C o m u n i c a c i n p a r a P r i n c i p i a n t e s

de lo s t e xt o s , Ro m i n a Sc hn a i de r y Ma r i a n o Za r o ws ky
( D
de la s i lu s t r a c i o n e s , K a li l L la m a z a r e s
de lo s de r e c ho s e xc lu s i vo s p a r a
e l i di o m a e s p a o l, Er a Na c i e n t e SRL .
D i r e c t o r de la s e r i e : lu a n C a r lo s K r e i m e r
D i s e o : K a li l L la m a z a r e s
P a r a P r i n c i p i a n t e s
e s u n a c o le c c i n de li b r o s de
Er a Na c i e n t e SRL
Fa x : ( 5411) 4775-5018
Bu e n o s Ai r e s , Ar ge n t i n a
E -m a i l : kr e i m e r @c i u da d . c o m . a r
www. p a r a p r i n c i p i a n t e s . c o m
Sc hn a i de r , Ro m i n a
C o m u n i c a c i n p a r a p r i n c i p i a n t e s / Ro m i n a Sc hn a i de r y Ma r i a n o
Za r o ws ky. -1 e d. - Bu e n o s Ai r e s : Er a Na c i e n t e , 2 004 .
2 08 p . ; 2 0x14 c m : ( P a r a p r i n c i p i a n t e s )
ISBN 987-555-019-1
1 . C o m u n i c a c i n . I . Za r o ws ky, Ma r i a n o . II . T t u lo
C D D 302 . 2 3
Qu e da he c ho e l de p s i t o qu e p r e ve la L e y 11 . 72 3
Ni n gu n a p a r t e de e s t e li b r o p u e de s e r r e p r o du c i da ,
a lm a c e n a da o t r a n s m i t i da de m a n e r a a lgu n a
p o r n i n gn m e di o , ya s e a e le c t r n i c o , qu m i c o
o de fo t o c o p i a , s i n p e r m i s o p r e vi o e s c r i t o de l e di t o r
.
L a p r e s e n t e e di c i n s e t e r m i n de i m p r i m i r
e n lo s t a lle r e s de L o n gs e lle r , Bu e n o s Ai r e s ,
Re p b li c a Ar ge n t i n a , e n ju li o de 2 004 .
QU ES L A C OMUNIC AC IN?
( OMVNIURSE
/ INVOL O A
INT E ( AMP IOS
AFE( T IVOS
ENT RE r a s o NAS
0 RUNS .
L A T E( N0L 00A
ES ( OMUNIU( IN,
EL T EL FONO, INT EIWET ,
EL P ORT ERO EL t ( T r K o . . .
i Y 4UE D E L OS G EST OS,
D E L AS r o s i ( IONES D EI.
( u W O, o D E L AS
ENT ONA( IONEST
. . . L OS MENSAJES D E L o s MED IOS
MASIVOS D E ( OMVNI( A( IN . . W
i ( VAL Qp IEK A( T IVID AD
EN EL BAK K i O!
Y O ME ( OMUNI( 0
A T RAVS D E
MI MSI( . . .
Es ha b i t u a l e s c u c ha r fr a s e s de l t i p o
: " t o do e s c o m u n i c a c i n " , " n a da de lo
qu e ha c e m o s e s t fu e r a de la c o m u n i c a c i n
. . . " o qu e " la c o m u n i c a c i n
e s i n he r e n t e a l ho m b r e "
. Si n e m b a r go , e s t a s i de a s ge n e r a le s n o da n u n a
,
di ga p r e c i s a de c u l e s e l c a m p o de e s t u di o de la c o m u n i c a c i n .

%
EL C AMP O D E EST UD IOS D E L A C OMUNIC AC IN
Mu c ho s t e r i c o s r e fle xi o n a n s o b r e la c o m u n i c a c i n . En ge n e r a l, la s
p r e o c u p a c i o n e s e s t n c e n t r a da s e n p r o b le m a s m s a m p li o s . P o r e je m -
p lo , e l fu n c i o n a m i e n t o s o c i a l, e l p o de r , e l c o n o c i m i e n t o , la p o l t i c a , la
de m o c r a c i a , la e c o n o m a , la s t e c n o lo g a s , la p s i qu i s . . . El fe n m e n o de
la c o m u n i c a c i n , p o r lo t a n t o , p u e de e n c a r a r s e de s de di s t i n t o s e n fo -
qu e s
. D e s de ya , e s t o s e n fo qu e s de b e n r e m i t i r a lo s c o n t e xt o s s o c i a le s
e n qu e t i e n e lu ga r la c o m u n i c a c i n , y a s u de s a r r o llo hi s t r i c o
.
L A C OMUNIC AC IN EN AC C IN
Es t u di a r e l fe n m e n o c o m u n i c a c i o n a l i m p li c a c o n s i de r a r la fo r m a e n
qu e s e e s t r u c t u r a n , p r o du c e n y r e c e p c i o n a n lo s di fe r e n t e s t i p o s de
m e n s a je s . T a m b i n s e p u e de c e n t r a r e n e l e s t u di o de la s i de a s y va lo -
r e s qu e c i r c u la n a t r a v s de lo s m e di o s , y la s r e la c i o n e s de p o de r qu e
s e ve hi c u li z a n a t r a v s de e llo s .
MIRA L A ( MARA P ARA BUSC AR
( OMP L I( ID AD ( 01V L A AUVIUG A . 51
EL T EL EVID ENT E SIENT E 4UE
L O MIRAS A L OS 0)OS, ( REERA T US
P AL ABRAS . . .
T a m b i n p u e de a n a li z a r s e la s p o s i b i li da de s de p r o du c i r , r e c i b i r y p a r -
t i c i p a r e n lo s m e n s a je s , s e gn la p e r t e n e n c i a a de t e r m i n a do s gr u p o s ,
c la s e s o n a c i o n a li da de s .
Ade m s de la r e fle -
xi n a c e r c a
de la s t e c n o lo g a s ,
la c o m u n i c a c i n
a b o r da e l e s t u di o
y a n li s i s de lo s
a c c e s o s y u s o s
qu e da n a e s t a s
he r r a m i e n t a s lo s
di s t i n t o s a c t o r e s
y s e c t o r e s s o c i a -
le s .
1P ARA QU UT IL IZA INT ERNET ?
1P ARA ENVIAR MAIL S, BAJAR
)UEG o S,
BUSC AR T RABAJO,
L EER L AS NOT IC IAS 0 ( HAT EAR'
I - QU ES L A C OMUNIC AC IN
5
Au n qu e Ar i s t t e le s n o de fi n e la c o m u n i c a c i n ,
e n s u Re t r i c a , s e a la e l p r o p s i t o de s t a :
V
1_\
1),
I
1~~

( ~

II
( j
o &

d( ( \t
I
ge n t e , a l c o m u n i c a r s e , c o -p a r t i c i p a , c o n vi ve
. L a e da d m e di a do t a
i o n de c o m u n i c a r e l s e n t i do de a c t u a r e n c o m n
. L a p a la b r a r e li -
t i e n e u n s e n t i do p a r e c i do
: vi e n e de l la t n , r e li ga r e : r e u n i r , a u n a r ,
o m u n a r " .
1 - QU ES L A C OMUNIC AC IN
L A RET RIC A
: C ONMOVER Y P ERSUAD IR
L a r e fle xi n s o b r e la c o m u n i c a c i n c o m o fe n m e n o s o c i a l da t a de
t i e m p o s r e m o t o s
. L a s o c i e da d e s i m p e n s a b le s i n c o m u n i c a c i n y, c o -
m o t o da a c t i vi da d hu m a n a , e s u n a p r c t i c a c o m p le ja y lle n a de a s p e c -
t o s fa s c i n a n t e s .
L a i n t e n s a a c t i vi da d p o l t i c a e n la a n t i gu a G r e c i a o b li g a s i s t e m a t i z a r
e l p r o c e s o de c o m u n i c a c i n . El o b je t i vo
: c o n ve n c e r a l a u di t o r i o . En s u
Re t r i c a ,
Ar i s t t e le s de fi n e lo s c o m p o n e n t e s de la c o m u n i c a c i n :
ORAD OR

D 5( URSO

AUD IT ORIO
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6

IC OMUNIC AC IN P ARA P RINC IP IANT ES

L a o r a t o r i a e s e l a r t e de la p e r s u a s i n a t r a v s de la p a la b r a ha b la da
.
Se gn lo s gr i e go s , e l p o l t i c o n o s lo de b e t e n e r b u e n o s a r gu m e n t o s
s i n o c o n m o ve r a s u a u di t o r i o .
HIST ORIA D EL T RMINO
L o s t r m i n o s " C o m u n i c a r " y " C o m u n i c a c i n " a p a r e c e n p o r p r i m e r a ve z
e n la le n gu a fr a n c e s a e n la s e gu n da m i t a d de l s i glo X IV
. En s u s e n t i do
b s i c o , s u p o n e n u n a a c c i n c o m u n i t a r i a de p a r t i c i p a r e n c o m n o p o -
n e r e n r e la c i n y r e m i t e n a l vo c a b lo la t i n o " c o m m u n i c a r e "
. En e l i n gl s ,
p r o vi e n e n de la r a z " c o m m u n i s "
.
Es de c i r , qu e e l s e n t i do i n i c i a l de l t r m i n o " C o m u n i c a r " a lu de a la i de a
de " p a r t i c i p a r e n " .
t
1
T RENES, T EL FONOS, P ERID IC OS, RAD IO Y T EL EVISIN
SE C ONVIERT EN SU( ESIVAMENT E EN " MED IOS D E ( OM~NIUQN" ,
ES D EC IR, MED IOS P ARA t ASAR D E A A
B . EST E SENT ID O
D E T RANSMISIN P RED OMIN t OR MV( t i 0 T IEMP O
EN L AS T EORAS D E ( OMVNI( A( IN .
Y VES WINK IN
Q
ES ( I RT O, SE L E D A A
``( 0MVNl( AR EL SENT ID O
D E T RANSMIT IR, UN P ROC ESO
VWlD IRE( ( IONAL , D IFERENT E
A ( OMP ART IR EN u NA
A( ( IN ( OMON.
1
0
I
n
RAY MOND WIL L IAMS
t e n s i n e n lo s s e n t i do s de l t r m i n o c o m u n i c a c i n p e r m i t e c o m -
r lo s di fe r e n t e s m o de lo s de c o m u n i c a c i n qu e de s de di s t i n t a s
fi n a s
i n t e n t a n e xp li c a r e s t e fe n m e n o a lo la r go de l s i glo X X
.
I - QU ES L A C OMUNIC AC IN
L o s gr a n de s c a m b i o s p r o du c i do s p o r e l de s a r r o llo de l c a p i t a li s m o c o -
m e r c i a l m o di fi c a n e l s e n t i do " c o m u n i t a r i o " de la e xp r e s i n
. En e l s i glo
X V, lo s o b je t o s de u s o di a r i o s e c o n vi e r t e n e n m e r c a n c a s , e s de c i r , e n
b i e n e s qu e s e p u e de n c o m p r a r y ve n de r
. En e s t e c o n t e xt o , la i de a de
" C o m u n i c a c i n " s e t r a s la da a u n o b je t o , e s de c i r , a lgo qu e p u e de s e r
i n t e r c a m b i a do .
o j ENVI O ET A
( o Mu Nl( A( I5N
P ARA Q U
EEJT EI
A L T ANT O
D E
L A) NOVED AD E(
D E NVEIT FA ExP E -
NIa N ( MER( +AL '
El t r m i n o " C o m u n i -
c a c i n " e m p i e z a a r e -
fe r i r t a m b i n a l m e di o ;
e s a s c o m o s u r ge n
e xp r e s i o n e s t a le s c o -
m o " l n e a s de c o m u n i -
c a c i n " o " s i s t e m a s
de c o m u n i c a c i n " .
L a t r a n s m i s i n e n e s t e t i p o de c o m u n i c a c i n p u e de s e r t a n t o de m e r -
c a n c a s , p e r s o n a s o i n fo r m a c i n , a t r a v s de c a m i n o s , c a n a le s , v a s
f r r e a s o t e l gr a fo s
. P o r e s o , e s t a i de a de c o m u n i c a c i n s u p o n e u n a
t r a n s m i s i n a b s t r a c t a , fc i lm e n t e c u a n t i fi c a b le y p r e vi s i b le
.
El c a p i t a li s m o i n du s t r i a l, a p a r t i r
de l s i glo X VII y fu n da m e n t a lm e n -
t e de l X VIII, ge n e r a u n c r e c i m i e n -
t o de la s fb r i c a s , la p r o du c c i n y
e l c o n s u m o . El i n t e r c a m b i o c a da
ve z m a yo r de m e r c a n c a s r e qu i e -
r e de s a r r o lla r s i s t e m a s y c a n a le s
e fi c a c e s p a r a s u t r fi c o .
L A C OMUNIC AC IN C OMO T RANSMISIN
El t r m i n o " c o m u n i c a r " -o r i gi n a lm e n t e li ga do a la i de a de c o m p a r t i r ,
p a r t i c i p a r e n c o m n , o p o n e r e n r e la c i n - s e e n t i e n de a ho r a c o m o
t r a n s m i s i n de u n p u n t o a o t r o
. Es t e s i gn i fi c a do p r e do m i n a a p a r t i r de l
s i glo X IX c o n e l s u r gi m i e n t o de la p r e n s a y lu e go , e n e l s i glo X X , c o n
la a n a r i e i n de In s
m e di n s de c n m u n i r e r i n m a s i va
.
NEC ESIT AMOS UN MOD EL O MAT EMT IC O
QUE P ERMIT A ( UANT IFI( AK EL ( OST O D E UN
MENSAJE T EL EFNIC O Y L OG K E L AS
( OND I( IONES NEC ESARIAS t AK A Su EFI( A( IA
.
P 1.
SI
L OG R ( ONST RUIK UN

/01
RAT N INT EL IG ENT E QUE SAL G A SL O

1
D E UN L ARK INT O, ( MO
NO REAL IZAR L o &VE ME P ID EN!
r de
e s t a r vi n c u la do a la r e s o lu c i n de p r o b le m a s t c n i c o s , i n -
'r e s de di s t i n t a s c o r r i e n t e s -de s de la li n g s t i c a e s t r u c t u r a l
s o c i o lo g a fu n c i o n a li s t a - t r a s la da n e l m o de lo de
Sha n n o n a
a s hu m a n a s
. P o r m u c ho t i e m p o e s c o n s i de r a do EL m o de lo
u n i c a c i n
.
r
I - QU ES L A C OMUNIC AC IN

11
L A T EORA MAT EMT IC A D E
L A C OMUNIC AC IN
C o n e l de s a r r o llo de lo s m e di o s de c o m u n i c a c i n y la s t e c n o lo g a s de
c o m u n i c a c i n m a s i va , la p r e o c u p a c i n de lo s t e r i c o s s e c e n t r a e n
da r le a la c o m u n i c a c i n u n e s t a t u t o c i e n t fi c o p a r a e s t u di a r la c o m o t a l
.
El c i e n t fi c o e s t a do u n i de n s e C . E . Sha n n o n , ju n t o a Wa r r e n We a ve r ,
p u b li c a n
T he Ma t he m a t i c a l T he o r y o f
C o m u n i c a t i o n ( 1948) . En e s t e
t r a b a jo da n a c o n o c e r u n m o de lo p a r a e xp li c a r c i e n t fi c a m e n t e la c o -
m u n i c a c i n .
EL D ESAFO ES EN( ONT K AK
L A MANERA D E ( OMUNI( AK
L A MAY OK ( ANT ID AD D E
MENSA)ES ( 014 L A ML NOK
INT EK FEK EN( IA Y AL MENOK
( 0ST 0 P OSIBL E .
In ge n i e r o e le c t r o t c n i c o y m a t e m t i c o ,
C la u de Elwo o d
Sha n n o n
( 1916- 2 001)
e s c o n s i de r a do e l p a dr e de la s c o m u n i c a c i o n e s e le c t r -
n i c a s . Mi e n t r a s t r a b a ja p a r a lo s L a b o r a t o r i o s
Be ll, fo r m u la u n a t e o r a
c o n o c i da c o m o
L a t e o r a m a t e m t i c a de la In fo r m a c i n
.
L a p r e o c u p a c i n de
Sha n n o n
n o e s t c e n t r a da e n la c o m u n i c a c i n hu -
m a n a , s i n o e n la c o m u n i c a c i n e le c t r n i c a
.
UP
SI ES( K IBIMOS
L A q No ES
NE( ESAK IO
ES( K IBIK L A
u , fo Ro vE
NO AG K EG A
INFOK MA( IN .
EL G RAD O D E
r kd$ABIL ID AD
-. ,
W
7~ D E qu E L A o
/

EST SEG UID A

u

D E UNA U ES
MX IMO .
El m o de lo de c o m u n i c a c i n de
Sha n n o n e s li n e a l : s u p o n e u n o r i ge n , e l
p o lo e m i s o r , qu e t r a n s m i t e u n a s e a l, y u n fi n a l e n e l p o lo r e c e p t o r , qu e
s lo la de c o di fi c a .
Su e s qu e m a p r o p o n e lo s s i gu i e n t e s e le m e n t o s
:
FUENT E D E
INFORMAC ION
EMISOR
FUENT E D E
RUID O
L a fu e n t e de i n fo r m a c i n p r o du c e u n m e n s a je o u n a s e c u e n c i a de
m e n s a je s
; p o r e je m p lo , e s la vo z de qu i e n e m i t e u n m e n s a je
.

El m e n s a je :
Se r e fi e r e a la p a la b r a m i s m a o la s e a l u t i li z a da
.
El c o di fi c a do r o e m i s o r
: Ap a r a t o qu e t r a n s fo r m a la i n fo r m a c i n e n u n a
m o du la c i n f s i c a s u s c e p t i b le de s e r t r a n s m i t i da p o r e l c a n a l
. P o r e je m -
p lo , e l t e l fo n o t r a n s fo r m a la vo z e n o s c i la c i o n e s e l c t r i c a s
; e s de c i r ,
c u m p le la fu n c i n de la s c u e r da s vo c a le s r e s p e c t o de la vo z ha b la da )
.

El c a n a l :
Es e l m e di o u s a do p a r a t r a n s m i t i r la s e a l de s de e l t r a n s -
m i s o r a l r e c e p t o r ( p . e .
e l c a b le de t e l fo n o o e l a i r e )

El de s c o di fi c a do r o r e c e p t o r :
e fe c t a ge n e r a lm e n t e la o p e r a c i n i n -
ve r s a a la r e a li z a da p o r e l t r a n s m i s o r , de s c o di fi c a n do la s e a l p a r a r e -
c o n s t r u i r e l m e n s a je .

El de s t i n o :
la p e r s o n a a la qu e le lle ga e l m e n s a je
.
MENSAJE

SEAL

SEAL
EMIT ID A

REC IBID A
MENSAJE
REC EP T OR

D EST INO
So b r e s a le , fi n a lm e n t e ,
u n fe n m e n o p e r t u r b a do r :
12

IC OMUNIC AC IN P ARA P RINC IP IANT ES

EL RUID O
El r u i do e s la p r e s e n c i a e xt e r n a y a le a t o r i a de i n t e r fe r e n c i a s qu e i m p i -
de la c o r r e s p o n de n c i a p e r fe c t a e n t r e lo s do s p o lo s
. A m e di da qu e a u -
m e n t a e l r u i do , la c o m u n i c a c i n e s m e n o s e fi c a z
.
El c o n c e p t o de i n fo r m a c i n e s , p o r lo t a n t o , o p u e s t o a l c o n c e p t o de r u i -
do
. L a i n fo r m a c i n e s la c a n t i da d m n i m a de u n i da de s qu e p e r m i t e n a l
r e c e p t o r r e c o n s t r u i r e l m e n s a je de m a n e r a c o r r e c t a
.
C u a n t o m s c la r a e s la i n fo r m a c i n , m e n o s e le m e n t o s s e n e c e s i t a n
p a r a c o m p r e n de r la , y e s t m s p r o t e gi da de l r u i do
.
C u a n do s e i n t r o du c e r u i do e n e l m e n s a je , s t e p r e s e n t a di s t o r s i o n e s
.
Es t o s e fe c t o s p r o du c e n u n i n c r e m e n t o de la i n c e r t i du m b r e
.
L a s c o m p a a s t e le f n i c a s p a r a la s qu e t r a b a ja
Sha n n o n b u s c a n la
m xi m a e fi c a c i a p a r a b a ja r lo s c o s t o s de la c o m u n i c a c i n
. El r u i do , p o r
lo t a n t o , e s u n a p e r t u r b a c i n i n t o le r a b le .
1( MO P IENSAS VE SE ENVAN L OS
T EL EG RAMAS? EL FINAL D E ( AD A
P AL ABRA ES T AN P REVISIBL E qu E
SE L o s u r K IME.
m o de lo s de c o m u n i c a c i n b a s a do s e n la s t e o r a s m a t e m t i c a s de
o r m a c i o n i gn o r a n a lo s i n di vi du o s r e a le s
. P a r a e l s e r hu m a n o , la
n i c a c i n e s

b i u n p r o c e s o u n vo c o y de i n flu e n c i a m u t u a
.
AT E A Su t EK K O!
14

IC OMUNIC AC IN P ARA P RINC IP IANT ES

A . MI NO
ME G RIT E!
L a r e t r o a c c i n p o s i t i va , a li m e n t a y a c e n t a e l p r o c e s o e n c u r s o .
C u a n do u n a p e r s o n a ha b la fu e r t e , la o t r a s u b e e l t o n o , y lu e go e l p r i -
m e r o lo ha c e m s , y a s s u c e s i va m e n t e .
En
c a m b i o , e n la r e t r o a c c i n n e ga t i va e l p r o c e s o e n c u r s o s e a m o r t i -
*a o s e r e gu la
. En lu ga r de e le va r s u vo z p o r e n c i m a de la qu e lo
T a a gr e di do , e s t e s e o r p r e fi r i lle va r t o do a s u p u n t o i n i c i a l
. En
c a s o , ha y u n a a u t o r r e gu la c i n de l p r o c e s o
.
L A
ESC UEL A INVISIBL E
b s
a o s '40 y '50, u n gr u p o de i n ve s t i ga do r e s n o r t e a m e r i c a n o s ,
e n t e s de di s t i n t a s di s c i p li n a s ( li n g s t i c a , a n t r o p o lo g a , s o c i o lo -
p s i qu i a t r a , m a t e m t i c a ) de s a r r o lla n r e fle xi o n e s c o n t r a r i a s a la s
a c i o n e s de
Sha n n o n .
e s t a s n u e va s p o s i c i o n e s , la c o m u n i c a c i n e s u n p r o c e s o s o c i a l,
e n t e , qu e i n t e gr a m lt i p le s e i n di s o c i a b le s e le m e n t o s
: la p a la -
ge s t o , la m i r a da , la m m i c a y e l e s p a c i o i n t e r i n di vi du a l
: c o n t e x-
o f s i c o , r o le s , s t a t u s
. . .
t a s n u e va s m i r a da s , e s u n e r r o r t r a s la da r a la c o m u n i c a c i n
t o s
m o de lo s de lo s s i s t e m a s e l c t r i c o s
.
I - QU ES L A C OMUNIC AC IN 15
FEED BAC K
( RET ROAC C IN)
No r b e r t Wi e n e r ( 1894-1964), e x p r o fe s o r de
Sha n n o n , t r a b a ja la n o -
c i n de fe e db a c k e n C yb e r n e t i c s o r C o n t r o l a n d C o m m u n i c a t i o n i n t he
An i m a l a n d Ma c hi n e ( 1948) . Es t e c o n c e p t o -t o m a do de la i n ge n i e r a -,
i n flu ye s o b r e lo s e s t u di o s de la s c o n du c t a s hu m a n a s y s o c i a le s
; a t r a -
v s de e s t e c o n c e p t o s e a p r o xi m a n a la i de a de c o m u n i c a c i n c o m o
u n p r o c e s o , di fe r e n c i n do s e de l e s qu e m a li n e a l de
Sha n n o n .
En t r m i n o s c o m u n i c a c i o n a le s , e l fe e db a c k i m p li c a a qu e llo qu e lle ga a l
fi n a l de l p r o c e s o de c o m u n i c a c i n y qu e p r o vo c a u n a r e a c c i n e n e l r e -
c e p t o r
; e s t a r e a c c i n i n flu ye t a m b i n e n e l p o lo e m i s o r
.
El e s qu e m a de Wi e n e r
s u r ge de u n a p r e o c u p a c i n p o r e l fu n c i o n a -
m i e n t o t c n i c o de la s m qu i n a s
. P o r e s o , c u a n do s e lo t r a s la da a la
c o m u n i c a c i n hu m a n a , p u e de p a r e c e r a lgo a b s t r a c t o .
A)ESE r o K
D ND E ( AMIWA!
MAL ED W( AD O! D i ( UL P E!
L OS G EST OS 1A6L AN P OR S SOL OS .
OBSERVA C MO MUEVE SUS MANOS
Y ENFAT IZA ( ON SU MIRAD A .
EN OT RAS ( UL T URAS, EST A
SIT UAC IN P OD RA SER
OFENSIVA . AQU, EN ( AM$IO,
SE C OMP ART EN ( ONVEN( IONES
SOC IAL ES .
ES D EC IR, T OD O ( OMUNI( A .
T OD O, ABSOL UT AMENT E
T OD OS AUN 'AND O D OS
P ERSONAS EST N EN
SIL ENC IO SE ( OMUNI( ANT
L A D IST ANC IA ENT RE EVOS
T AM6IN . F)AT E ( MO D EJAN
BANC OS L IBRES ENT RE S ,
( OMO SI T EMIERAN EL ( ONT A( T O .
EX A( T O, OBSERVA L A
fOSI( IN D E SUS ( u ERIOS,
SUS G EST OS, ES IMr OSIBL E
NO ( OMUNI( AR.
Edwa r fla n ( 1911)

G REG D RY MT ESON G 9o r ~9~o )

A di fe r e n c i a de lo s a n li s i s de
Sha n n o n qu e ha c e n hi n c a p i e n e l c o n -
t e n i do de lo s m e n s a je s , e s t e n u e vo e n fo qu e s e p r e o c u p a p o r i n t e gr a r
lo s c o n t e xt o s a l p r o c e s o de c o m u n i c a c i n .
P o r e je m p lo , la p r o x m i c a s e e n c a r ga de l e s t u di o de l e s p a c i o y s u r e la -
c i n c o n la c o m u n i c a c i n ; la ki n s i c a , de l a n li s i s de la ge s t u a li da d .
Y O INT ERAC T O, T INT ERAC T UAS . . .
Er vi n g G o ffm a n , s o c i lo go de la c o r r i e n t e de l i n t e r a c c i o n i s m o s i m b -
li c o , e s t a b le c e la s p r e m i s a s p a r a p e n s a r la c o m u n i c a c i n hu m a n a
c o m o u n a i n t e r a c c i n , t e n i e n do e n c u e n t a do s e le m e n t o s : la s r e gla s y
la s e s t r a t e gi a s o ju e go s .
L a s r e gla s r i t u a le s e n m a r c a n la s i n t e r a c c i o n e s c o m u n i c a t i va s y s o n
e s p e c fi c a s a c a da c u lt u r a
. C a da s o c i e da d t i e n e , p o r e je m p lo , di fe r e n -
t e s r e gla s de c o r t e s a s , de b u e n t r a t o o m o da li da de s de s a lu do .
wfERO OA' SIMP T I( A E
INT EL I6EWT E ES EST A MAS( OT AII!
C a da i n di vi du o p u e de i n t e n t a r m a n i p u la r la s r e gla s p a r a b e n e fi c i o p r o p i o ,
o c o n s t r u i r u n p a p e l de s m i s m o qu e le p e r m i t a i m p o n e r u n a m e jo r i m a -
ge n
. C a da u n o p o n e e n e s c e n a u n a i m a ge n de s , c o n s t r u ye u n p a p e l .
I - QU ES L A C OMUNIC AC IN

17
18
AD EMS D E L AS P AL ARAS
EL C D IG O AP EL A A UN
EY , MEN!!

USO P ART IC UL AR D EI
/s

( UERP O Y L A
( EST UAL ID AD ,
D ET ERMINAD AS
VEST IMENT AS . . .
i QUE OND AS!!
D e s de e s t a p e r s p e c t i va , n i n gn e le m e n t o de l p r o c e s o c o m u n i c a t i vo
p u e de s e r a i s la do de lo s de m s ( c o m o s ha c e
Sha n n o n e n s u
m o de lo ), p o r qu e c a da u n o t i e n e va lo r e n e l c o n ju n t o
. A di fe r e n c i a de l
m o de lo li n e a l -do n de c o m u n i c a r e s t r a n s m i t i r y de s c i fr a r u n a i n fo r m a -
c i n de s de u n de t e r m i n a do c di go -, e n e s t e m o de lo c o m u n i c a r e s
c o n s t r u i r u n s e n t i do e n la i n t e r a c c i n
.
El p r o c e s o de la c o m u n i c a c i n de s de la p e r s p e c t i va i n t e r a c c i o n i s t a
a p e la a lo qu e s e de n o m i n a e t n o m e t o do lo g a
. A t r a v s de e s t e m t o do
e m p r i c o e l i n ve s t i ga do r o b s e r va e i n t e n t a r e c o n s t r u i r lo s e le m e n t o s
p r i n c i p a le s de la i n t e r a c c i n
.
IC OMUNIC AC IN P ARA P RINC IP IANT ES
L a s r e gla s s o c i a le s s o n u n a e s p e c i e de t e l n de fo n do s o b r e e l qu e
a c t a n , de m a n e r a c o n ve n c i o n a l o c r e a t i va , lo s a ge n t e s s o c i a le s
. El
i n t e r a c c i o n i s m o de G o ffm a n t i e n e m u c ha r e la c i n c o n la c o m u n i c a c i n
.
Ac a s o p u e de p e n s a r s e la c o m u n i c a c i n hu m a n a s i n t e n e r e n c u e n t a
la s r e gla s ?
L o s a p o r t e s de lo s m i e m b r o s de la lla m a da e s c u e la de P a lo
Alt o ( t a m b i n c o n o c i do c o m o " c o le gi o i n vi s i b le "
p o r qu e
s u s m i e m b r o s n o p e r t e n e c a n fo r m a lm e n t e a la m i s m a i n s t i -
t u c i n ), y de la
s o c i o lo g a i n t e r a c c i o n i s t a ,
b r i n da n i n s t r u -
m e n t o s p a r a p e n s a r la c o m u n i c a c i n c o m o
i n t e r a c c i n ,
m s qu e c o m o u n p r o c e s o s i m p le o li n e a l
.
EL T EL EG RAFO Y L A ORQUEST A
El i n ve s t i ga do r Y ve s Wi n ki n
u t i li z a do s m e t fo r a s p a r a c o n t r a p o n e r lo s
m o de lo s de Sha n n o n
y la e s c u e la de P a lo Alt o .
EN EL MOD EL O D E ShANNON,
L A ( OMVNI( A( IN FUNC IONA ( OMO VA?
T EL MFO . HAY UN ( D 160 MNIMO,
( ON El Qu E SE T RANSMIT E UNA
INFORMAC IN . L O IMP ORT ANT E AQu
ES L A RAP ID EZ Y L A EFI( A( IA
( ON VE SE T RANSMIT E .
EN ( AMBIO, P ARA P AL O AL T O, L A
( OMUNI( A( IN FUNC IONA ( OP IO UNA
G RAN ORQUEST A
. HAY MU( NOS
EL EMENT OS OVE INT ERVIENEN A L A
VEZ, T OD OS ( OMUNI( AN Y NIN6u NO
T IENE UN SENT ID O P RIVIL EG IAD O
0 AISL AD O D EL OT RO
Y VES WINK IN
Si n
e m b a r go , e l e s t u di o de la s p e qu e a s i n t e r a c c i o n e s y la s c o m p le -
lkkde s de la c o m u n i c a c i n c o t i di a n a de l m o de lo o r qu e s t a l o lvi da t o -
lo qu e e s t m s a ll de e s t o s fe n m e n o s
. P o r e je m p lo , n o t i e n e
c u e n t a la s gr a n de s e s t r u c t u r a s s o c i a le s , c o m o la p e r t e n e n c i a a
o gr u p o s de t e r m i n a do s , la s r e la c i o n e s de p o de r o la i n flu e n c i a
m e di o s m a s i vo s de c o m u n i c a c i n
. Es de c i r , e n la c o m u n i c a -
t e r vi e n e n m u c ho s e le m e n t o s qu e p u e de n e s t a r a u s e n t e s e n la
i n c o n c r e t a .
I - QU ES L A C OMUNIC AC IN

19
C OMUNIC AC IN, MED IOS
Y SOC IED AD
L a c o m u n i c a c i n e n e l s i glo X X e s t i n di s c u t i b le m e n t e vi n c u la da a lo s
gr a n de s m e di o s m a s i vo s
. D e s de s u n a c i m i e n t o , la i n flu e n c i a y e l p o de r
de lo s m e di o s c r e c i de t a l m a n e r a qu e e s i m p o s i b le p e n s a r lo s p r o c e -
s o s c o m u n i c a t i vo s , c u lt u r a le s y p o l t i c o s , fu e r a de e s t e fe n m e n o
.
L o s m e di o s m a s i vo s t i e n e n p o de r p a r a o r i e n t a r o p r o vo c a r c o n -
du c t a s o i m p o n e r m o da s ? 0, p o r e l c o n t r a r i o , e xp r e s a n de s e o s ,
fa n t a s a s o i n t e r e s e s ya e xi s t e n t e s e n e l p b li c o ?
L a a p a r i c i n de lo s m e di o s de c o m u n i c a c i n c a m b i la p e r c e p c i n de l
m u n do
. A la s m o di fi c a c i o n e s e n la s c o n du c t a s i n di vi du a le s s e s u m a n
la s m a n e r a s de c o n c e b i r y de p r o du c i r e l a r t e o la s fo r m a s de p r a c t i c a r
la p o l t i c a ( y p o r e n de , la s r e la c i o n e s de p o de r e n t r e lo s gr u p o s )
. L a
m a yo r a de lo s gr a n de s t e m a s qu e ha c e n a la vi da de la s s o c i e da de s
c o n t e m p o r n e a s e s t n r e la c i o n a do s c o n la c o m u n i c a c i n de m a s a s
.
Un o de lo s a s p e c t o s c e n t r a le s de lo s e s t u di o s e n c o m u n i c a c i n
c o n s i s t e e n i n da ga r la s r e la c i o n e s e n t r e la s o c i e da d y lo s
m e di o s m a s i vo s de c o m u n i c a c i n
.
2 0 1 C OMUNIC AC IN P ARA P RINC IP IANT ES
L A C UL T URA D E MASAS
L a s t r a n s fo r m a c i o n e s s o c i a le s , p o l t i c a s , e c o n m i c a s e i de o l gi c a s
qu e s e ve r i fi c a n a p a r t i r de la r e vo lu c i n i n du s t r i a l -y qu e s e i n t e n s i fi -
c a n de m a n e r a c o n s i de r a b le e n Eu r o p a y Es t a do s Un i do s , a p a r t i r de
la s e gu n da m i t a d de l s i glo X IX -, da n lu ga r a lo qu e s e c o n o c e c o m o la
s o c i e da d de m a s a s .
UN ASO Y VUEL T A A L OS N 60( 105 .
L a s o c i e da d de m a s a s s e c a r a c t e r i z a p o r :
L a e xp a n s i n de l s i s t e m a c a p i t a li s t a i n du s t r i a l .
L a di vi s i n y e s p e c i a li z a c i n de l t r a b a jo
: m a yo r de m a n da
de t r a b a ja do r e s y de c a li fi c a c i n la b o r a l .
L a p a u la t i n a e xt e n s i n de la a lfa b e t i z a c i n y c r e a c i n de
s i s t e m a s e du c a t i vo s m o de r n o s .
L a c o m p le ji da d de la s e s t r u c t u r a s s o c i a le s .
,L a i n t e gr a c i n y de s a r r o llo de lo s m e r c a do s y la s c i u da de s .
a El
c r e c i m i e n t o s o s t e n i do de la p o b la c i n .

El
a fi a n z a m i e n t o de l o r de n s o c i a l qu e e n c u e n t r a s u fu n da m e n t a c i n
e n la s c r e e n c i a s s e c u la r i z a da s ( e l i n di vi du o , la ju s t i c i a s o c i a l,
e l
t r a b a jo r e gla m e n t a do o la i gu a lda d) .
L a s i n n o va c i o n e s t e c n o l gi c a s p e r m a n e n t e s
.
II - C OMUNIC AC IN, MED IOS Y SOC IED AD 1

2 1
2 2
-C L P RE
f I D ENT E
o Qu E L A `( i UE RRA
FURo P Ei S
1WAD IE t u ED E I( UAL AK
A
MAIJ
L WL
D
1
ET Rj
( H
!
h
he
9 0
t i
L a s gr a n de s t r a n s fo r m a c i o n e s e c o n m i c a s c r e a n c o n di c i o n e s p a r a e l
a c c e s o p r o gr e s i vo de va s t o s s e c t o r e s de la p o b la c i n a lo s de r e c ho s
c i vi le s y p o l t i c o s ( c o m o e l de r e c ho a l vo t o y a la e du c a c i n ) . El a b a r a -
t a m i e n t o de lo s c o s t o s de p r o du c c i n y la a lfa b e t i z a c i n fa vo r e c e n la
di s t r i b u c i n m a s i va de b i e n e s c u lt u r a le s y u n p b li c o vi do de c o n s u -
m i r . A fi n a le s de s i glo X IX , c r e c e n e xp o n e n c i a lm e n t e la c i r c u la c i n de
p e r i di c o s , la s e di c i o n e s p o p u la r e s de li b r o s y la s n o ve la s p o r e n t r e ga
e n la p r e n s a m a s i va . Na c e n a s , la s o c i e da d y la c u lt u r a de m a s a s .
En e s t e p r o c e s o , ya e n t r a do e l s i glo X X la c o m u n i c a c i n de m a s a s s e
p o t e n c i a c o n la a p a r i c i n de n u e vo s a p a r a t o s t c n i c o s ( e s p e c i a lm e n t e
la r a di o y e l c i n e ) .
A p r i n c i p i o s de la d c a da de l '2 0 la
r a di o y e l c i n e s e i n t e gr a n a la vi da
de la ge n t e c o m n .
Es t a s gr a n de s t r a n s fo r m a c i o n e s lle va n t e m p r a n a m e n t e a la r e fle xi n
s o b r e la " c u lt u r a de m a s a s "
. L a p o p u la r i z a c i n de lo s m e di o s de c o m u -
n i c a c i n m a s i va , s o b r e t o do a p a r t i r de la a p a r i c i n de la r a di o , a m p l a
la di fu s i n y e l c o n s u m o de p r o du c t o s c u lt u r a le s ( m s i c a , i n fo r m a c i n ,
fi c c i n , e t c
. ), a n t e s r e s t r i n gi do s a u n a e li t e
. Es t o s c a m b i o s n o p a s a n
i n a dve r t i do s , ge n e r a n a dhe s i n o e s p a n t o
. . .
" /RIME
. . .
fo r m a s
y lo s c o n t e n i do s de l a r t e s e m o di fi c a n ju n t o a lo s hb i t o s de
s u m o y la s fo r m a s de p e r c e p c i
n .
AP OC AL P T IC OS E INT EG RAD OS FRENT E
A L A C UL T URA MASIVA
II -
C OMUNIC AC IN, MED IOS Y SOC IED AD
12 5
I
El s e m i lo go i t a li a n o
Um b e r t o Ec o s o s t i e n e
qu e , e n t r e lo s e s t u di o s o ;
de la c u lt u r a de m a s a s ,
p u e de n di s t i n gu i r s e do s
gr a n de s c o r r i e n t e s .
2 6
IC OMUNIC AC IN P ARA P RINC IP IANT ES
D E T OD OS M0D OS . . . EN L A SOC IED AD MOD ERNA ES NEC ESARIO
( OMUNI( MR MENSAJES A UNA G RAN ( ANT ID AD D E P ERSONAS .
;HAY
QUE AD EC UAR EL MENSA)E P ARA &UE T OD O EL MUND O
P ART IC IP E EN IG UAL ES ( 0ND I( IONESI . . .
II -
C OMUNIC AC IN,
MED IOS Y SOC IED AD
12 7
2 8 IC OM+u NIC Au a N P ARA P RINC IP IANT ES
Ap o c a l p t i c o s :
C o n s u a c t i t u d de s c o n fi a da y c o n s e r va do r a , r e c ha z a n
c u a lqu i e r m o di fi c a c i n de lo e xi s t e n t e y di r i ge n s u s a t a qu e s a la c u lt u r a
de m a s a s
. P a r a Ec o , e s t a p o s t u r a a li m e n t a la n o s t a lgi a p o r u n m o de lo
c u lt u r a l b a s a do e xc lu s i va m e n t e e n la c u lt u r a e s c r i t a y qu e t o m a c o m o
r e fe r e n c i a a la s a r t e s s u p e r i o r e s c o m o p a t r n de c u lt u r a . Es de c i r , u n
m o de lo ya s u p e r a do s e gn e l s e m i lo go i t a li a n o .
In t e gr a do s : s t o s , s e gn Ec o , c a r e c e n de u n a vi s i n c r t i c a : n o s e
p r e gu n t a n p o r lo s i n t e r e s e s p o l t i c o s y e c o n m i c o s qu e s o s t i e n e n la s
m a n i fe s t a c i o n e s de la c u lt u r a m a s i va . T a m p o c o i n da ga n s o b r e qu i n
ge n e r a lo s p r o du c t o s c u lt u r a le s y c o n qu c o n s e c u e n c i a s .
n o t i e n e s e n t i do a
o r a r u n m o dll
P o r e llo e o
c u t u r a l
s u p e r a do p a r a
p r o p o n e e s t u di a r la c u lt

d
u r a e m a s a s s i n va lo r a c i o n e s li p r e ju i c i o s
. Se de b e c o n o c e r s u fu n c i o n a m i e n t o y lu e go , i n t e n t a r
! a qu e llo
qu e s e c o n s i de r e n e ga t i vo
.
t o s a p o c a l p t i c o s e i n t e gr a do s
s e p u e de n a p li c a r , m s
c u lt u r a de m a s a s , a o t r o s c a m p o s
;
p o r e je m p lo , la s di fe
C i o n e s fr e n t e a fe n e n o s n o vd
a lo g a s i n fo r m t i c a s 'e o s o s c o m o e l de s a r r o llo
.
II "
C OMUNIC AC IN, MED IOS Y SOC IED AD
12 9
14
19, la p u b li c i da d s e c o n vi e r t e e n u n fa c t o r e c o n m i c o fu n
,
-
P r o du c c i n de b i e n e s e n gr a n e s c a la r e du c e lo s p r e c i o s
Mli m i e n t o de la de m a n da a la r go p la z o o b li ga a ge n e r a r
# e
i de n t i fi c a c i n a t r a v s de la p u b li c i da d
.
II' C OMUNIC AC IN, MED IOS Y SOC IED AD
1
31
L A INVEST IG AC IN FUNC IONAL IST A
L a i n ye c c i n i n n o va do r a de la P r i m e r a G u e r r a i n i c i a e n Es t a do s Un i do s
u n s o s t e n i do p r o c e s o de i n du s t r i a li z a c i n qu e i n c lu ye a lo s m e di o s t c -
n i c o s de c o m u n i c a c i n
. Es t a s i n n o va c i o n e s t e c n o l gi c a s p r o du c e n s i g-
n i fi c a t i vo s c a m b i o s c u lt u r a le s qu e s o n r e fle ja do s p o r la s o c i o lo g a fu n -
c i o n a li s t a * qu e t i e n e s u a p o ge o e n e l p e r o do de e n t r e gu e r r a s
. *
30 I C OMUNIC AC IN P ARA P RINC IP IANT ES
( Ii AR-ES . . . ( t IAUS . . .
T ON . . . T ON . . .

-
En la d c a da de l '2 0 s e r e a li z a n la s p r i m e r a s t r a n s m i s i o n e s
1
lm b r i c a s , t a n t o de s o n i do c o m o de vi s i n
. L a p o p u la r i z a c i n de
r a di o c r e a u n m e r c a do de c o n s u m i do r e s vi do y e xp e c t a n t e
. P
e s t e a o , e n Es t a do s Un i do s fu n c i o n a n 606 e s t a c i o n e s de r a
c o m e r c i a le s .
*El fu n c i o n a li s m o e s t u di a la fo r m a c o n qu e de t e r m i n a do s fe n m e n o s s o c i a le s a
fu n c i o n a m i e n t o , la a da p t a c i n o la a de c u a c i n n o r m a l de u n s i s t e m a s o c i a l da do
.
UN C AMBIO D E MENT AL ID AD
L a G r a n D e p r e s i n e c o n m i c a de lo s a o s 30, o b li ga a l p r e s i de n t e de
lo s Es t a do s Un i do s ,
Fr a n kli n D . Ro o s e ve lt ( 1882 -1945) a i m p u ls a r
u n a r e a c t i va c i n de s u p o l t i c a e c o n m i c a y s o c i a l . Su Ne w D e a l
( Nu e vo t r a t o o r e p a r t o ), b a s a do e n la s i de a s e c o n m i c a s de
Jo hn Ma y-
n a r d K e yn e s ( 1883. 1946) p r o p o n e e l p le n o e m p le o y e l a u m e n t o de l
p o de r a dqu i s i t i vo p a r a ge n e r a r c o n s u m o i n t e r n o .
Es t a s t r a n s fo r m a c i o n e s e n la p o l t i c a y la e c o n o m a o b li ga n a i n s t r u -
m e n t a r e s t r a t e gi a s c o m u n i c a t i va s o r i gi n a le s p a r a u n a s o c i e da d e n la
qu e la o p i n i n p b li c a p a s a a t e n e r u n p a p e l p r o t a g n i c o .
L o s t e r i c o s de la c o m u n i c a c i n , i n flu i do s p o r e l fu n c i o n a li s m o , s u p o -
n e n qu e u n a a de c u a da a c c i n c o m u n i c a t i va , u n a e s t r a t e gi a p u b li c i t a -
r i a o u n a c a m p a a e le c t o r a l, p u e de n ge n e r a r , e n e l c o r t o p la z o , m o di -
fi c a c i o n e s e n la s c o n du c t a s de lo s c i u da da n o s
. T a n t o s e a la e le c c i n
de u n p r o du c t o o la a dhe s i n a u n a p o l t i c a gu b e r n a m e n t a l .
MASS C OMMUNIC AT ION RESEARC H
En e s o s a o s , la c o r r i e n t e fu n c i o n a li s t a a p li c a da a la c o m u n i c a c i n de
m a s a s , c o n o c i da c o m o Ma s s C o m m u n i c a t i o n Re s e a r c h,
r e n e a u n
gr u p o de i n ve s t i ga do r e s c o n e l p r o p s i t o de c o n o c e r la i n flu e n c i a de
lo s m e di o s de c o m u n i c a c i n s o b r e lo s i n di vi du o s y la s o c i e da d
.
C
L a
Ma s s C o m m u n i c a t i o n Re s e a r c h e s t u di a la c o m u n i c a c i n de m a s a s
c o n lo s m t o do s de la s c i e n c i a s e xp e r i m e n t a le s qu e i m p r e gn a n p o r
a qu e l e n t o n c e s a la s o c i o lo g a n o r t e a m e r i c a n a
. Es t a c o r r i e n t e a s i m i la
e l fu n c i o n a m i e n t o s o c i a l a l de lo s o r ga n i s m o s vi vo s
: la s o c i e da d,
a fi r m a , e s u n o r ga n i s m o c o m p u e s t o p o r p a r t e s i n de p e n di e n t e s qu e s e
i n flu ye n m u t u a m e n t e p a r a m a n t e n e r e l e qu i li b r i o y b u s c a r la a r m o n a
e n c a s o de de s e qu i li b r i o s . D e e s t a c o r r i e n t e s u r ge n e xp r e s i o n e s c o m o
e l c u e r p o s o c i a l" o la " c lu la b s i c a de la s o c i e da d" e n u n a i n du da b le
a p e la c i n o r ga n i c i s t a .
II - C OMUNIC AC IN, MED IOS Y SOC IED AD

33

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