
launched on August 10th, which was the feast day for San Lorenzo. The negative association with San Lorenzos
feast day necessitated a name change.
Like many adobe structures, maintenance and repairs were a constant, with the church deteriorating over the
decades. It was rebuilt in 1745 under the guidance of Fray Francisco de la Concepcin, but remained a visita of
Santa Fe into the 18th century.

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1
By the time Domnguez visited in 1776, he wrote that the church had been ministered by a priest from Nambe
since 1769, although church records list a resident priest at the pueblo between 1729 and 1772. The church that
Domnguez described is not the church that occupies the site today. The older church was a larger structure. It
was about 85 feet long by 20 feet wide with a ceiling height of 22 feet. There was no choir loft, indicating a lack
of musical interest, limited resources, or, perhaps, a community wide lack of interest in adopting a foreign
religion.
The nave had an earthen floor and a transverse clerestory. The convento in the courtyard was southeast of the
church. The facade was bolstered by two buttresses from the front corner, with a small tower on each.
Apparently the aesthetic induced little enthusiasm among the Franciscans, with one priest commenting,
"Essentially this church looks like the great granary of a hacienda."
Shortly after Domnguez visit the church was replaced by a new structure. Photos from the early 1900s show a
flat faade and a single nave, which is how it appears today. Today the church of San Diego, like other buildings
around the plaza, is rarely in pristine condition. The door to the church is kept locked, and the condition of the
interior and its contents is unknown. A plant has sprouted from the top of the front faade where the cross
resides as the natural elements reclaim the native soil of Tesuque.
To inquire about visiting Tesuque Pueblo or the mission, please call (505) 983-2667.

Santa Clara Mission

Santa Clara is a small Tewa pueblo on the western bank of the Rio Grande a few miles south of Espaola. Given
Santa Claras close proximity to the first Spanish settlement, San Gabriel, established by Juan de Oate in 1598,
it is not surprising that missionary work was launched early in Santa Clara, with the first mission established by
Fray Alonso de Benavides somewhere between 1626 and 1629. The dimensions of the original mission is a
mystery, but a 1664 report stated that "the pueblo of Santa Clara has a very good church, whatever is necessary for
public worship, a choir and organ, a fair convento, and a visita in the pueblo of San Juan.
When the Pueblo Revolt occurred, there was no resident priest to martyr, though all Spaniards in the region
were killed before the warriors of Santa Clara joined warriors from the other pueblos to descend on the
Spanish fortified in San Miguel Mission in Santa Fe. Although the mission was rebuilt when the Spanish
reclaimed the territory 12 years later, it remained a visita of San Ildefonso mission, until it collapsed in the mid1700s. In 1758 Fray Mariano Rodrguez de la Torre started launched construction on the one seen today, paying
for it out of his pocket rather than demanding alms from the pueblo and paying the workers tasked with
building it.
When Francisco Atanasio Domnguez traveled through Santa Clara compiling his report on the status of New
Mexicos missions he left a detailed account of the mission in Santa Clara, writing Because the old church had
fallen down, beginning in the year 1758 Father Fray Mariano Rodrguez de la Torre started to build the present one
and finished it. Although the Indians and settlers of the mission assisted in this project, no levy was made for the
purpose, since most of it was at the father's expense, as is shown by the fact that he supplied twenty yoke of oxen to
cart the timbers and he fed the laborers gratis. When the roof of the nave was finished, the Indians and the settlers
left the rest up to the father alone and to his industry. Therefore, what was necessary to roof the transept and
sanctuary was taken from alms, and with this he roofed it. The carpenters, in addition to being well paid, ate, drank,
and lived in the convent at the father's expense for a period of two months in the winter, when the days are short in
this region. And since these workmen are very gluttonous and spoiled (in this land, when there is work to be done in

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the convents, the workers want a thousand delicacies, and in their homes they eat filth; the gravy cost the father more
than the meat (as the saying goes).
The implication
worked.
Rodrguez
church
door
area,
long by
were
two

is that the workers were paid more than they

Clearly Domnguez didnt approve of
generosity and sense of fairness. The new
was built of adobe with thick walls and a main
facing the east. Unlike other missions in the
the nave was quite narrow. It was 115 feet
14 feet wide. There was no choir loft. There
transepts, each with a window at the end, and
additional windows on the south side to
provide light for the nave. A bell hung over
the entry in a small arch. The church's prize
possession was an altarpiece painted by Fray
Ramn Antonio Gonzlez in 1782.

Profile photos from the 1880s show the

abnormal length of the church. Lieutenant
John Bourke, author and profuse diarist, recorded his visit to Santa Clara in 1881, noting My guides were
anxious to show me the ruined church of "Santa Clara" and under their care, I made a brief examination. The ceiling
is formed of pine vigas with a flooring of rough split pine slabs, upon which is laid the earthen roof. In one arm of the
transept, were a collection of sacred statues, dolls, crosses, and other appurtenances of the church. The altarpiece,
though much decayed, is greatly above the average of church paintings to be found in New Mexico. It is a panel
picture, with an ordinary daub of Santiago in the top compartment and a very excellent drawing of Santa Clara in the
principal place. The drawing, coloring, and expression of countenance are unusually good and I don't blame the
Indians for being so proud of their Patroness. A confessional and pulpit occupy opposite sides of the nave.
Like other churches renovated during Archbishop Lamys tenure, the traditional style was deemed antiquated
and the decision was made to replace the leaking roof with a pitched metal roof. Unfortunately, a huge storm
occurred while the roof and supporting timbers were removed, which collapsed the walls of the enormous
edifice. It was completely destroyed in 1909.
There was no mission in Santa Clara for 9 years. When a new church was constructed, it was designed based on
the original, though on a much smaller scale. Unfortunately, they used stucco on top of adobe, which doesnt
weather well and peels. As a result, there is a constant need for maintenance and repair. The small chapel
doesnt possess the grandeur of its predecessor and is offset from the main pueblo.
Santa Clara Pueblo is located on NM 30, two miles south of Espaola, NM. From US 84 / US 285 turn west onto
Santa Clara Bridge Rd. and then turn left heading south on NM 30 the Los Alamos Highway. From NM 30, turn
left onto Rose Rd, make a right onto Kee St. and follow it to the mission church, which will be on the left.
Cameras are allowed only with a permit. The pueblo can be visited daily from dawn to dusk. Please call (505)
753-7326 for more information.

Resources
The University of Arizona
New Mexico History
US Mission Trail
Genealogy Trail

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University of California

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