Dimensionnement mcanique des turbomaracteurs

Cours de conception aronautique

Introduction au dimensionnement
mcanique et dynamique des
turboracteurs

Reference :
AERO0015-1 - MECHANICAL DESIGN OF TURBOMACHINERY 5 ECTS - J.-C. GOLINVAL

Principles of jet propulsion

Comparison between the working cycle of a turbo-jet engine
Air intake

Compression

Combustion

Exhaust

and a piston engine

Air intake

Compression

Combustion

Exhaust

Principles of jet propulsion

For aircraft propulsion, the thrust is produced by the acceleration
of the air passing through the engine.
Low pressure (LP)
compressor

Combustion
chamber

Low pressure (LP)

turbine

Exhaust

High pressure (HP)

compressor

High pressure (HP)

turbine

Principles of jet propulsion

For any flow section of the engine, the calculation of the thrust may be
achieved using the following formula:
Thrust = Pressure x Area of flow section + Mass flow rate x Velocity of flow

Example of a typical single-pool axial flow engine

Fcompressor
(85 kN)

Fcombustion
150 kN

235 kN

Fturbine
180 kN

205 kN

Total thrust = 30 kN. Forward.

Fexhaust
25 kN

Brief review of the evolution of turbojet engines

France
1921 GUILLAUME patent
combustor

axial-flow
compressor

axial-flow
turbine

At that time, these patents clearly described the air-breathing jet

principle but were not executed in practice because of the high
exhaust speed (e.g. 900 km/h) which was not compatible with the
too-slow aerovehicle at that time (e.g. < 300 km/h in the early 1920s)

Brief review of the evolution of turbojet engines

United Kingdom
1930 : patent of Frank WHITTLEs turbojet engine
combustor
radial compressor stage
exhaust nozzle
Multistage, axialflow compressor
axial-flow turbine

Brief review of the evolution of turbojet engines

United Kingdom
1937: 1st test of Whittles engine , the W.U. (Whittle Unit)
May 15, 1941: 1st flight of the Wittles engine on the Gloster
experimental aircraft
Compressor

Diffuser

1937 Wittles engine (WU)

Turbine

Helicoidal combustion
chamber

Brief review of the evolution of turbojet engines

United States
In September 1941, an agreement was signed between Great Britain
and the United States so that the United States could have the
engine W1X and a set of drawings of the Whittle W2B jet engine.
General Electric was chosen for jet engine development.
The W2B engine was built and tested on March 18, 1942, under the
name GE 1-A.

Brief review of the evolution of turbojet engines

Germany
1936 : development of an hydrogen turbojet demonstrator (He S-1)
by Hans VON OHAIN in the HEINKEL company
1937 : design of the flight engine (He.S3)
August 27, 1939 : 1st flight of the experimental He-178 airplane
with jet engine He.S3B

Jet engine Heinkel He.S3B

This was the first flight of a turbojet aircraft in the world.

10

Brief review of the evolution of turbojet engines

Germany
First jet engine leading to mass production

JUMO 004 turbojet engine

Starter motor

Cooling air duct

Combustion chamber

Control cone

11

Brief review of the evolution of turbojet engines

Germany
JUMO 004 development and production schedule
Start of development

Fall 1939

First test run

Oct. 11, 1940

First flight in Me-262

July 18, 1942

Beginning of production

Early 1944

About 6000 engines delivered

May 1945

Engine life of about 25 hours (above the combat life of a German fighter !)
Failure was due to the lack of turbine materials capable of withstanding
the high stresses at high temperatures.

12

Brief review of the evolution of turbojet engines

From 1940, design and construction of new turbojets increase drastically.

Advanced concepts appeared very early after the principle of

turbojet engine was discovered but their developments met
two technological problems:
The complete lack of heat-resistant materials.
The blade air cooling technology.

13

Development process of the structural design

Industrialization

Request
For
Proposal

Preliminary
Design
Review

Testing Program

Certification

Detailed Design

Program
Launch

First Engine
To Turn
milestone

Definition of the thermodynamic cycle

consistent with the specification and of the
best structural architecture of the engine

Today, the duration of this process is about 3 years (against ~ 6 years in

the 90s)

14

Preliminary design

Thrust requirement: for various operating points (limits of the flight

envelope)
Altitude

Minimum
aircraft
aerodynamic
lift

Engine maximum power

Aircraft structure
maximum temperature
(max Mach)
Aircraft structure maximum pressure
Speed

Electric power requirement: increasing need in modern aircrafts

(electric actuators, navigation systems)
This has an impact on the engine architecture and on
the structural design.

15

Challenges of turbojet technology

Overall efficiency of a jet propulsion engine

Overall efficiency

overall = thermal propulsive

Thermal efficiency

Propulsive efficiency

16

Challenges of turbojet technology

Thermal efficiency
The thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of the net power out
of the engine to the rate of thermal energy available from the fuel
According to the T-s diagram of an ideal turbojet engine, the
thermal efficiency simplifies to

Thermodynamic cycle
3
Temperature

thermal

T0
= 1
T3

3 4

1
0
Entropy

17

Challenges of turbojet technology

Propulsive efficiency
The propulsive efficiency is defined as the ratio of the useful power
output (the product of thrust and flight velocity, V0 ) to the total
power output (rate of change of the kinetic energy of gases through
the engine). This simplifies to
thrust

propulsive

flight velocity

F V0
2
=
=
W&out Ve V0 + 1

total power
output

exit velocity

Challenges of turbojet technology

If the propulsive efficiency is plotted versus the velocity ratio Ve / V0 ,
it follows that high propulsive efficiency requires the exit velocity to be
approximately equal to the inlet velocity.

propulsive

18

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
1

Ve / V0

19

Challenges of turbojet technology

To progress to the performance capabilities of today, two goals were
(and still are) being pursued:
1. Increase the thermodynamic cycle efficiency by increasing the
compressor pressure ratio.
Trend in compressor pressure ratios
Calendar years

Compressor pressure ratio

Late 1930 to 1940

3:1 to about 6:1

Early 1950

About 10:1

1950 to 1960

20:1 to about 25:1

2000

30:1 to about 40:1

Challenges of turbojet technology

2. Increase the ratio of power-output to engine weight by
increasing the turbine inlet temperature
Trend in turbine inlet temperatures
Turbine inlet temperature

20

Military
Commercial
Year

21

Challenges of turbojet technology

Depending on the types of applications, different development goals
may be pursued.
Supersonic flight (military engines)
Maximum thrust is sought by increasing the exit velocity (at the
expense of fuel economy) and decreasing the engine inlet diameter
(i.e. of the aerodynamic drag)

Example
SNECMA M88 military engine
(used on the RAFALE airplane)

22

Challenges of turbojet technology

Supersonic flight
If the turbine inlet temperature reaches its limit,
thrust augmentation by afterburning.

Afterburner

Thermodynamic cycle
Temperature

Nozzle

2
4
1
0

0
Entropy

3 4 5

23

Challenges of turbojet technology

Example of evolution of military engine performances
Comparison between SNECMA M88 military engine (used on the
RAFALE airplane) against ATAR engine (used on MIRAGE 3 airplane)

ATAR

M88

Power/weight ratio

base

x2

Fuel Consumption

base

- 30 %

Engine diameter

base

- 40 %

Turbine entry temperature (K)

1210

1850

Pressure ratio

6,1

24

Compressor exit temperature (K)

600

880

24

Challenges of turbojet technology

SNECMA M88 engine

1580 C
600 C

Titanium
alloy

Disks
r = 1000 MPa
= 1000 MPa
max = 650 C locally

Nickel base
superalloy

25

Challenges of turbojet technology

Subsonic flight (commercial engines)
A low thrust specific fuel consumption is sought by increasing the
propulsive efficiency
the principle is to accelerate a larger mass
of air to a lower velocity.
Solution: principle of the by-pass engine (called turbofan)
Note: to keep a high thermal efficiency, the pressure ratio and
the turbine inlet temperature must remain high.

Drawback:

the frontal area of the engine is quite large

more drag and more weight result

26

Challenges of turbojet technology

Solution: principle of the by-pass engine (called turbofan)

Air flow rate ~ 5 to 7 times the air flow

rate going through the gas generator

27

Challenges of turbojet technology

Trend in thrust specific fuel consumption
Single-pool axial flow turbojet
Twin-spool by-pass turbojet
Twin-spool front
fan turbojet
Advanced technology
(high by-pass ratio)
Propfan

Year

28

Challenges of turbojet technology

Evolution of turbojet engines to the technology level of today
In conclusion,
new concepts or technological breakthroughs are rare;
advancements are rather due evolutionary improvements of the
design
To achieve good performances, parallel research and development
effort were undertaken in areas such as in aerodynamics,
aerothermics, acoustics, combustion process, mechanics, metallurgy,
manufacturing,
Aim of the course
Study the mechanical aspects of the design.

29

Mechanical challenges of turbojet technology

Evolution of turbojet engines - mechanical aspects

1. Increasing of the compressor pressure ratio (r)

In the early turbojets: r ~ 6:1 8:1
Increasing r

variable geometry to adapt the compressor

behavior to various regimes

30

Mechanical challenges of turbojet technology

Solution n 1 : concept of variable stator blades
Design of reliable airflow control systems
Prevention of air leakage at the pivots of the vanes at high
pressures (temperatures).
Variable stator vanes

HP compressor

31

Mechanical challenges of turbojet technology

Solution n 2: concept of multiple rotors (r ~ 20:1 - 30:1)
Example of a dual-rotor configuration
Fan

HPC

HPT

LPT

CFM56

Advantages
Selection of optimal speeds for the HP and LP stages.
Reduction of the number of compressor stages.
Cooling air is more easily taken between the LP and HP rotors.
The starting of the engine is easier as only the HP rotor needs
to be rotated.

32

Mechanical challenges of turbojet technology

Rolls-Royce RB211 engine

33

Mechanical challenges of turbojet technology

Mechanical challenges
Analysis of the dynamic behavior of multiple-rotor systems and
prediction of critical speeds.
Design of disks.
Example

2 (or even 3) coaxial rotors require to bore the HP disks to allow

passing the LP shaft
the stress level doubles (hole) and increases with the boring
radius

To place the first critical speeds above the range of operational

speeds, the LP shaft diameter should be as high as possible.
Opposite requirements

34

Mechanical challenges of turbojet technology

Evolution of turbojet engines - mechanical aspects
2. Increasing the turbine temperature capability
Main technological challenge: the HP turbine temperature is
conditioned by the combustion chamber outlet temperature.
SNECMA combustion chamber

Stress distribution in a structural

element of the combustion chamber

35

Mechanical challenges of turbojet technology

2. Increasing the turbine temperature capability
Example of the SNECMA M88 HP turbine
Rotational velocity

Centrifugal acceleration

Disk load induced by the blades

36

Mechanical challenges of turbojet technology

In early turbojet engines: solid blades

the maximum
admissible temperature was directly related to improvement of
structural materials (Tmax ~ 1100 C)

From 1960-70: development of early air-cooled turbine blades

hollow blades
internal cooling of blades (casting using the lost wax
technique)

37

Mechanical challenges of turbojet technology

HP turbine blade cooling

Internal and film cooling

HP nozzle guide vane cooling

Impingement tubes
Film cooling

Lost wax
process

38

Mechanical challenges of turbojet technology

Today: single crystal casting

Mechanical challenges of turbojet technology

Comparison of turbine blade life properties

(fixed temperature and stress levels)

Elongation (%)

39

Directionally
solidified blades

Single
crystal
blades

Fracture

Conventionally
cast blade

*
Time (hrs)

Single crystal blades

40

Mechanical challenges of turbojet technology

Evolution of turbojet engines - mechanical aspects
3. Development of high-bypass ratio turbofans
Main technological challenge: mechanical resistance of fan blades
(without penalizing mass).
Improvement of structural materials such as titanium alloys.
Design of shrouded fan blades with a high length-to-chord aspect
ratio or of large-chord fan blades with honeycomb core.
Knowledge of the dynamics of rotors stiffened by high gyroscopic
couples and submitted to large out of balance forces (e.g. fan blade
failure).
Fan blade-off and containment analysis methods (e.g. blade loss).
Use of Foreign Object Damage criteria (e.g. bird or ice impact on
fan, ingestion of water, sand, volcanic ashes,...).

41

Mechanical challenges of turbojet technology

Example of take-off/landing on a soaked runway

42

Mechanical challenges of turbojet technology

New concept: high by-pass engine
wide chord fan blade
the weight is maintained at a low level by fabricating the blade
from skins of titanium incorporating a honeycomb core
Prop-fan concept

Contra-rotating prop-fan
This configuration is still
in an experimental state

Wide chord fan blade

construction

43

Dynamic analysis of industrial rotors

In practice:
rotors usually present more than one disk and a significant distributed
mass of the shaft;
supports are not rigid and present speed-dependent stiffness and
damping (produced by oil-film bearings) ( support of infinite mass);
rotor-stator interactions may happen.

The Finite Element Method is commonly used in industry.

44

Dynamic analysis of industrial rotors

1D-model (beam elements): the most used for pilot-studies.

2D-model (plane or axisymmetric shell elements): practical interest
for projects.
3D-model (volume elements): used for detailed analyses.

Nodes

Axisymmetric
beam element

Axisymmetric
shell element

Volume element

45

Dynamic analysis of industrial rotors

Stiffness matrix of
localized elements

Equations of motion

K S + C AS + K l ( )
Mass matrix
Matrix of circulatory forces
Structural stiffness matrix

M &&
q + C ( ) q& + K ( ) q + f ( q ,q& , ) = g ( t )
C S + G + Cl ( )

vector of nonlinear forces

(associated to interaction elements)

Damping matrix of localized elements

Gyroscopic matrix
Structural damping matrix

vector of
excitation forces

46

Dynamic analysis of industrial rotors

Type of analysis
Stability analysis and determination of critical speeds
(Campbell diagram).
Forced response to harmonic excitation.
Forced response to transient excitation (crossing of critical speeds).
Solution methods for the eigenvalue problem
Direct methods (substructuring techniques for large scale problems).
Projection methods (pseudo-modal approach).

47

Typical mission profile for a civil aircraft

The mission profile consists of several different segments:
take-off: 100 % N (duration ~ 5 min.)
maximum continuous: 110 % N (during a very short time,
in case of failure of one of the engines)
maximum climb: 98 % N (duration ~ 30 min.)
maximum cruise: 90 95 % N
idle: 75 % N (during descent and diversion when landing)
and 50 % N (warm-up and taxi manoeuvres).

48

Typical mission profile for a civil aircraft

Step climb

Continued
cruise

Cruise

Diversion

Hold

Take-off

Landing

The critical speeds should placed outside two zones:

50 % and [75% - 110%] of the nominal speed.

49

Baseline mechanical design of turbojets

Summary of basic steps for the design:
position the critical speeds outside the range of operational speeds
(e.g. a margin of 10% is usually taken).
add external damping to lower the resonance amplitude peaks (in
order to keep the rotor-stator gap at the minimum and thus to
optimize engine performances).
minimize excitation sources (balancing, alignment, optimization of
gaps).
select low support stiffness (flexible bearing supports) in order to
reduce the dynamic load transmitted through the bearing to the
stator.

50

The CFM 56-5 jet engine (Airbus A320, A 340)

Twin-spool front fan turbo-jet
(high by-pass ratio)
Take-off thrust of 11 340 daN

51

The CFM 56-5 jet engine (Airbus A320, A 340)

Schematic model of the jet engine
Casings
(15 nodes, 4 beam elements, 4 disks, 6 supplementary mass elements)
Bearings

Intershaft bearing

Bearings

Low-pressure (LP) rotor

High-pressure (HP) rotor

(9 nodes, 5 beam elements, 9 disks)

(7 nodes, 3 beam elements, 7 disks)

HP = 1.25 BP + 8750

( rpm )

52

The CFM 56-5 jet engine (Airbus A320, A 340)

Mode-shapes at 5000 rpm

Campbell diagram

Hz

3.9 Hz

= HP
19.9 Hz

3730
2080

200

3280

42.0 Hz

60.7 Hz

100
5720
3470

4260

= BP

2490

BP

1160
1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

tours/min.

71.1 Hz

53

The CFM 56-5 jet engine (Airbus A320, A 340)

Response to mass unbalance
on LP rotor (point A)

At point B

At point A
3470
10

5720

10
1160 2490

4260 5720

1160

0.1

0.1

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

BP

2490
3470
4260

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

BP

54

Structural dynamics of blades and disks

Vibration phenomena are the main cause of failure
of compressor blades and disks.
Requirements
Ability to predict:
natural frequencies (i.e. to identify critical speeds);
mode-shapes (i.e. to establish vulnerability to vibrate and
locations of maximum stresses);
damping levels (i.e. severity of resonance);
response levels (i.e. fatigue susceptibility);
stability (i.e. vulnerability to flutter).

55

Structural dynamics of blades and disks

Campbell diagrams
(Natural frequencies vs. Rotation speed)
Standard format for presentation of blade vibration properties in
order to illustrate the essential features and regions of probable
vibration problem areas.

56

Dynamic analysis methods for practical blades

Equations of motion

K S + K g ( C ) 2 MC
Centrifugal mass matrix
Mass matrix

Geometric stiffness matrix

Structural stiffness matrix

( )

M &&
q + G q& + K ( C , ) q = FC 2 + g ( t,q ,q& ,)
Vector of external forces
Gyroscopic matrix
Vector of static centrifugal forces

57

Dynamic analysis methods for practical blades

Type of analysis and solution methods

( )

M &&
q + G q& + K ( C , ) q = FC 2 + g ( t,q ,q& ,)
K S + K g ( C ) 2 MC
Static analysis (in order to determine the stress distribution due
to the centrifugal forces)

( )

K S + K g ( C ) 2 M C q = FC 2 + g

This equation is nonlinear, since C is unknown a priori

the solution

needs an iterative process, such as the Newton-Raphson method.

58

Dynamic analysis methods for practical blades

Dynamic analysis
As the Coriolis effects can be neglected (this is usually so for radial
blades), the equations of motion reduce to

M &&
q + K ( C , ) q = 0
where K has been determined by a preliminary static analysis.
The solution of this equation for different values of allows to
construct the Campbell diagram.

59

Dynamic analysis methods for practical blades

Campbell diagram of a compressor blade
Frequency
1000
(Hz)

2nd Bending (Flap)

Engine Order 7

Engine Order 6

Engine Order 5

Engine Order 4
500

1st Torsion (Edge)

Engine Order 3
1st Bending (Flap)
Engine Order 2

Engine Order 1

Rotation speed (rpm)

Flutter design methodology

Types of flutter
Supersonic stall flutter

High incidence
supersonic
flutter

Surge line
Subsonic/Transonic stall
flutter (one of the most
encountered in practice)
Pressure ratio

60

Classical
unstalled
supersonic flutter

50 %
Operating line

75 %

100 %

Corrected mass flow rate

Choke flutter

61

Flutter design methodology

Shroud or interconnected tip
The design of the first blades of the compressor is governed by
aeroelastic problems.
1st natural frequency (torsion or bending)

Criterion:

c x f1 > threshold limit

chord

First solution
Make the chord wider ( h c
high weight

2)

construction of the blade with a honeycomb core,

which renders the fabrication more complex (high cost).

62

Flutter design methodology

1st natural frequency (torsion or bending)

c x f1 > threshold limit

Criterion

chord

Second solution
Make the first natural frequency f1 higher (and bring damping)
shrouded blades ( h c
or fixed tip ( h c

2.5 to 3)

3.5)

Take care to the mechanical resistance (high centrifugal effect

at the external diameter).

63

Mechanical design of disks

Disks may have different shapes depending on their location into the engine
LP compressor

Fan

ring
Drum

HP compressor

Hollow constant-thickness disks

Disks of
varying
thickness

HP and LP turbines

Driving flange

64

Mechanical design of disks

65

Mechanical design of disks

Sources of stresses in a rotor disk
Centrifugal body force of disk material;
Centrifugal load produced by the blades and their attachments to
the disk;
Thermo-mechanical stresses produced by temperature gradients
between bore and rim;
Shear stresses produced by torque transmission from turbine to
compressor;
Bending stresses produced by aerodynamic loads on the blades;
Dynamical stresses of vibratory origin;

66

Mechanical design of disks

Damage tolerance philosophy
Crack size

Assumed life curves

Safety limit

Initial
defect
size

Detection limit

cycles

Return to service intervals

67

Mechanical design of turbine blades

An optimal mechanical design requires:

1. The precise determination of physical parameters
(temperature, stress and strain distributions)
use of refined
finite element models, thermo-elasto-viscoplastic analyses.
2. The perfect understanding of the material properties and the
conditions which lead to failure
this corresponds to the use
of an equivalent safety factor of 1.5 or less.

68

Conclusion
In summary, the mechanical design of turbojets is challenging.
One of the first challenge is the study of the dynamics of multiple rotor
systems submitted to large gyroscopic couples.
Then, depending on the engine component (blade, disk) and on its
location within the engine, problems are of very different nature:
In the cold parts of the engine (fan, LP compressor, HP
compressor), the mechanical design is based on the solution of
dynamical problems (blade vibrations, aeroelastic flutter, bird
impact).
In the hot parts of the engine (HP compressor, combustion
chamber, HP turbine), the design is based on creep and fatigue
calculations and a damage tolerance philosophy is applied.