Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Booklet T4 2014
Booklet T4 2014
Third Edition
DECANO
DEAN
Awareness / Acknowledgment
Content
Preface ........................................................................................................................................ 13
Oral Presentations ............................................................................................................. 17
Preparation ................................................................................................................................ 17
Organizing the Content ........................................................................................................ 17
Delivering Your Presentation .............................................................................................. 18
Using Visual Aids..................................................................................................................... 20
Dealing with Nervousness ................................................................................................... 21
Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 22
Projects ...................................................................................................................................... 23
What is a project? .................................................................................................................. 23
Checking out the context .................................................................................................... 23
Researching the project ....................................................................................................... 23
Preparation And Working Out Of The Project Document ........................... 24
Composition of the Project Document ............................................................................ 25
Sections ...................................................................................................................................... 25
Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 29
Vocabulary of the Unit ...................................................................................................... 29
Business Administration.................................................................................................... 33
Administrative Functions ..................................................................................................... 33
Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 34
Leadership ................................................................................................................................. 35
Types of Leadership Styles ................................................................................................. 35
Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 37
Communication ........................................................................................................................ 37
Nonverbal Communication .................................................................................................. 39
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................. 40
Managerial Actions that Cause Workplace Conflicts ................................................. 40
Ways People Deal With Conflict ........................................................................................ 41
Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 41
Vocabulary................................................................................................................................ 41
Classic Tools ........................................................................................................................... 45
Pie Charts .................................................................................................................................. 45
Bar Charts ................................................................................................................................. 45
Run Charts ................................................................................................................................ 46
Radar Charts............................................................................................................................. 46
Scatter Plots ............................................................................................................................. 47
Histograms ................................................................................................................................ 48
Pareto Charts ........................................................................................................................... 48
10
11
12
Preface
13
14
15
16
Oral Presentations
Oral presentations are a richer medium than written documents. They
allow you to establish stronger contact with the audience and better convince
them of your viewpoint through verbal and nonverbal delivery, as well as the
ensuing interaction. Oral presentations have a price, however, in terms of the
audience's time. If you give a poor 15-minute presentation to an audience of 200
people, you have wasted the equivalent of 50 hours of work more than a week
of someone's work time. Preparing effective oral presentations, like writing
effective scientific papers, takes time, but it is time well invested.
Still, many oral presentations are ripe for improvement. Think of the last
large conference you attended. With typically three to four talks an hour, eight
hours a day over several days, such conferences can expose you to dozens of
presentations. What fraction of these delivered a message that was useful to you
(that is, how many of them did more than simply provide a great deal of
complicated information)? What fraction of the presentations did you find
fascinating (that is, how many got your undivided attention from the speaker's
first word to his or her last)? An effective oral presentation gets you to pay
attention, to understand, and to think or do things differently as a result of it.
This unit will help you prepare and deliver more effective oral presentations
in English. It will help you select and organize a presentation's content, create
slides (if appropriate), deliver the presentation, and answer audience questions.
Preparation
First of all,
Think about what you want to achieve; Inform? Inspire? Convince your
audience?
Think about your audience: do they know the topic? Do they have a
particular interest in the topic?
Research your topic and organize the content and material.
Prepare your visual aids
Rehearse your presentation taking care of the time.
17
18
19
your presentation as well. It will make things far more interesting for the
audience.
v) When you begin a new point, use a higher pitch and volume.
20
Handouts
Handouts are a great idea. Think about whether you
want to distribute them before or after your presentation. It
is a good idea to include your references on a handout, so
that people can follow up on them later. You could also
include some follow-up questions for discussion.
Using the board
If possible, put your information on the
board before the talk begins, otherwise you will
have to turn your back on the audience and break
your eye contact with them, which is never a good
idea. Writing on a board is also time-consuming.
Use alternative visual aids wherever possible.
If you really must use a whiteboard, come
prepared with the right pens (use pens clearly marked 'Whiteboard Marker'
don't use anything else) and write in large neat writing, so that people can read it.
Checking out the facilities
Whenever possible, check the facilities of the room where you are going to deliver
your talk. Does the overhead processor work? How does it turn on and off? Where
is the plug for the computer? Is there a whiteboard, or is it a blackboard? If a
blackboard, is chalk provided?
21
Be organized. If you are well organized, your task will be easier. If your
overheads are out of order, or your notes are disorganized, you may get
flustered.
Slow down! When people are nervous, they tend to get confused easily. So
your mind may start to race, and you may feel panicky. Make use of
pauses: force yourself to stop at the end of a sentence, take a breath, and
think before you continue.
Giving an oral presentation is a performanceyou have to be like an actor.
If you act the part of someone enjoying themselves and feeling confident,
you will not only communicate these positive feelings to the audience, you
will feel much better, too.
Accomplished public speakers feel nervous before and even during a talk.
The skill comes in not communicating your nervousness, and in not letting it take
over from the presentation. Over time, you will feel less nervous, and well able to
control your nervousness.
Activity
A.
B.
22
Projects
WHAT IS A PROJECT?
A project is a proposal prepared for yourself, for someone else, for a whole
community or even for a country. It involves making plans for the future and
describing them to others or to the community as a whole. At the start there is
nothing certain about a project except perhaps the desire or determination to
undertake it. Thus it is the attempt to define this which has led us to make the
various suggestions in this publication.
Identifying a project involves
recognizing a need in a certain place and
for a given group of people. A proper
understanding of the target group is very
important.
23
24
SECTIONS
Composition of the Title Page
The following should be featured clearly on this page :
25
26
and
training
developed
courses
can
be
EXAMPLE 2:
EXAMPLE 3:
Target community
Most projects are for the benefit of a certain defined population. A project
planner should therefore try concisely to determine who would benefit from the
project. This means taking into account certain criteria such as the composition
of the target community and its origin; the geographical area targeted; their main
activity (e.g. farming), age distribution and educational level.
This sub-section should also indicate to what extent the targeted
population supports the idea of the project; to what extent they are mobilized;
and which sections of the population are seen as a priority.
In the example in Zaire given above, it is evident that the population
targeted is the peasants from the southern part of the country and the criteria
27
used to determine this were the geographical region and the main activity of the
population.
The potential waste of human resources through early childbirth, drug
abuse cases resulting in psychiatric cases and other social vices among the youth
makes it imperative that actions are taken by NGO's and communities to curb
these unfortunate phenomena. These conditions tend negatively to affect the
physical and intellectual development of the adolescents into adulthood; thus a
vicious cycle of deprivation is created if this precarious situation is not addressed.
EXAMPLE 4:
28
ACTIVITY
C.
D.
Foundations
Framework
Funding sought
Guidelines
Phase
Population
Population Targeted
Prime
Proposal
Report
Research
Scheme
Strategy
Submission
Submit
Survey
Undertake
http://ccivs.org/New-SiteCCSVI/CcivsOther/Documents/Howtopresentaprojectfull.pdf
http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/oral
http://www.nature.com/scitable/ebooks/english-communication-for-scientists14053993/giving-oral-presentations-14239332
29
30
31
32
Business Administration
In business, administration consists of the performance or management of
business operations and thus the making or implementing of major decisions.
Administration can be defined as the universal process of organizing people and
resources efficiently so as to direct activities toward common goals and objectives.
ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS
Administrators, broadly speaking,
engage in a common set of functions to
meet the organization's goals. These
"functions" of the administrator were
described by Henri Fayol.
33
ACTIVITY
A.
34
Leadership
The word leadership can refer to:
1. Those entities that perform one
or more acts of leading.
2. The ability to affect human
behavior so as to accomplish a
mission.
3. Influencing a group of people to
move towards its goal setting or goal
achievement.
35
to the final decision thus increasing employee satisfaction and ownership, feeling
their input was considered when the final decision was taken. When changes
arises, this type of leadership helps the team assimilate the changes better and
more rapidly than other styles, knowing they were consulted and contributed to
the decision making process, minimizing resistance and intolerance. A
shortcoming of this leadership style is that it has difficulty when decisions are
needed in a short period of time or at the moment.
The laissez-faire ("let do") leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939) gives no
continuous feedback or supervision because the employees are highly
experienced and need little supervision to obtain the expected outcome. On the
other hand, this type of style is also associated with leaders that dont lead at all,
failing in supervising team members, resulting in lack of control and higher costs,
bad service or failure to meet deadlines.
The people-oriented leader (Fiedler, 1967) is the one that, in order to
comply with effectiveness and efficiency, supports, trains and develops his
personnel, increasing job satisfaction and genuine interest to do a good job.
The task-oriented leader (Fiedler, 1967) focus on the job, and concentrate on the
specific tasks assigned to each employee to reach goal accomplishment. This
leadership style suffers the same motivation issues as autocratic leadership,
showing no involvement in the teams needs. It requires close supervision and
control to achieve expected results.
The servant leader (Greenleaf, 1977) facilitates goal accomplishment by
giving its team members what they need in order to be productive. This leader is
an instrument employees use to reach the goal rather than an commanding voice
that moves to change. This leadership style, in a manner similar to democratic
leadership, tends to achieve the results in a slower time frame than other styles,
although employee engagement is higher.
The transaction leader (Burns, 1978) is given power to perform certain
tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance. It gives the opportunity
to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to
accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given
to the leader to evaluate, correct and train subordinates when productivity is not
up to the desired level and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is
reached.
The transformation leader (Burns, 1978) motivates its team to be effective
and efficient. Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group
in the final desired outcome or goal attainment. This leader is highly visible and
uses chain of command to get the job done. Transformational leaders focus on
36
the big picture, needing to be surrounded by people who take care of the details.
The leader is always looking for ideas that move the organization to reach the
companys vision.
The environment leader ( Carmazzi, 2005) is the one who nurtures group
or organizational environment to affect the emotional and psychological
perception of an individuals place in that group or organization. An
understanding and application of group psychology and dynamics is essential for
this style to be effective. The leader uses organizational culture to inspire
individuals and develop leaders at all levels. This leadership style relies on
creating an education matrix where groups interactively learn the fundamental
psychology of group dynamics and culture from each other. The leader uses this
psychology, and complementary language, to influence direction through the
members of the inspired group to do what is required for the benefit of all.
ACTIVITY
B.
At home, access to the following link and complete the test for identifying
your leadership style, later print the snapshot provided by the page and
write an analysis of the result. If the link doesnt work try to search the
test Leadership Style on the queendom principal page.
http://www.queendom.com/tests/access_page/index.htm?idRegTest=2289
C.
Communication
Communication is the process of transferring information from a sender to
a receiver with the use of a medium in which the communicated information is
understood by both sender and receiver. It requires that all parties understand a
common language that is exchanged; there are auditory means, such as
speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbal, physical means,
37
38
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating through
sending and receiving wordless messages. Such messages can be communicated
through gesture, body language or posture; facial expression and eye contact,
object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture, or
symbols and infographics. Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known
as paralanguage, including voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well as
prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise, written texts
have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of
words, or the use of emoticons. A portmanteau of the English words emotion (or
emote) and icon, an emoticon is a symbol or combination of symbols used to
convey emotional content in written or message form.
39
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
Conflict management refers to the long-term management of intractable
conflicts. It is the label for the variety of ways by which people handle grievances
standing up for what they consider to be right and against what they consider
to be wrong. Those ways include such diverse phenomena as gossip, ridicule,
lynching, terrorism, warfare, feuding, genocide, law,
mediation, and avoidance. Which forms of conflict
management will be used in any given situation can
be somewhat predicted and explained by the social
structure or social geometry of the case.
Conflict management is often considered to be
distinct from conflict resolution. The latter refers to
resolving the dispute to the approval of one or both
parties, whereas the former concerns an ongoing
process that may never have a resolution. Neither is it considered the same as
conflict transformation, which seeks to reframe the positions of the conflict
parties.
40
ACTIVITY
D.
Vocabulary
Affiliates
Contract
Equity
Intermediary
Organization
Negotiation
Partnering
Protg
Small Business
http://1stopconflict.blogspot.com/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administration_(business)
http://www.academia.edu/474807/Types_of_Leadership_styles
http://www.knowthis.com/promotion-decisions/the-communication-process
http://www.mediaworks.pro/communication.html
41
42
43
44
Classic Tools
There's an elusive balance between chasing after each new management
tool or method, and ignoring the fact that we have actually learned some things
about management over the past 100,000 years. The best tools are those which
stand the test of time, and which give you a lot of leverage over common
problems.
These tools are basic graphs and statistics. What to look for?
Mean
The average of all the data points in the series
Maximum
The maximum value in the series
Minimun
The minimum value in the series
Sample Size
The number of values in the series
Range
The maximum value minus the minimum value
Standard Deviation
Indicates how widely data is spread around the mean
PIE CHARTS
They are used to show classes or groups
of data in proportion to the whole data set. The
entire pie represents all the data, while each
slice represents a different class or group
within the whole.
BAR CHARTS
Bar Charts, like pie charts,
are useful for comparing classes or
groups of data. In bar charts, a
class or group can have a single
category of data, or they can be
broken down further into multiple
categories for greater depth of
analysis.
45
scale, be aware of the differences and how they might trick your eye.
Be sure that all your classes are equal. For example, don't mix weeks and
months, years and half-years, or newly-invented categories with ones that
have trails of data behind them.
Be sure that the interval between classes is consistent. For example, if you
want to compare current data that goes month by month to older data that
is only available for every six months, either use current data for every six
months or show the older data with blanks for the missing months.
RUN CHARTS
Run charts (often known as line graphs outside the quality management
field) display process performance over time. Upward and downward trends,
cycles, and large aberrations may be spotted and investigated further. In a run
chart, events, shown on the y axis, are graphed against a time period on
the x axis. For example, a run chart in a hospital might plot the number of
patient transfer delays against the time of day or day of the week. The results
might show that there are more delays at noon than at 3 p.m. Investigating this
phenomenon could unearth potential for improvement. Run charts can also be
used to track improvements that have been put into place, checking to determine
their success. Also, an average line
can be added to a run chart to
clarify movement of the data away
from the average.
Alternatives with run charts:
An average line, representing
the average of all the y
values recorded, can easily
be added to a run chart to
clarify movement of the data
away from the average. An average line runs parallel to the x axis.
Several variables may be tracked on a single chart, with each variable
having its own line. The chart is then called a multiple run chart.
RADAR CHARTS
Radar charts are useful when you want to look at several different factors
all related to one item. Radar charts have multiple axes along which data can be
plotted.
46
SCATTER PLOTS
Scatter Plots (also called scatter diagrams) are used to investigate the
possible relationship between two variables that both relate to the same "event." A
straight line of best fit (using the least squares method) is often included.
47
HISTOGRAMS
A histogram is a specialized type of bar chart. Individual data points are
grouped together in classes, so that you can get an idea of how frequently data in
each class occur in the data set. High bars indicate more points in a class, and
low bars indicate fewer points.
The strength of a histogram is that it provides an easy-to-read picture of
the location and variation in a data set. There are, however, two weaknesses of
histograms that you should bear in mind:
The
first
is
that
histograms
can
be
manipulated
to
show
different pictures. If too
few or too many bars are
used, the histogram can
be misleading. This is an
area which requires some
judgment, and perhaps
some
experimentation,
based on the analyst's
experience.
Histograms can also obscure the time differences among data sets. For
example, if you looked at data for #births/day in the United States in
1996, you would miss any seasonal variations, e.g. peaks around the times
of full moons. Likewise, in quality control, a histogram of a process run
tells only one part of a long story. There is a need to keep reviewing the
histograms and control charts for consecutive process runs over an
extended time to gain useful knowledge about a process.
PARETO CHARTS
Vilfredo Pareto, a turn-of-the-century Italian economist, studied the
distributions of wealth in different countries, concluding that a fairly consistent
minority about 20% of people controlled the large majority about 80% of a
society's wealth. This same distribution has been observed in other areas and has
been termed the Pareto effect.
48
49
Causes in a cause & effect diagram are frequently arranged into four major
categories. While these categories can be anything, you will often see:
manpower, methods, materials, and machinery (recommended for
manufacturing)
equipment, policies, procedures, and people (recommended for
administration and service).
These guidelines can be helpful but should not be used if they limit the
diagram or are inappropriate. The categories you use should suit your needs.
The C&E diagram is also known as the fishbone diagram because it was
drawn to resemble the skeleton of a fish, with the main causal categories drawn
as "bones" attached to the spine of the fish, as shown below.
FLOWCHARTS
Flowcharts are maps or graphical representations of a process. Steps in a
process are shown with symbolic shapes, and the flow of the process is indicated
with arrows connecting the symbols. Computer programmers popularized
flowcharts in the 1960's, using them to map the logic of programs. In quality
improvement work, flowcharts are particularly useful for displaying how a
process currently functions or could ideally function. Flowcharts can help you see
whether the steps of a process are logical, uncover problems or
miscommunications, define the boundaries of a process, and develop a common
base of knowledge about a process. Flowcharting a process often brings to light
redundancies, delays, dead ends, and indirect paths that would otherwise remain
unnoticed or ignored. But flowcharts don't work if they aren't accurate, if team
members are afraid to describe what actually happens, or if the team is too far
removed from the actual workings of the process.
50
There are many varieties of flowcharts and scores of symbols that you can
use. Experience has shown that there are three main types that work for almost
all situations:
High-level flowcharts map only the major steps in a process for a good overview.
51
Flowcharts don't work if they're not accurate or if the team is too far
removed from the process itself. Team members should be true participants in
the process and feel free to describe what really happens. A thorough flowchart
should provide a clear view of how a process works. With a completed flowchart,
you can:
Identify time lags and non-value-adding steps.
Identify responsibility for each step.
Brainstorm for problems in the process.
Determine major and minor inputs into the process with a cause & effect
diagram.
Choose the most likely trouble spots with the consensus builder.
CONTROL CHARTS
This are sometimes called
Shewhart charts because of its
inventor, Walter Shewhart, of Bell
Labs. There are many different
subspecies of control charts which
can be applied to the different types
of process data which are typically
available.
All control charts have three basic components:
A centerline, usually the mathematical average of all the samples plotted.
Upper and lower statistical control limits that define the constraints of
common cause variations.
Performance data plotted over time.
52
ACTIVITY
You are employed by a mid-sized human service agency which employs 75 people.
The agency has a central fax machine. For some time now, clinical staff have
complained that they have not received fax messages in a timely manner.
Because of the confidential nature of some of the fax messages, the agency has
developed a three step procedure for handling fax messages. The fax clerk is the
only person who can retrieve fax messages from the machine. The clerk seals the
message in an envelope and delivers it to the mail room. The mail room places all
fax messages in a "safe box" where they are picked up by the mail delivery person
who delivers them to the secretary for each unit. The secretary opens the
envelope and determines whether the fax contains confidential information. If
not, the secretary places the fax message in the staff person's in box. If the
message contains confidential information, the secretary forwards it directly to
the clinical staff person for whom the message was intended. The goal is to design
the system so that the correct person receives the fax message within one hour.
53
Non-Classical Tools
There are any new tools for helping management, they have changed
during the years but the basis continues here Improve quality, get more profits
and compete in this globalized world.
Benchmarking, Balanced Scorecard, Outsourcing and Strategic Planning
have remain in the top ten of management tools. Besides these there are many
more in the list, but now well focus on them.
BENCHMARKING
Improving by learning from others i.e. - benchmarking is simple about
making comparisons with other organizations and then learning the lessons that
those comparisons throw up
Benchmarking is the continuous process of measuring products, services
and practices against the toughest competitors of those companies recognized as
industry leaders. Operational processes must be comparative or analogous if the
highest degree of knowledge transfer between benchmarking partners is to be
achieved.
The underlying reason for benchmarking is to learn how to improve your
business processes and thereby increases your competitiveness.
Although
benchmarking is a measurement process and does generate comparative
performance measures, it also is an operational process involving continuous
learning and adaptation which enables you to improve your organizations
competitive position.
54
Types of Benchmarking
Strategic Benchmarking involves examining long-term strategies, for
example regarding core competencies, new product and service
development or improving capabilities for dealing with change. This type of
benchmarking is used by successful high performers in order to improve a
businesss overall performance.
Performance Benchmarking (or Competitive Benchmarking) looks at
performance characteristics in relation to key products and services in the
same sector. In order to protect confidentiality this type of analysis is often
undertaken through trade associations or third parties.
Process Benchmarking focuses on improving critical processes and
operations through comparison with best practice organizations
performing similar work. This often results in short term benefits.
Functional Benchmarking compares a business with partners drawn
from different sectors to find innovative ways of improving work processes.
This can lead to dramatic improvements.
Internal Benchmarking involves benchmarking businesses or operations
from within the same organization (e.g. business units in different
countries). Access to sensitive and/or standardized data is easier, usually
less time and resources are needed and ultimately practices may be
relatively easier to implement. However, real innovation may be lacking:
best in class performance is more likely to be found through external
benchmarking.
External Benchmarking analyses best in class outside organizations,
providing the opportunity to learn from those at the leading edge. This can
take up significant time and resource to ensure the credibility of the
findings.
International Benchmarking identifies and analyses best practitioners
elsewhere in the world, perhaps because there are too few benchmarking
partners within the same country to produce valid results. Globalisation
and advances in information technology are increasing opportunities for
international projects. However, these can take more time and resources to
set up and implement and the results may need careful analysis due to
national differences.
Key Issues:
Key issues for organizations beginning benchmarking efforts:
Top management commitment and participation are necessary
Sufficient time must be allowed for the project as it takes time
An able, well-trained team is critical (if not outside help, consultants)
It is heavy on resources, people, travel, research, consultants, and other
factors
55
Process rigor is an absolute sine qua non for success you cannot graze
the surface
Quantitative data is often difficult and time consuming to obtain
OUTSOURCING
It is a transfer of control. Delegate one or more process to a specialize
supplier to reach a high efficiency. With the outsourcing, companies can look at
other necessities to fulfill their mission.
Process of Outsourcing
Deciding to outsource: Identify what is to be outsource
Supplier proposals: Have a list with the suppliers and their proposals.
Supplier competition: Look for the best supplier
Negotiation: Is the agreement between the company and the supplier.
56
Transition: Process for the staff transfer and the take- on of the service
Transformation: Is the implement of the new service.
Termination or renewal: Is the decision between terminate of renew the
contract.
Risks
Of The Outsourcing
Negotiate with a wrong contract
Inadequate supplier
Increase the dependence in external entities
There is no control on the suppliers staff
STRATEGIC ALLIANCES
An alliance is defined as a relationship between two or more firms, or
individuals, involving the sharing of complimentary disciplines, technology,
products, services, organizational structures, marketing, and financial resources.
It is a formal relationship formed between two or more parties to pursue a set of
agreed upon goals or to meet a critical business need while remaining
independent organizations.
Partners may provide the strategic alliance with resources such as
products, distribution channels, manufacturing capability, project funding,
capital equipment, knowledge, expertise, or intellectual property.
The alliance is cooperation or collaboration which aims for a synergy where
each partner hopes that the benefits from the alliance will be greater than those
from individual efforts. It often involves technology transfer (access to knowledge
and expertise), economic specialization, shared expenses and share risk.
steps
57
Types of Alliances
Funding
Joint Venture
Merger, acquisition
Products, Services
Cooperative
ACTIVITY
A. Mention three different services that can be outsourced by
A hospital _______________________________________________________
B. Choose one of the previous places and mention the advantages and
disadvantages of outsourcing the services that you mentioned.
58
Vocabulary
Acquisition
Alliance
Average
Benchmark
Categories
Chart
Cluster
Competitor
Cooperative
Depiction
Deployment
Diagram
Funding
Gap
Improvement
Ishikawa diagram
Joint Venture
Manpower
Merge
Miscommunication
Outsource
Partner
Performance
Shewhart Chart
Synergy
Time lag
Trend
http://smallbusiness.com/wiki/Strategic_alliance
http://www.aiidatapro.com/en/services/businessprocessesoutsourcing/
http://www.argusobserver.com/business/business-connection-importance-ofbenchmarking/article_f4f65ada-65c3-11e1-add5-0019bb2963f4.htm
http://www.skymark.com/resources/tools/management_tools.asp
59
60
61
62
Strategic Planning
Entrepreneurs and business managers are often so preoccupied with immediate
issues that they lose sight of their ultimate objectives. That's why a business
review or preparation of a strategic plan is a virtual necessity. This may not be a
recipe for success, but without it a business is much more likely to fail. A sound
plan should:
Serve as a framework for decisions or for securing support/approval.
Provide a basis for more detailed planning.
Explain the business to others in order to inform, motivate & involve.
Assist benchmarking & performance monitoring.
Stimulate change and become building block for next plan.
A strategic plan should not be confused
with a business plan. The former is likely to be a
(very) short document whereas a business plan is
usually a much more substantial and detailed
document. A strategic plan can provide the
foundation and frame work for a business plan.
Besides, a strategic plan is not the same thing as
an operational plan. The strategic plan should be
visionary, conceptual and directional in contrast
to an operational plan which is likely to be shorter
term, tactical, focused, implementable and measurable. As an example, compare
the process of planning a vacation (where, when, duration, budget, who goes, how
travel are all strategic issues) with the final preparations (tasks, deadlines,
funding, weather, packing, transport and so on are all operational matters).
A satisfactory strategic plan must be realistic and attainable so as to allow
managers and entrepreneurs to think strategically and act operationally.
63
THE VISION
The first step is to develop a realistic
Vision for the business. This should be
presented as a pen picture of the business
in three or more years time in terms of its
likely physical appearance, size, activities
etc. Answer the question: "if someone from
Mars visited the business, what would they
see (or sense)?" Consider its future
products, markets, customers, processes, location, staffing etc. Here is a great
example of a vision:
I will come to America, which is the
country for me. Once there, I will
become the greatest bodybuilder in
history.......... I will go into movies as
an actor, producer and eventually
director. By the time I am 30 I will
Attributed to Arnold Schwarzenegger who was elected Governor of the State of California
in 2003.
64
4. Note that originally, the vision was a compelling description of the state
and function of the organization once it had implemented the strategic
plan, i.e., a very attractive image toward which the organization was
attracted and guided by the strategic plan. Recently, the vision has become
more of a motivational tool, too often including highly idealistic phrasing
and activities which the organization cannot realistically aspire.
THE MISSION
The nature of a business is often expressed in terms of its Mission which
indicates the purposes of the business, for example, "to design, develop,
manufacture and market specific product lines for sale on the basis of certain
features to meet the identified needs of specified customer groups via certain
distribution channels in particular geographic areas". A statement along these
lines indicates what the business is about and is infinitely clearer than saying, for
instance, "we're in electronics" or worse still, "we are in business to make money"
(assuming that the business is not a mint !).
Developing a Mission Statement
1.
It is most basic, the mission statement describes the overall purpose of the
organization.
2.
If the organization elects to develop a vision statement before developing
the mission statement, ask Why does the image, the vision exist -- what is
its purpose? This purpose is often the same as the mission.
3.
Developing a mission statement can be quick culture-specific, i.e.,
participants may use methods ranging from highly analytical and rational
to highly creative and divergent, e.g., focused discussions, divergent
experiences around daydreams, sharing stories, etc. Therefore, visit with
the participants how they might like to arrive at description of their
organizational mission.
4.
When wording the mission statement, consider the organization's
products, services, markets, values, and concern for public image, and
maybe priorities of activities for survival.
5.
Consider any changes that may be needed in wording of the mission
statement because of any new suggested strategies during a recent
strategic planning process.
6.
Ensure that wording of the mission is to the extent that management and
employees can infer some order of priorities in how products and services
are delivered.
7.
When refining the mission, a useful exercise is to add or delete a word from
the mission to realize the change in scope of the mission statement and
assess how concise is its wording.
65
8.
Some people confuse mission statements with value statements the former
should be very hard-nosed while the latter can deal with 'softer' issues
surrounding the business. The following table contrasts hard and soft mission
statements.
Hard
What business is/does
Primary products/services
Key processes & technologies
Main customer groups
Primary markets/segments
Principal channels/outlets
Soft
Reason for existence
Competitive advantages
Unique/distinctive features
Important philosophical/social issues
Image, quality, style, standards
Stakeholder concerns
THE VALUES
The next element is to address the Values governing the operation of the
business and its conduct or relationships with society at large, customers,
suppliers, employees, local community and other stakeholders.
Developing Values Statements
1. Values represent the core priorities in the organizations culture, including
what drives members priorities and how they truly act in the organization,
etc. Values are increasingly important in strategic planning. They often
drive the intent and direction for organic planners.
2. Developing a values statement can be quick culture-specific, i.e.,
participants may use methods ranging from highly analytical and rational
to highly creative and divergent, e.g., focused discussions, divergent
experiences around daydreams, sharing stories, etc. Therefore, visit with
the participants how they might like to arrive at description of their
organizational values.
3. Establish four to six core values from which the organization would like to
operate. Consider values of customers, shareholders, employees and the
community.
4. Notice any differences between the organizations preferred values and its
true values (the values actually reflected by members behaviors in the
organization). Record each preferred value on a flash card, then have each
member rank the values with 1, 2, or 3 in terms of the priority needed by
the organization with 3 indicating the value is very important to the
66
THE OBJECTIVES
The third key element is to explicitly state the business's Objectives in
terms of the results it needs/wants to achieve in the medium/long term. Aside
from presumably indicating a necessity to achieve regular profits (expressed as
return on shareholders' funds), objectives should relate to the expectations and
requirements of all the major stakeholders, including employees, and should
reflect the underlying reasons for running the business. These objectives could
cover growth, profitability, technology, offerings and markets.
THE STRATEGIES
Next are the Strategies - the rules and guidelines by which the mission,
objectives etc. may be achieved. They can cover the business as a whole
including such matters as diversification, organic growth, or acquisition plans, or
they can relate to primary matters in key functional areas, for example:
The company's internal cash flow will fund all future growth.
New products will progressively replace existing ones over the next 3 years.
All assembly work will be contracted out to lower the company's breakeven point.
Use SWOTs to help identify possible
strategies
by
building
on
strengths,
resolving
weaknesses,
exploiting
opportunities and avoiding threats.
67
THE GOALS
Next come the Goals. These are specific interim or ultimate time-based
measurements to be achieved by implementing strategies in pursuit of the
company's objectives, for example, to achieve sales of $3m in three years time.
68
Goals should be quantifiable, consistent, realistic and achievable. They can relate
to factors like market (sizes and shares), products, finances, profitability,
utilization, efficiency.
THE PROGRAMS
The final elements are the Programs which set out the implementation plans for
the key strategies. These should cover resources, objectives, time-scales,
deadlines, budgets and performance targets.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
ACTIVITY
As part of the preparation of your second project, write down the Vision, Mission
and Values Statement of the company you will present.
69
Marketing Plan
Marketing is a societal process which discerns
consumers' wants, focusing on a product or service to
fulfill those wants, attempting to move the consumers
toward the products or services offered. Marketing is
fundamental to any businesses growth. The marketing
teams (marketers) are tasked to create consumer
awareness of the products or services through marketing
techniques. Unless it pays due attention to its products
and services and consumers' demographics and desires, a
business will not usually prosper over time.
Marketing tends to be seen as a creative industry, which includes
advertising, distribution and selling. It is also concerned with anticipating the
customers' future needs and wants, which are often discovered through market
research.
Essentially, marketing is the process of creating or directing an
organization to be successful in selling a product or service that people not only
desire, but are willing to buy. Therefore good marketing must be able to create a
"proposition" or set of benefits for the end customer that delivers value through
products or services.
A marketing plan is a written document that details the necessary actions
to achieve one or more marketing objectives. It can be for a product or service, a
brand, or a product line. It can cover one year (referred to as an annual
marketing plan), or cover up to 5 years.
A marketing plan may be part of an overall business plan. Solid marketing
strategy is the foundation of a well-written marketing plan. While a marketing
plan contains a list of actions, a marketing plan without a sound strategic
foundation is of little use. In most organizations, "strategic planning" is an
annual process, typically covering just the year ahead. Occasionally, a few
organizations may look at a practical plan which stretches three or more years
ahead. Marketing plans are vital to marketing success. They help to focus the
mind of companies and marketing teams on the process of marketing i.e. what is
going to be achieved and how we intend to do it. There are many approaches to
marketing plans. Marketing Teacher has focussed upon the key stages of the
plan. It is contained under the popular acronym AOSTC.
ANALYSIS.
70
OBJECTIVES.
STRATEGIES.
TACTICS.
CONTROLS.
Stage One - Situation Analysis (and Marketing Audit).
Marketing environment.
Laws and regulations.
Politics.
The current state of technology.
Economic conditions.
Sociocultural aspects.
Demand trends.
Media availability.
Stakeholder interests.
Marketing plans and campaigns of competitors.
Internal factors such as your own experience and resource availability.
Also see tools for internal/external audit:
SWOT.
PEST.
Porter's Five Forces.
Marketing Environment.
Stage Two - Set marketing objectives.
Specific - Be precise about what you are going to achieve.
Measurable - Quantify you objectives.
Achievable - Are you attempting too much?
Realistic - Do you have the resource to make the objective happen (men,
money, machines, materials, minutes)?
Timed - State when you will achieve the objective (within a month? By
February 2010?).
If you don't make your objective SMART, it will be too vague and
will not be realized. Remember that the rest of the plan hinges on the
objective. If it is not correct, the plan may fail.
Stage Three - Describe your target market
Which segment? How will we target the segment? How should we position
within the segment?
Why this segment and not a different one? (This will focus the mind).
Define the segment in terms of demographics and lifestyle. Show how you
intend to 'position' your product or service within that segment. Use tools to
assist in strategic marketing decisions such as Boston Matrix, Ansoff's
71
MARKETING AUDIT
The first formal step in the marketing planning process is that of
conducting the marketing audit. Ideally, at the time of producing the marketing
plan, this should only involve bringing together the source material which has
already been collected throughout the year - as part of the normal work of the
marketing department.
The emphasis at this stage is on obtaining a complete and accurate
picture. In a single organization, however, it is likely that only a few aspects will
be sufficiently important to have any significant impact on the marketing plan;
but all may need to be reviewed to determine just which 'are' the few.
In this context some factors related to the customer, which should be
included in the material collected for the audit, may be:
72
73
technology
ecological
sociocultural
supply chain
Current Situation - Market Analysis
o market definition
o market size
o market segmentation
o industry structure and strategic groupings
o Porter 5 forces analysis
o competition and market share
o competitors' strengths and weaknesses
o market trends
Current Situation - Consumer Analysis
o nature of the buying decision
o participants, demographics and psychographics
o buyer motivation and expectations
o loyalty segments
Current Situation - Internal
o company resources
financial
people
time
skills
o objectives
mission statement and vision statement
corporate and financial objectives
marketing objectives
long term objectives
description of the basic business philosophy
o corporate culture
Summary of Situation Analysis
o external threats and opportunities
o internal strengths and weaknesses
o Critical success factors in the industry
o our sustainable competitive advantage
Marketing research
o information requirements
o research methodology
o research results
Marketing Strategy - Product
o product mix
o product strengths and weaknesses
o
o
o
o
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
74
75
15.
16.
17.
ACTIVITY
Write a detailed marketing plan of the product that you will present as a second
project.
Vocabulary
Action plan
Baseline
Brand
Budget
Capital
Capital Improvement
Chain store system
Channel of
distribution
Clustering
Compensation
Competition
Constituency
Consumer
Consumer behavior
Consumer satisfaction
Core product
Corporation
Cost-benefit analysis
Demand
Demarketing
Demographics
Direct marketing
Distribution
Diversification
Elasticity
Federal Mandate
Fiscal
Focus group
Focus group
Gap analysis
Goals
Macroenvironment
Market
Market area
Market research
Market segmentation
Marketing
Marketing mix
Objectives
Operating Cost
Outcomes
Per capita income
Pilot Study
Point-of-sale(POS)
Price
Product
Product life cycle
Product mix
Slogan
Stakeholder
Strategic market
planning
Vision
76
77
78
OSHA STANDARDS
Safety and health programs are addressed in specific standards for the
general and construction industries and basic program elements for federal
employees OSHA. This page highlights OSHA standards, Federal Registers (rules,
proposed rules, and notices), and directives (instructions for compliance officers)
related to safety and health programs. OSH Act, often referred to as the General
Duty Clause, requires employers to "furnish to each of his employees employment
and a place of employment which are free from recognized hazards that are
causing or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to his employees". It
requires employers to "comply with occupational safety and health standards
promulgated under this Act".
An effective safety and health program depends on the credibility of
management's involvement in the program; inclusion of employees in safety and
health decisions; rigorous worksite analysis to identify hazards and potential
hazards, including those which could result from a change in worksite conditions
79
80
81
with the most severe consequences. These jobs should be your first priority
for analysis.
Outline the steps or tasks. Nearly every job can be broken down into job
tasks or steps. When beginning a job hazard analysis, watch the employee
perform the job and list each step as the worker takes it. Be sure to record
enough information to describe each job action without getting overly
detailed. Avoid making the breakdown of steps so detailed that it becomes
unnecessarily long or so broad that it does not include basic steps. You
may find it valuable to get input from other workers who have performed
the same job. Later, review the job steps with the employee to make sure
you have not omitted something. Point out that you are evaluating the job
itself, not the employee's job performance. Include the employee in all
phases of the analysis -- from reviewing the job steps and procedures to
discussing uncontrolled hazards and recommended solutions.
A sample form found below helps you organize your information to provide
these details.
82
By following the steps in this example, you can organize your hazard
analysis activities. The examples that follow show how a job hazard analysis can
be used to identify the existing or potential hazards for each basic step involved
in grinding iron castings.
Example 2
Grinding Iron Castings: Job Steps
Step 1. Reach into metal box to right of machine, grasp casting, and carry to wheel.
Step 2. Push casting against wheel to grind off burr.
Step 3. Place finished casting in box to left of machine.
83
Analyst:
Joe Safety
Date:
Task Description: Worker reaches into metal box to the right of the machine, grasps
a 15-pound casting and carries it to grinding wheel. Worker grinds 20 to 30 castings
per hour.
Hazard Description: Picking up a casting, the employee could drop it onto his foot.
The casting's weight and height could seriously injure the worker's foot or toes.
Hazard Controls:
Remove castings from the box and place them on a table next to the grinder.
Wear steel-toe shoes with arch protection.
Change protective gloves that allow a better grip.
Use a device to pick up castings.
Task Description: Worker reaches into metal box to the right of the machine, grasps
a 15-pound casting and carries it to grinding wheel. Worker grinds 20 to 30 castings
per hour.
Hazard Description: Castings have sharp burrs and edges that can cause severe
lacerations.
Hazard Controls:
Task Description: Worker reaches into metal box to the right of the machine, grasps
a 15-pound casting and carries it to grinding wheel. Worker grinds 20 to 30 castings
per hour.
Hazard Description: Reaching, twisting, and lifting 15-pound castings from the floor
could result in a muscle strain to the lower back.
Hazard Controls:
Move castings from the ground and place them closer to the work zone to minimize
lifting. Ideally, place them at waist height or on an adjustable platform or pallet.
Train workers not to twist while lifting and reconfigure work stations to minimize
twisting during lifts.
84
Managers should recognize that not all hazard controls are equal. Some are more
effective than others at reducing the risk.
85
Hazard Descriptions
Chemical (Toxic)
Chemical (Flammable)
Chemical (Corrosive)
Explosion (Chemical
Reaction)
Explosion (Over
Pressurization)
Self explanatory.
Electrical (Shock/Short
Circuit)
Electrical (Fire)
Electrical (Static/ESD)
Ergonomics (Strain)
Ergonomics (Human
Error)
Excavation (Collapse)
is
error-
86
Fire/Heat
Mechanical/Vibration
(Chaffing/Fatigue)
MechanicalFailure
Mechanical
Noise
Radiation (Ionizing)
Radiation (Non-Ionizing)
Struck By
(MassAcceleration)
Struck Against
TemperatureExtreme
(Heat/Cold)
Visibility
Weather Phenomena
(Snow/Rain/Wind/Ice)
Self explanatory.
International Standardization
When the large majority of products or services in a particular business or
industry sector conform to International Standards, a state of industry-wide
standardization exists. The economic stakeholders concerned agree on
specifications and criteria to be applied consistently in the classification of
materials, in the manufacture and supply of products, in testing and analysis, in
terminology and in the provision of services. In this way, International Standards
provide a reference framework, or a common technological language, between
87
suppliers and their customers. This facilitates trade and the transfer of
technology.
Because "International Organization for Standardization" would have
different acronyms in different languages ("IOS" in English, "OIN" in French for
Organisation internationale de normalisation), its founders decided to give it also a
short, all-purpose name. They chose "ISO", derived from the Greek isos, meaning
"equal". Whatever the country, whatever the language, the short form of the
organization's name is always ISO.
88
Benefits
In a very small organization, there may be no "system", just "our way of
doing things", and "our way" is probably not written down, but all in the head of
the manager or owner.
The larger the organization, and the more people involved, the more the
likelihood that there are written procedures, instructions, forms or records. These
help ensure that everyone is not just "doing his or her own thing", and that the
organization goes about its business in an orderly and structured way. This
means that time, money and other resources are utilized efficiently.
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
What is an ISMS?
An ISMS is a systematic approach to managing sensitive company
information so that it remains secure. It includes people, processes and IT
systems by applying a risk management process. It can help small, medium and
large businesses in any sector keep information assets secure.
International Commerce
Terminology
The Incoterms rules or International Commercial Terms are a series of
pre-defined commercial terms published by the International Chamber of
Commerce (ICC)
that
are
widely
used
in
International commercial
transactions or procurement processes. A series of three-letter trade terms
related to common contractual sales practices, the Incoterms rules are intended
primarily to clearly communicate the tasks, costs, and risks associated with the
transportation and delivery of goods.
They are accepted by governments, legal authorities, and practitioners
worldwide for the interpretation of most commonly used terms in international
trade. They are intended to reduce or remove altogether uncertainties arising
from different interpretation of the rules in different countries. As such they are
regularly incorporated into sales contracts worldwide.
First published in 1936, they have been periodically updated, with the
eighth versionIncoterms 2010having been published on January 1, 2011.
"Incoterms" is a registered trademark of the ICC.
99
making an initial quotation for the sale of goods without any costs included. EXW
means that a buyer incurs the risks for bringing the goods to their final
destination. The seller does not load the goods on collecting vehicles and does not
clear them for export. If the seller does load the goods, he does so at buyer's risk
and cost. If parties wish seller to be responsible for the loading of the goods on
departure and to bear the risk and all costs of such loading, this must be made
clear by adding explicit wording to this effect in the contract of sale.
The buyer, arranges the pickup of the freight from the supplier's
designated ship site, owns the intransit freight, and is responsible for clearing the
goods through Customs. The supplier is responsible for completing all the export
documentation. Cost of goods sold transfers from the seller to the buyer at this
time also. In this matter the buyer need to take responsible for bring the material
from the seller.
CPT Carriage Paid To (named place of destination)
The seller pays for carriage. Risk transfers to buyer upon handing goods
over to the first carrier at place of shipment in the country of import. This term is
used for all kind of shipments.
CIP Carriage and Insurance Paid to (named place of destination)
The containerized transport/multimodal equivalent of CIF. Seller pays for
carriage and insurance to the named destination point, but risk passes when the
goods are handed over to the first carrier.
DAT Delivered at Terminal (named terminal at port or place of
destination)
The Seller delivers when the goods, once unloaded from the arriving means
of transport, are placed at the Buyer's disposal at a named terminal at the named
port or place of destination. "Terminal" includes any place, whether covered or
not, such as a quay, warehouse, container yard or road, rail or air cargo terminal.
The Seller bears all risks involved in bringing the goods to and unloading them at
the terminal at the named port or place of destination.
DAP Delivered at Place (named place of destination)
Can be used for any transport mode, or where there is more than one
transport mode. The seller is responsible for arranging carriage and for delivering
the goods, ready for unloading from the arriving conveyance, at the named place.
100
Duties is not paid under this term (An important difference from Delivered At
Terminal DAT, where the seller is responsible for unloading.)
DDP Delivered Duty Paid (named place of destination)
Seller is responsible for delivering the goods to the named place in the
country of the buyer, and pays all costs in bringing the goods to the destination
including import duties and taxes. The seller is not responsible for unloading.
This term is often used in place of the non-Incoterm "Free In Store (FIS)". This
term places the maximum obligations on the seller and minimum obligations on
the buyer.
FAS Free Alongside Ship (named port of shipment)
The seller must place the goods alongside the ship at the named port. The
seller must clear the goods for export. It is suitable only for maritime transport
but NOT for multimodal sea transport in containers. This term is typically used
for heavy-lift or bulk cargo.
FOB Free on Board (named port of shipment)
The buyer must advance government tax in the country of origin as
commitment to load the goods on board a vessel designated by the buyer. Cost
and risk are divided when the goods are actually on board of the vessel. The
buyer must clear the goods for export because he did not pay for the goods in the
country of origin. The seller must instruct the buyer the details of the vessel and
the port where the goods are to be loaded, and there is no reference to, or
provision for, the use of a carrier or forwarder.
It means the seller pays for transportation of goods to the port of shipment,
loading cost. The buyer pays cost of marine freight transportation, insurance,
uploading and transportation cost from the arrival port to destination. The
passing of risk occurs when the goods are in buyer account.
CFR Cost and Freight (named port of destination)
Seller must pay the costs and freight to bring the goods to the port of
destination. However, risk is transferred to the buyer once the goods are loaded
on the vessel. Insurance for the goods is NOT included. This term is formerly
known as CNF (C&F, or C+F). It is for maritime transport only.
CIF Cost, Insurance and Freight (named port of destination)
Exactly the same as CFR except that the seller must in addition procure
and pay for the insurance. It is for maritime transport only.
101
102
contract of carriage" terms on the back of the form. These terms cover limits to
liability and other terms and conditions.
Most airlines use a different form called an air waybill which lists
additional items such as airport of destination, flight number, and time. A
waybill is similar to that of a courier's receipt which contains the details of the
consignor and the consignee, and also the point of origin and destination.
Commercial Invoice
A commercial invoice is a document used in foreign trade. It is used as
a customs declaration provided by the person or corporation that is exporting an
item across international borders. Although there is no standard format, the
document must include a few specific pieces of information such as the parties
involved in the shipping transaction, the goods being transported, the country of
manufacture, and the Harmonized System codes for those goods. A commercial
invoice must also include a statement certifying that the invoice is true, and a
signature.
A commercial invoice is used to calculate tariffs, international
commercial terms (like the Cost in a CIF) and is commonly used for customs
purposes.
You will need two copies of the Commercial Invoice, one must accompany
the freight from the point of pickup to the point of customs clearance, the other
should be attached to the Bill of Lading. This document is simply an invoice with
a complete description of the goods being shipped, along with the proper
valuations and currency information.
Certificate of Origin
The Certificate of Origin is used by the broker to determine the correct rate of
duty under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). If this document
is missing, the highest rates may be applied to each consignment, and U.S.
Customs may not allow the goods into the country.
Vocabulary
Air Freight Forwarder
Air Waybill
Articles of
Extraordinary Value
Bill of Lading (B/L)
Break bulk
Broker
Cartage Agent
Claim
Commodity
Consignee
Dispatch
Dock
Freight
Gross Vehicle Weight
(GVW)
Hazardous Material
Intermodal
103
Buyer
Container
Ergonomic
Facility
Hardhat
Illnesses
Multimodal
NGO
Payment Terms
Shipper's Agent
Tariff
Scope
Seller
Shipment
Third-Party
Truckload (TL)
Waybill
Duties
Supplier
Trigger
Unhealthful
Vessel
http://www.omnex.com/standards/iso_9001_2000/iso_9001_2000.html
http://www.iso.org/iso/home.html
http://www.kingswaytransport.com/CustomsInformation.aspx
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incoterms
https://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha3071.html
104