Section 11 ALUMINUM DESIGN 111 GENERAL ‘The purpose of this section isto provide location for indexing aluminum design, material fabrication, and con- struction specifications. 112 BRIDGES “The Specifications for Aluminum Structures, Fifth Edt tion, December 1986, published by the Aluminum Asso- ciation, Inc, a3 it applies to “Bridge and Similar Type Structures,” are intended to serve asa standard or guide forthe preparation of plans and specifications and as aref- erence for designers, fabricators, and erectors of alu ‘minum bridge and railing structures and their aluminum structural components. Welding shall conform to Section, 10 of the current AWS D1.2 Structural Welding Code— Abaminum, and workmanship requirements for Class 1 structures. 113 SOIL-METAL PLATE INTERACTION ‘SYSTEMS “The design of aluminum soil-metal plate interaction systems shall be in accordance with Section 12. Fabrica ‘and installation shall be in accordance with Section 23—Division I. 337 114. STRUCTURAL SUPPORTS FOR HIGHWAY ‘SIGNS, LUMINAIRES, AND TRAFFIC SIGNALS ‘The AASHTO Standard Specifications for Structural ‘Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires and Traffe Sig- rnals shall be used for the design and preparation of plans fand specifications, fabrication, and erection of aluminum Sign supports, luminaires, and traffic signals. Welding shall conform to Section'10 of the current AWS D1.2 Siructural Welding Code—Aluminum, and workmanship requirements for Clas I structures. Special consideration ‘may be given to certain suppor structures, which may be designed and fabricated according to the provisions of Ar- ticle 11.2, Bridges. 115 BRIDGE RAILING “The design of aluminum bridge railing shall be gov- cemed by Article 27; the fabrication and erection shall Conform to Section 6 ofthe Specifications for Alursinum ‘Structures, Fifth Edition, 1986; and the welding shall on- form to Section 10 of the current AWS D1.2 Structural Welding Code—Aluminum, and workmanship requite- ments for Class II Structures. The AASHTO Roadside ‘Design Guide should be consulted for guidance on the safety considerations in the design of bridge al Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Section 12 SOIL-CORRUGATED METAL STRUCTURE INTERACTION SYSTEMS 12.1 GENERAL, 12.1.1 Scope ‘The specifications ofthis Section are intended forthe structural design of corrugated metal structures. It must be recognized that a buried flexible structure is a composite structure made up of the metal ring andthe soil envelope, ‘and that both materials play a vital part in the structural design of flexible metal structures. Only Article 12.7 is applicable to structural plate box culverts 12.2 Notations A. = required wall area (Article 12.2.1) ‘A. = areaof pipe wall (Article 12.3.1) AL = total axle load on single axle or tandem axles (Ar- ticles 12.8.43.2 and 12.844) Cy = number of axles coefficient (Anicle 12.8.4.3.2) C, = number of wheels per axle coefficient (Article 12.843.2) Ca =dead “Toad adjustment coefficient (Article 128.43.2) Cu = live load adjustment coefficient (Article 128.43.2) D__ = straight leg of haunch (Article 12.8.2) E,, = modulus of elasticity of metal (Articles 12.2.2 and 1232) Eq = modulus of elasticity of pipe material (Articles 12.2.4 and 12.3.4) FF = flexibility factor (Articles 1224 and 123.4) f, = allowable stress—specified minimum yield point divided by safety factor (Article 12.2.1) f, = critical buckling stress (Articles 12.22 and 123.2) f, =specified minimum tensile strength (Articles 12.22 and 12.3.2) f, = specified minimum yield point (Article 12.3.1) H__ = height of cover above crown (Article 12.8.4.4) 1 = moment ofinertia, pr unit length, of eross section ofthe pipe wall (Articles 12.24 and 12.3.4) 339 ke = soil stiffness factor (Articles 12.2.2 and 12:32) ‘Ma, = dead load factored moment (Article 12.84.33) My = live load factored moment (Article 128.433) My = crown plastic moment capacity (Amtile 128433) Mp —haunch plastic moment capacity (Anticle 128.433) P= design load (Anicte 12.14) P= proportion of total moment carried by the erown. Limits for Pare given in Table 12.7.4D (Article 128.433) + = radius of gyration of corrugation (Articles 12.22 and 1232) ‘= radius of crown (Table 12.8.2) 8 ‘of haunch (Table 12:8.2A) R__ = rise of box culvert (Articles 12.7.2 and 12.844) R, =haunch moment reduction factor (Article 128.433) $= diameter of span (Articles 12.1.4, 12.2.2, 12.8.2, and 128.4.4) 5 = pipe diameter or span (Articles 12.2.4, 12.32, and 123.4) SF. = safety factor (Anite 122.3) SS. = required: seam strength (Articles 1223 and 1233) T= thrust (Antcle 12.14) Ty = thrust, load factor (Attics 12.3.1 and 123.3) ‘Ty = thrust service oad (Articles 12.2.1 and 122.3) t= length of stiffening ib on leg (Article 12.8.2) Y= reaction acting in leg direction (Article 12.8.4.4) A =baunch radius included angle (Table 12.8.2) 4 =uunit weight of backill (Articles 12.8.4:3.2 and 128.44) = capacity modification feetor (Articles 123.1 and 123.3) 121.3 Loads Design load, P, shall be the pressure acting on the struc ture, For earth pressures, see Article 3.20. For live load, see Articles 3.4 10 3.7, 3.11,3.12, and 6.4, except thatthe Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.340. HIGHWAY BRIDGES 2 1213 ‘words “When the depth of fills 2 feet or more” in Article {64.1 need not be considered, For loading combinations, see Article 3.22. 121.4 Design 1244.1 The thrust in the wall shall be chiecked by three eriteria. Each considers the mutual function of the ‘metal wall and the soil envelope surrounding it. The eri- teria are (@) Wall area; (b). Buckling stress; (©) Seam strength (structures with longitudinal seams). 121.42 The thrast im the wall (2-1) design load, in pounds per square foot; diameter or span, in feet; pounds per foot. 43 Handling and installation stength shall be i 10 withstand impact forces when shipping and placing be pipe 12.15 Materials ‘The materials shall conform to the AASHTO speci cations referenced herein. 12.16 Soil Design 121.61 Soll Parameters ‘The performance of a flexible culvert is dependent on soil structure interaction and soil stiffness ‘The following must be considered: (1) The type and anticipated behavior of the foun- dation soil must be considered; i., stability for ‘bedding and settlement under load . 2) The type, compacted density, and strength properties ofthe soil envelope immediately adjacent tothe pipe must be established. Good side fill is ob- tained froma granular material with litle or no plas- ticity and free of organic material, ie., AASHTO classification groups A-1, A-2, and A-3, compacted to.a minimum 90% of standard density based on AASHTO Specification T 99 (ASTM D 698). @) The density of the embankment material above the pipe must be determined. See Article 6.2. (b) Dimensions of sol envelope. ‘The general recommended criteria for lateral limits of the culvert soil envelope areas follows: (1) Trench installations—2-feet minirmum each side ‘of culvert. This recommended limit should be modified as necessary to account for variables such as poor in situ soils. Q) Embankment insiallations—one diameter or span cach side of culvert. @) The minimum upper limit ofthe soil envelope is 1 foot above the culver. 121.62 Pipe Arch Design ‘The design of the comer backfill shall account for ‘comer pressure which shall be considered to be approxi mately equal to thrust divided by the radius of the pipe arch corner. The soil envelope around the comers of pipe aches shall be eapable of supporting this pressure. 1216.3 Arch Design 121.6.3.1 Special design considerations may be ap- plicable; a buried flexible structure may raise two impor- tant considerations. The fist is that it is undesirable to ‘make the metal arch relatively unyielding or fixed com- pared with the adjacent sidefill. The use of massive foot- ings or piles to prevent any settlement of the arch is gen- erally nat recommended. ‘Where poor materials are encountered, consideration shouldbe given to removing some oral of this poor ma- terial and replacing it with acceptable material ‘The footing should be designed to provide uniform longitudinal settlement, of acceptable magnitude from 2 functional aspect. Providing forthe arch to setle will pro- tect it from possible drag dow forces caused by the eon- solidation ofthe adjacent sidefil ‘The second consideration is bearing pressure of soils under footings. Recognition must be given to the effect of ‘depth of the base of footing and he direction of the foot ing eaction ftom the arc. Footing reactions forthe meta arch are considered to act tangential to the metal plate at its point of connection tothe footing. The value ofthe reaction isthe thrust in the ‘metal arch plate atthe footing. 12.16.32. Invert slabs and other appropriate mea- sures shall be provided to anticipate scour. Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.par 12.1.7 Abrasive or Corrosive Conditions Extra metal thickness, or coatings, may be required for ‘resistance to corrosion and abrasion, For highly abrasive conditions, a special design may be required. 121.8 Minimum Spacing, ‘When multiple lines of pipes or pipe arches greater ‘han 48 inches in diameter or span ae sed, they shall be spiced so thatthe sides ofthe pi one-half diameter or 3 feet, whichever is less, to permit adequate compaction of backfill mattal. For diameters ‘ptoand including 48 inches, the minimum clea spacing shall nt be less than 2 fect. 121.9 End Treatment Protection of end slopes may require special consid- ‘ration where backwater conditions may occur, of where crosion and uplift could be a problem. Culvert ends con- stitute a major run-off-the-road hazard if not properly de- signed. Safety treatment, such as structurally adequate erating that conforms to the embankment slope, exten- sion of culvert length beyond the point of hazard, or pro- ion of guardrail, are among the alternatives to be con- sidered. End walls on skewed alignment require a special design, 12.110 Construction and Installation ‘The construction and installation shall conform to Sec~ tion 23—Division IL 12.2 SERVICE LOAD DESIGN Service Load Design is a working stress method, as ra- ditionally used for culvert design, 122.1 Wall Area as (122) where: ‘A = required wall area in square inches per foot; ‘T, = thrust, service load in pounds per foot; f, = allowable stress-specified minimum yield point, pounds per square inch, divided by safety factor, fySE. DIVISION I~DESIGN 3a 122.2 Buckling Corrugations with the required wall area, A, shall be checked for possible buckling. Ifthe allowable buckling stress, fy/SF, is less than f, the required area must be r= calculated using f/SF in licw off, Formulae for buckling © PPAR, us

t [PBS then f, =-12Em, x Heat then qavar (2-9) where: f, = specified minimum metal strength in pounds per ‘square ine; {ig = critical buckling tress in pounds per square ine; K = soil stiftness factor = 0.22; 5 = pipe diameter or span in inches; = radius of gyration of corrugation in inches; E, modulus of elasticity of metal in pounds per square inch, 1233 Seam Strength For pipe fabricated with longinudinal seams (riveted, spot-welded, bolted) the seam strength shall be sufficient to develop the thrust in the pipe wall. The required seam strength shall be: SS= Tub (12-10) 1224 where: ‘SS = required seam strength in pounds per foot; ‘T, = thrast multiplied by applicable factor, in pounds pet linear foot; & = capacity modification factor. 1234 Handling and Installation Strength Handling rigidity is measured by a flexibility factor, FR, determined by the formula: FF=e0El azn) wher FF = flexibility factor in inches per pound; ‘8 = pipe diameter or maximum span in inches; B,,= modulus of elasticity of the pipe material in pounds per square inchs 1 = moment of inertia per unit length of eross section of the pipe wall in inches to the 4th power per inch, 124 CORRUGATED METAL PIPE 124.1 General “124.11 Comugated metal pipe and pipe-arches may be of riveted, welded, or lock seam fabrication with annular or hetical comugations. The specifications ae: Aluminum Steel AASHTO M 36, AASHTO M 190, M196 M190, M245 1241.2 Service Load Design—safety factor, SF Seam strength = 3.0 Wall area 0 Buckling 0 124.13 Load Factor Design—capacit modi factor, For Helical pipe with lock seam or fully welded seam: Wall area and buckling 10 For Annular pipe with spot welded, riveted or bolted seam: ‘Wall area and buckling = 1.0 Seam strength 8067 Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.124.14 DIVISION DESIGN 124.14 Flexibility Factor (a) For steel conduits, FF should generally not exceed the following values: Yin. and Yin. depth corrugation, FF =43 x 107 |i, depth corrugation, FF = 33. 10 (©) For aluminum conduits, FF should generally not exceed the following values: Yein. and Yin. depth corrugations, FF = 3.1 X 10-2 for 0.060 in. material thickness FF = 6.1 X 10-? for 0.075 in, material thickness FF = 9.2 x 10-? forall other material thicknesses in, depth corrugation, FF = 6% 1 124.15 Minimum Cover ‘The minimum cover for design loads shall be Span/8 ‘but not less than 12 inches. (The minimum cover shal be ‘measured from the top ofa rigid pavement or the bottom of a flexible pavement) For construction requirements, soe Article 26.6—Division I. 1242. Seam Strength ‘Minimum Longitudinal Seam Strength 2X Wand 220 x 72 Corrupted Sieel 3 X 1 Corrugated Ste Pipe — Pipe—-Riveted or Spot Welded ‘Riveted or Spot Welded ‘Single Doub Dosti Thickness Rivet Sie Rivets Rete Thickness Rivet Se Riets Ga) Gn) Geist) ipa) Gnd "ind nat on 316 «GTC SSCOHASCSSCT om 5682 BST 8108 Bs ese 80 0.138 ve ee os 36 13 otes 6707 Rivet Single Double Rivets Rivets Gxipstt) —_¢kiput) a0 140 ons x6 908.0 0.105 a8 36 LS 0.135 BB 2 330 ores Ey “so. Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law. 343344 12.4.3 Section Pro} HIGHWAY BRIDG! 3% 1 Corugaed Ataminam 6% 1 Ged Aluminum I Doobie Double ‘Thickness Rivet Size Rivels Thickness Rivet Size Rive Ga) Ga) Ghipstt) Gin) Gin) ckipwtty "0.060 38 65000 IR —«160 ‘o07s 38 ms Omsk 0.105 2 mo 8 ows 0135 2 20 ons) 61s O16 n MS 01) in 5 perties 1243.1 Steel Conduits T2 ¥ 14 Connvgation 2213 x 17 Corvpation Thickness Ay EX 107 1x 10s in) in) nin) (aint) __Gin)___ (in 0.028 0.034 0.040 00s = 0253 oss oma 0.052 00s = Ot O69 ONTO 300, 0.068 os2 0439s oTI2 a9. 0.079 0.0846 §=— 05670968 OTM 239. 0.109 0.089 08571386 ONDA (3.425 0.138, O09 1.205 1748 OLN66 «4333, 0.168 0096716852133 ST2S, Te Taran SI Corrgaton Thickness TxA ra) Dy a exh Gioia) (agin) (in) __(in*Yin) a eS eee com is ose anes Otte 0109 15003485459 1.390 «03677 ——15.650 0.138 2.008 0.3472 2018317880303 20317 0168 2.458 03499 25.091 2186 STIL 25.052 12432 Aluminum Conduits Thicksess A, 7 (in) (cqinny _ (in) 0.018 ~ 0.68 — “0.0824 223 X 1A Conepaton 0.00 ©0761 0.082 M977 1.892 0.075 eee ee 2392 o.t0s 2.1220) . 1356 Sans 0.138 ah, Us 33 0.164 2130 sms 3 I Coragaton ox Eifective Thickness ay ' a Area 5 1109 Ga) (iv) Gn) (ginny oqinsty Gay Gn*iny 0.060 0890 OMIT —«86S9—COTTS ~~ RT OED ——«SDS Dos LUNs 0382710883 0.968 OBA 3630 10.631, 0105 156003815459 1356067803635. 14.340 0135 2088037220183 L748 OT 3645 19.319 O16 2458 0.3489 25.091 2433 .066 0.3656 23.760 Copyright 2002 AASHTO. Alll rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law. 12421244 1244 Chemical and Mechanical Requirements 1244.1 Aluminum-corugated metal pipe and pipe- ‘arch material requirements—AASHTO M 197 Mechanical Proper fr Design Miia Minin | ‘Tawle Wield Mod. of Suegth Pot Bist os) oy os 319m hoo OTE mom = mom 10x 1 12.442 Steelcorrugated metal pipe and pipe-arch ‘material requirements—AASHTO M 218 M246: Mechanica Properties for Design Misiones Minin ‘Baie Yad Mod. of Swengh Pit Else ted _@_ _ os) __ 45.000 33,000 29 x 10° 1245 Smooth-Lined Pipe ‘Corrugated metal pipe composed ofa smooth liner and corrugated shell attached integrally at helical scams spaced not more than 30 inches apart may be designed in accordance with Article 12.1 on the same be dard corrugated metal pipe having the same corrugations asthe shell anda weight per foot equal tothe sum of the weights per foot of liner and helically corrugated shell. ‘The shell shall be limited to corrugations having a max- ‘mum pitch of 3 inches and a thickness of not less than {60% of the total thickness of the equivalent standard pipe. 125. SPIRAL RIB METAL PIPE 125.1 General 125.41 Spiral Rib metal pipe and pipe-arches sre haelically formed from a single thickness of steel or alu- ‘minum with outwardly projecting ribs and a lockscam. ‘The specifications are ‘Aluminum: AASHTO M 196, M190 Steel: ‘AASHTO M 36, M 245, M 190 DIVISIONI-DESIGN —_* 345 1282 Soil Desiga 12.5.2 Spiral Rib pipe and pipe-arches installed in ‘embankment conditions shall have a granular soil backfill envelope extending to a minimum of one span on each side of the pipe and one foot above the pipe. This granu lar soil envelope shall meet the material and compaction, requirements of Aticle 12.1.6.1 (a). 12,5.2.2 Spiral Rib pipe and pipe-arches installed in standard trench conditions shall have a backfill envelope that (@) Moots the material and compaction requirements, of Article 12.1.6.1 (@). (b) Extends a minimum of 2 fect each side ofthe pipe to the trench wall. To account for variable conditions, this recommendation shall be increased as required for ‘poor in situ sols. It may be decreased for trenches in tock or high-bearing strength in situ soils to the limits required for backfill compaction. n this condition, the ‘use of cementitious grouts allows the envelope to be decreased to 2 inches, each side of the pipe- (©) Extends a minimum of 1 foot above the crown of the pipe. 125.23 Pipe-Arch Design ‘The design of the comer backfill shall meet the re- ‘quirements of Article 12.1.62. 1282.4 Special Conditions Design and installation shall meet the requirements of Article 12.1.7 for abrasive or corrosive conkitions; Arti- cle 12.1.8 for minimum spacing of multiple rans, and Ar- ticle 12.1.9 for end treatment. 12525 Construction and Installation Construction and installation shall conform to Section 23—Division I. 1253 Design 125.3.1 Service load design shall conform to the re ‘quirements of Anticle 12.2—Safety Factor (SF) shall be: 0 20 Wall Area Buckling 125.31 Load factor design shall conform tothe re- {quirements of Article 12.3—Capacity modification factor, 4 shall be $= 1.00 Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.346 HIGHWAY BRIDGES: 1232 12.5.3.2 Flexibility Factor 1254. Section Properties G@) For steel conduits, FF should generally not exceed. eee the following values x % x TA Coniguation (1) For installation conforming to Article 12.5.2.1 Tikes A, fx AOF Gaim dm ntiny FR = 02171 for YX Th configurations. FF = 0.140 I* for %< x 1X 11% configurations. 2) For installations conforming to Article 12522 FP = 0.263 18 for X *%4X 7% configurations FF = 0.163 I for %X 1 X 117s configurations. [Note lis the applicable moment of inertia value from Ar- ticle 125. (b) For aluminum conduits, FF should generally not ‘exceed the following values (1) For installations conforming to Article 12521 FF = 0340 1" for ox % X 7% configurations. FF = 0,175 1° for x 1 X 11% configurations. 2) For installations conforming to Article 12522 FP = 0420 P for %X %% 7%; configurations. FF = 0.215 1% for % x 1 X 11% configurations. ‘Note: 1 isthe applicable moment of inertia value from Ar- ticle 125.42. 1253.3 Minimum Cover ‘The minimum cover for design loads shall be mea- sured from the top of rigid pavement or the bottom of flex ible pavement such that (a) For stcel conduits the minimum cover shall be span/4, but not less than 12 inches; (&) For aluminum conduits with spans of 48 inches or less, the minimum cover shall be spaw/2, but not less than 12 inché&""For aluminum conduits with spans greater than 48 inches, the minimom cover shall be span/2.75, but not less than 24 inches. For construction requirements, see Article 26.6— Division I ood ome 0am om = om 0280 mL 01 Lie og S37 saa HX 1 1M Configuration a Exo? ainumy 6m om om ase Ds ass 6.080 Oss 03S 5.60 Note: Effective section properties at full yield stress. 125.42 Aluminum Conduits RR TA Configuration ‘Theknes A : (ec) ooo oss 0202 os 050267 10s Oost ons 130022 Yi 1 114 Configacaton * F om 0396 0391 030 0360 Note: Effective section properties at full yield stress. 1255 Chemical and Mechanical Requirements 125.5.1 Steel Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe-Arch irements—AASHTO M 218 1255.2. Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe- ‘Arch Requirements—AASHTO M 197 Me Ves” Modof . toa ios wa i Ho TOT 3ootib2 —2hgee amo T0 x 10 {ote ewe i en pe an er Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.126 DIVISION DESIGN 37 126 STRUCTURAL PLATE PIPE STRUCTURES 12.6.2 Seam Strength Minimum Longitudinal Seam Strengths 126.1 General © XP Set Sacral Pate Pipe 126.11 Structural plate pipe, pipearches, and Teeknest Diameter 4 Hous GRolw/N & Rok arches shal be bolted with annular comgations only. a ee ee “The specifications are ana ae ‘Aluminum Steel oe te AASHTOM 219. AASHTO M167 om Be 02) eo 126.12 Service Load Design—safety factor, SF ce ) oss 7a 2s Seam strength = 3.0 oars = Wall area = 2.0 Buckling = 2.0 X29 Nuria Sri Phe Figo ‘Sells ANsmioum 126.13 Load Factor Design—Capacity ae Moaibeation Faster i pase RR cc a) pvt) ity “mo (A Wallac and buckling & = 1.0 ‘= 4 Be Seam strength oor oot st ma ng aM a7 2a 12614 Flexibility Factor cam m4 pe 030 Se sat BY (@) For steel conduits, FF should generally nt exceed § 0 ——*¥__'_"ih_ the following values 1263 Section Propertics Gin, X 2, comugation FF = 2.0 10° (pipe) 1263.1. Steel Conduits Gin, 2 i, corrugation FF = 3.0 x 10> (pipe- ae arch) FRE Convpaions 6 in, X 2, comugation FF = 3.0% 10° (arch) Tikes . Dea a) Gey ayy (©) For aluminum conduits, FF should generally not 1386 06a exceed the following values os gets eet. ‘ ine oss 08 00 9 in. X 2% in, comgation FF = 2.5 X 107 (pipe) ii fe asa in, X 2/ in, comugation FF = 3.6 X 107? (pipe- 30 Og ao ach) Ai 0695 Nes 6 in, X 2% in, comugation FF = 3.6 X 10° (arch) aon 9g 126.15 Minimum Cover ‘The minimum cover for design loads shall be Span/8 ‘but not less than 12 inches. (The minimum cover shall be ‘measured from the top ofa rigid pavement ar the bottom FM DE Conrogations ' 10 of a flexible pavement.) For construction requirements, (ay dntiny see Antcle 26.6—Division Il aa aes 0.125 1790 aed 108.951 0.130 21 Osea 124.83 ors 2a ose Nas 855 0200-2799. _1665,959 0.225 3 ouek 188.179, 0.250 3sot ers 20944 Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.348 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 1264 12.6.4 Chemical and Mech: al Properties 12.641 Aluminum Structural Plate Pipe, Pipe- “Arch, and Arch Material ‘equirements—AASHTO M 219, Alloy 5052 ‘Mechanical Properties for Design Minimo — Minima “Tse Yat Mo of Tickoss Srength Feist Et. ew co) O00 0175 35000 mom —«10 x 1 0.176160.250 i000 2400010 10° 1264.2 Steel Structural Plate Pipe, Pipe-Arch, and Arch Material Requirements — ‘AASHTO M 167 Mechanical Properties for Minimum — Minimoam Tensile Yiekd-=—-Mod. off Strength Point East. —es)_ __@s)_ _@s) _ 45,000 33,000.29 x 10° 12.6. Structural Plate Arches ‘The design of structural plate arches should be based on ratios of a rise to span of 0.3 minimum. 12.7 LONG-SPAN STRUCTURAL PLATE ‘STRUCTURES, 12.74 General Long-span structural plate structures are short-span bridges defined as follows: 12.7.4.1 Structural plate structures (pipe, pipe-arch, and arch) that exceed the maximum sizes imposed by Ar- ticle 12.6. 12.74.2 Special shapes of any size that involve a rel- atively large radius of curvature in erown or side plates. Vertical ellipses, horizontal ellipses, underpasses, low profile arches, high profile arches, and inverted pear shapes are the terms describing these special shapes. 12.713 Wall srengih and chemical and mechanical properties shall be in accordance with Article 12,6. The Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. construction and installation shall conform to Section 26—Division I 127.2. Structure Design 1272.1 General Long-span structures shall be designed in accordance with Articles 12.1 and 12.6, and 12.2 or 12.3 except that the requirements for buckling and flexibility factor shall ‘not apply. The span in the formulae for thrust shall be re- placed by twice the top are radius. Long-span structures shall include acceptable special features. Minimum re- quirements are detailed in Table 12.7.2. ‘TABLE 12.7.2 Minimum Requirements for Long-Span Stractures with Acceptable Special Features CTO? ARC MINIMUM THICKNESS ep Radius) ss a0 023s exr corres ‘Seales 0107 in, O.138in. O168ia 0.218 in, 0249in, 1 MINIMUM COVER IN FEET ‘Tor RADIUS TD) Is 1st7_ 1720023 aaas 2s 23 30 zs 030 25 3030 20 25° (2s 30 29 20 20 «25 (3040 20 20 20028304 1m, GEOMETRIC LIMITS ‘A. Marimam Pte Radias—28 FL Maiq Cental Angle ef op Are = 80" (C Maio Ratio, Top Ae Rais to Side Are Radios ~ 2 . Maximum Ru, Tp Are Radi to Side Are Radius = 3° ‘Noe Sharp adi generate igh sil bearing pressures ‘ei high ete when significant eights of are 1, SPECIAL DESIGNS Sirctres ot describe cia sl be regarded as spi eign * en telafrcing ibs ae wed the moment of inti he erase section stl be equal or greater than tbe moment of Inet of he minimum pte ickoes shove, Duplication is a violation of applicable law.1272.2 DIVISION DESIGN, 349 OO B Low prone anes FIGURE 127.14 Standard Terminology of Struct 12.72.2 Acceptable Special Features (@) Continuous longitudinal strcturl stiffeners con- nected to the corrugated plates at each side of the top are. Stiffeners may be metal or reinforced concrete ef ‘ther singly or in combination. (b) Reinforcing ribs formed from structural shapes ‘curved to conform to the curvature of the plates, fas- tened tothe structure as required to ensure integral ac- tion with the corrugated plates, and spaced at such i .=legals as necessary to increase the moment of inertia ‘of the section to that required by the design, 12.73 Foundation Design 12.731 Settlement Limits Foundation design requires a geotechnical survey of the site 10 ensure that both the structure and the criti- cal backfill zone on each side of the structure will be late Shapes Including Long-Span Structures properly supported, within the following limits and con- siderations: (1) Once the structure has been backfilled over the crown, settlement ofthe supporting backiil relative to the structure must be limited to control dragdown forces. Ifthe siefill will stile more than the structure, detailed analysis may be required. Q) Settlements along the longitudinal centerline of arch structures mast be limited to maintain slope and preclude footing eracks (arches). Where the structure will settle uniformly with the adjacent sols, long spans with fall inverts can be built on a eamber to achieve a proper final grade. () Differential setlements across the structure (from springline to springline) shall ot exceed 0.01 (Span)! rise in order to limit excessive rotation ofthe structure. More restrictive settlement limits may be requited to protect pavements, or to limit longitudinal differential deflections. Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.350, HIGHWAY BRIDGES: 12.732 Footing Reactions (Arch Structures) Footing reactions are calculated by simple statics to support the vertical loads. Soil load footing reactions. (Vou) are taken as the weight of the fill and pavement above the springline ofthe structure. Live loads, which provide relatively limited pressure ‘zones acting on the crown of the structure are distributed to the footings. Footing reactions may be taken a8. Rv= (Vout Vu)CosA (12.7. 1) Ru = (Voc + Vu) Sin (12.7.3.2-2) Vertical footing reaction component (K/A) Horizontal reaction component (K/R) {H(S) ~ Ay] a2 M(AL)(Ly + 2H) Return angle of the structure (degrees) ‘Axle load (K) — 50% ofall axes that con be placed onthe structure at one time 32K for H 200118 20 40K for H 25/48 25 50K for Tandem Axle 160K for E80 Railroad Loading Ar the area of the top portion of the structure above the springline (22) Hi, = Heightofcover above the foting to tai sur- face (ft.) Hy = Height of cover from the structure's springline to waffic surface (ft.) Ly = Lane width (ft.) 2H 2 | = numberof ae ieger| = 4 2| = numberof afi lnes oe 2 = Unitweight of sol dt) 12.733. Footing Design Reinforced concrete footings shall be designed in ac- cordance with Article 4.4 to limit settlements to the re- auirements of Article 12.7.3. Footings should be sized to provide bearing pressures ‘equal to or greater than those exerted by the structural backfill on the foundation. Ths helps to ensure that if set- tements do occur the footings and backfill will settle in approximately equal amounts avoiding excessive dra down loads on the structure. 12.74 Soll Envelope Design Structural backfill material inthe envelope around the structure shall meet the requirements of Article 12.7.4.1 12732 The width of the envelope, on each side of the structure shall be sized to limit shape change during construction activities outside the envelope and to control deflections under service loads. (See Articles 12.7.4.2 and 12.7.4). 127.4.1 Soil Requirements Granular type soils shall be used as structure backfill (the ‘envelope next to thé metal stracture). The order of prefer- cence of acceptable stracture backfill materials is as follows: (#) Well-graded sand and gravel; sharp, rough, or an- gular if possible, (b) Uniform sand or gravel. (©) Approved stabilized sol shall be used only under direct supervision of a competent, experienced soils Engineer. Plastic sols shall not be used, ‘The structure backfill material shall conform to one of the following soil classifications from AASHTO M 145, ‘Table 2: for height of fill ess than 12 feet, A-I, A-3, A-2-4, and A-2-5; for height of fill of 12 feet and more, A-1, A-3. Structure Backfill shall be placed and compacted to not less than 90% density per AASHTO T 180. 12.4.2 Construction Requirements “To control shape change ftom construction activities ‘outside the envelope in trench conditions, the structural backfill envelope shall extend to the trench wall and be ‘compacted against it. Altemativey, the structural backfill ‘must extend an adequate distance o protect the shape of the structure from construction loads. The remaining trench width can be filled with suitable backfill material com- pcted to mect the requirements of Article 12.7.43. Inem- ‘bankment conditions, the minimum structural backfill with shall be 6 feet. Where dissimilar materials not meet- ing geotechnical filter criteria are used adjacent to each other, a suitable geotextile must be used to avoid migration. 1274.3. Service Requirements To limit defections under service loads, the width of the envelope on each side of the structure shall be ade- {quate to limit horizontal compression strain to 1% ofthe structure's span on each side ofthe structure. Ths is a de- sign limit—not a performance limit. Any span increase that occurs is principally due to the consolidation of the side support materials as the structure is loaded during backtiling. These are construction movements that aten uate when fall cover is reached, Limiting horizontal compression strain requires an evaluation ofthe widih and quality of the structural back fill material selected as well asthe in situ, embankment or ‘other fill materials within the zone, on each side of the Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.127.43 structure, that extends toa distance equal tothe rise ofthe structure plus its cover height (See Figure 12.7.4). Forees acting radially off the small radius comer are of the structure ata distance d from the structure can be eal- culated as (2743.1) where Py = the horizontal pressure fiom the structure at a distance d, from it (psf) dy = distance from the structure (A) T = Total dead load and lve load thrust in the struc- ture (Article 12.7.2.1-psf) R= Comer radius ofthe structure (9) ‘The required envelope width beside the pipe, d, can be calculated for a known, allowable bearing pressure as. (12:743.2) where 4 = required envelope width beside the structure (ft) Pug = Allowable bearing pressure to limit compres- sion (strain) inthe tench wall or embankment os, -———— + ‘cOMPACTED NinMuM UMTS OF esau, MTs NORMAL COMPACTED 'SELECT GRANULAR: 1 —| ROAD FLL ‘STRUCTURAL BACKFILL NORMAL ROAD FLL NORMAL ROADTIL ABOVE 6° | r [Mins Cover Leva, win DIVISION DESIGN 351 ‘The structural backfill envelope shall continue above ‘the crown to the minimum cover level for that structure or, ifitis ess, to the bottom of the pavement (or granular base course) oF the bottom of any relief slab ete. 12.78 End Treatment Design End treatment selection and design isan integral part of the structural desig. It ensures proper support of the ends of the structure while providing protestion from Scour, hydraulic uplift and loss of backfill dust erosion forces. 12.7.5.1 Standard Shell End Types ‘The standard end types for the corrugated plate shell are provided in Figure 12.7.5A. Step bevel, full bevel and skewed ends all involve cutting the plates within a ring. Each has its own structural considerations. ‘Step bevels cut the comer (end side on pear and high profile arch shapes) plates on a diagonal (bevel) to match the fill slope. The following limits apply: ‘+ The rise ofthe top step must be equal to or greater than the rise ofthe top arc; thus plates in the top arc, are le uncut. + The bottom step “—for structures with inverts, must meet the re- quirements for atop step. for arches, must be a minimum of 6 inches. UETS~cOMPAGTED oT NORMAL BACKFILL 4 FIGURE 12.44 Typical Structural Backfill Envelope and Zone of Structure Influence Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.352 HIGHWAY BRIDGES: 21275. Py EMBANKMENT Rt = top radius of the structure Re = corner radius of the structure d= nininun structural backfill width P = the horizontal pressure from the structure at 8 distance d Py = dead and FIGURE 12.748 Assumed Pressure Distrib ‘© The slope ofthe cut plates generally shall be no flat- ter than ‘+ The upper edge of the cut plates must be bolted to ‘and supported by a structural concrete slope collar, slope pavement, etc. Full bevel ends are limited to special design only. ‘Structures with full inverts must have a bottom step con- forming tothe requirements for step bevel ends. ‘The bevel eut edge of all plates must be supported by a suitable, rigid concrete slope collar. + Skew cut ends must be fully connected to and sup- ported by areinforced concrete (or other rigid) head- wall. The headwall must extend an adequate dis- tance above the crown ofthe structure to be capable ‘of reaching the ring compression thrust forees from the cut plates. In addition to normal active earth and live load pressures, the headwall wll react to a com- ponent ofthe radial pressure exerted by the structure (See Anicte 12.7.4.3). 12.782 Balanced Support Soil support must be relatively balanced from side to side, perpendicularly across the structure. In lieu of “a special design, slopes running perpendicularly across the structure are limited to a maximum of 10%, for Fron it (psf? Wve load pressure (psf) on the crown cover heights of 10 feet or less, and to 15% for higher covers. Unbalanced soil support occurs whenevera structure is skewed oan embankment. When this occurs, the fill must bbe warped (shaped) to maintain balanced support and to provide an adequate width of backfill and embankment soil to suppor the ends. Inlieu ofa special design, alatened area running par- allel tothe structure shall be provided to extend out adis- tance of 1.5 (rise + cover) beyond the springline. 12.753 Hydraulic Protection Inhydraulic applications the structure, which includes the shell, footings, structural backfill envelope and other Sill materials within the zone influenced by the structure rust be protected 127.531 Backfill Protection Loss of backfill integrity through piping action must be considered. If materials prone to piping are used, the structure and ends of the backfill envelope must be ade~ quately sealed to conto sol migration and/or infiltration. 127532 Cut-Off (Toe) Walls All hydraulic structures with full inverts require up- stream and downstream cut-off (toe) walls. Invert plates Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.“19532 DIVISION DESIGN 333 uy cap, ‘sore PaveuionT, ‘he nan ere END VIEW ELEVATION VIEW (A) SQUARE END RONFORCED CONCRETE. SLOPE COLLAR “AND TOE WALL END VIEW ELEVATION VIEW (8) STEP BEVEL RONTORCED concRETE REWARD PLAN VIEW SKEW END VIEW (C) SKEW CUT END (REQUIRES FULL HEADWALL) FIGURE 12.7.5A Standard Structare End Types Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.354 HIGHWAY BRIDGES shall be bolted to cut-off walls at a maximum 20 inch cen- ter-to-center spacing using 9+ inch bolts. ‘The cut-off wall shall extend to an adequate depth to limit hydraulic percolation to control up-lit forces (Article 12.7.5.33) and scour (Article 12.7.53.4), 127.533 Hydraulic Uplift Hydraulic uplif isa design consideration for hydraul structures with full inverts where the design flow level in the pipe may drop quickly. Resulting hydraulic gradients, ‘with the water level higher in the baekfill than in the pipe, ‘must be limited to levels that will not buckle the invertor float the structure, Buckling may be evaluated using Art- cle 12.723 assuming the span ofthe stractureis twice the invert radius. Where uplift can be a concern, design typi- cally employs adequate cut-off walls and other means to seal off water flow into the structural backfill 127.534 Seour ‘Scour design shall meet the requirements of Article 4.4.5.2, Where erodible soils are encountered, varying de- grees of conventional means of scour protection may be ‘employed to meet requirements. Deep foundations such as piles or eaissons are not to bbe used without a special design that considers differen- tial settlement and provides a means fo retain the struc- tural backfill ifscour proceeds below the pile cap, ete. 12.7.6 Multiple Structures Care must be exercised on the design of multiple, closely spaced structures to control unbalanced loading. Fills should be kept level over the series of structures when possible. Significant roadway grades across a series of structures require checking of the stability ofthe flexi- ble structures under the resultant unbalanced loading. 128 STRUCTURAL PLATE BOX CULVERTS 128.1 General Structural plate box eulverts (hereafter “box culverts”) are composite reinforcing rib-plate structures of approni- ‘mate rectangular shape. Box culverts are intended for shallow covers and low wide waterway openings. The shallow covers and extreme shapes of box culverts require special design procedures. Requirements of Articles 12.1 through 12.7 are not applicable to box culver designs un less included in Anicle 12.8 by specific reference. 1281.1 Scope ‘Article 128 presents structural capacity requirements for box culverts based on the load factor method. Standard 127532 shapes, soil requirements, and permissible product details for box culverts in compliance with this specification are defined. 1282 Structural Standards ‘The design citetia presented in subsequent articles are applicable only 6 structures in compliance with the stan- dards described in Article 128 1282.1 Structural plate box culverts shall be bolted. ‘The box eulvert materials specifications are ‘Aluminum Steel AASHTO M219 AASHTO M 167 1282.2. Reinforcing ribs shall be an aluminum ot ‘steel structural section curved to fit the structural plates. Ribs shall be bolted to the plates soasto develop the plas tic moment capacity required. Spacing between ribs shall not exceed 2 feet on the crown and 4.5 fect on the haunch. Rib splices shall develop the plastic moment eapacity re- quired atthe location ofthe spice. 12823 Plastic moment capacities ofibbed sections ‘may be computed using minimum yield strength values. for both rib and corrugated shell. Such computed values ‘may be used for design only after they have been con- firmed by representative flexural test data. (Reference At- ticle 1048.1). 1283. Structure Backfill 1283.1 Structure backfill material shall conform to the requirements of Article 12.7.2.4, compacted to a min- imum 95% of standard density based on AASHTO T 99 or 90% of standard density based on AASHTO T 180, 1283.2 Specified structure backfill material shall be 43 feet wide, minimum, at the footing and shall extend up- ‘ward tothe road base elevation. TABLE 12.824 Geometric Require for Box Culverts ‘Span () may vary fom 89 in. 1025 Nin Ris (Rhy sy vary roms 296i, 01086 Rade ofeotom(.) = 24 8-9V8in maxim Rodis ofhaunch, (4) = 28-6 mim woot «SLE 59 oO ‘000'00S"T se 19 ‘oot ose ostt = 000'00S"T 056, S19 oor St cont PUR sisoq ' YWWTEN oooioncr str 59 a ‘o00'00s"t Ost 19 oor 09 ostt uotuns ooo'ons"t 006 19 or Sis ost pu urag remonas paps ooo'onst one 59 wl OSS ~COSSSCSC IN TON onn'oost 005 19 sot OSS 506 Pz LON oon'o0cT___ ort 19 Sor OSL vet fpninns Paps avn ant ‘000'000'T OF ses sot sur o0e TON o00'00E'T sis $38 ‘sor 008 oort equ, TON c00'00eT__ oot a sot coor_—_— Oost ue sso imoans ores ‘YINTEN 000'000'T Os see ‘SOL sor ‘SLB TON ‘000'00€'T 08 see ‘sot so oser safes TON omnes 056 ses Sot 055 pt pre tag emnas BaPS omer Ste se or Sis ZN ‘000'00%'T Se $88 ont sus ‘oot od TON covert str so Ci reimaang eres VO GRE NUSHINON moor (ses ste 36 OSS SB ZN ‘Glas o00'O0E'T 008 sue on 006 oset aati LON con't 05 sis om coor Oost SxS teumonns Hops (suonipued eoras9g 1944 30 C1) ANId NYTHLNOS GAXIW coors ort 35 6 ss SCSLB 2008 Zt zon 00"00st oort sos 06 sus si6 TON 000'009'T Osst 998 06 se ad PM Teamonnis 199125, july a a va a Ea ORBUERED —_opmD jwRIPUNIOD smi mms mea wpa, mp woe mig oF per sods Supe erera — sejnoypuediog —poqreg—yomtemg sport wopxdateg —nomsaniuoy. —‘ineqg) ONT (6) eeu reas Tod sponog w oNIA vA (panupaod) ssoquyy pur soquiry papers Atpenst, 295 samqea vFysaq PMINGEL I'S" TTAVL135.5.1.1 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 364 “Mo erqroridde jo wonejors vst woneotidng -panrosorsiuSE ITY “OAHSWY 200Z 12° mpopesding png pe SrpON womidiog coweaucy “gt fend ast cat ean oe aa (8) wour ammnbs rad sponog wy oameA Wir srt 5 6 oss rey TeN cost 395 05, si ost PM TN, cost 538, 06 sor 00st empnuig 1295 cost 35 06 sis Osor ZN cot 595 0% Ste ost 20mm Ot TON set 9 06 corr osu PM rermpnng 322105 Osst 95 05 9 «Ota 2M ON sot 335 0s see OST 2PM Ton 0st 25 % oer ove eampans 19195, 0st 95 05 (OSE 2PM nS ON ost $95 05 005 sot 2M Ton 00 $9 % ort osse Rumionns 12195, sot 95 6 Ste (OteT Ewes Z'ON ossr ss oor = osot asst 2M ez TON oor 595 oot costae Teimonns 19138 ‘Nid NWSHLAOS ose oe 08 oor (ses. su oe 8 S19 Ooo srg, sis os oe ose oset par sso. oy oe 08 sie StL coe oe oe Oss stratum see oe o Oe OseT pee surg 9 0s 8 seo Bp WL sce oe s tos see 2m IZ coat os 8 se ostt eammnns 22375 VO amt a a a E SY BONRGURSED —=peID jepramMIED 3 ao wpa in moo wmieg ue somads (Penonu0>) sinters pus s9quny popes sensiA 40} sonINA BING POLEINGRL VI'S'CL ATEVL365 DIVISION I—DESIGN 135511 -mwo] aqqeardde yo worryora v st uoreay{dngy‘poasosars IV OLHSVV cO0z WAKAO 00% sis or St oor Oke wep AL ZN aSIN O00" sel or st sy th 2m, TON 00% 006 oer st ses o0or emans 12995, BY IdOd MOTTA ooo sz see 9 sae TON v0" seo see 9 os 008. sequin, TON ‘amas _ 000000" ou see 9 sig 0cor ue sso reaming 2125 ISN O00'000" ose see 9 oS ON TO o00‘o07 sis see 9 csr 006 satus Ten, 00" soo see 9 Sco osot_——puv sumog, reampans 19725 VICTEN 000 Sue see a Se COSL 7p AZ TON 00" sor see a cor ose 2M IE TN, 000" oct see oe Sis onet reimpnng 9915 (HINOS) WLaNTaaOAwaS ‘co0‘o00'T (0s er 9 se (ONS. TON Coo'ove'r 00, se 9 oss 0s sweat, ON, covet 008 cs 9 ooL___0s0r par sso rmpang 2995 VOIN Oooo «StF str 2 oe TON Wormer so ser 9 Cd siofuns TON, Coorooet Sus ser 9 069 ott paw sumo emonng P9125, Oom'oorT——«OOTT ee % sy (SLB pL ONT “ON, o's‘ Ort ser o si oser 2M Iz, Temas 29105 ULEANIEIONUES coor ses ste os (Ose TON eas O00'00S'T Se sue 006 oset a8 TN, 0005" 056 sue oor Oost SxS eamanng 19198 00'005'T ott om oct osut empans pares #50eq (eoonp8eD 2m35 FM 29 AiG) NIE NUSHLNOS uy a va a a Sd SORTSHISD—_9PUID TeoreMIOD my ABR UMD «= UMD = wD UMA FupG — aS pur soneds ope jo eg semopuodiog —oqeseg mere mmimpor, _worsaudeg —uowsaidwoy rays —_worsuay, (ed) spur arenbs sed spunog ur nwa we (pomenu0>) oq, pus soquon popes Ase) INA DION PAIMGEL _VESET AIAN1355.11 HIGHWAY BRIDGES “MoT ayquortdde so wonejors & st uonvay|dngy “peazosas SIUBE ITY “OLHSV ZoOz WaUKdoD ‘sono aa Bortonoy oxy Sq pox 29 megs PNA tz s9qa ‘Sop ues ot ered uosandios pus ‘voy “Smpang peerage uy BiegMes pax pur ast WINGS Me apo seDL oro OOS a = a ” "OS SODVEDIANIS La :womenipe sung moxay snen pean an omg weqe0s pa pu UL W405 19) ‘son senso oa Buono 29a pacha 29 ys serenuBpep "gg Pans tm aon sanoe argu pom owt Pov fa sane seg O1=7O MO = Ate. Or = MO'RS Ost T = COND DUH, oo «0S a s oy eee = "9 "suOLOvEaOIAWaS 1am sore 24498 rm Suynon} 20) (9 panne o9 ee sons hep ‘ast povore mun ston sumpom 2:99m Pos PH, 0. 19QUN| HEIDI UUM" OIE SINS TOM "Z “swonrogrons sopodsyrevauruoo paw s2po3e sae Hupest yo Kaen «305 poe sopeld pu #2048 jue 10} {SQN 1661 94.0112} swoRpIED 208 Lp pu Lone 140) a pow SN 23 Jo UontP t66t 240 OH UOye ate Fon UEC “L (Panu) szoqun, pu s2qH7 ps Jost 20} MIRA UBHIOG POFRINAML VI'S'CT TIAN367 DIVISION I—DESIGN 13.5.5.141* “aey o1qvoridde so uonepora v st woneatydng ‘poArosar USUI TY “OLHSVV 7002 WStsKdoD, un 21300 248 “sue03 wo 4 wD at0R 04 pods are 30 e109 of ae UA equ I 30 BUND "ate Fe Pam “ST sose aqua annnadar on fa onsen q megs 7 ¥ 12 JOqun WEAN 0} TIN BOP Purpua "> Yo!D awopY uTDA *S 1 tT ree oT sor st 2 svt st 2 sot 11 s oT 11 o on a?2 7 aaa co BPR "ROLES IT sone} am ey Pemsones ofa onda 2g Tees snya enop Sompeag am (so) spt ot Pande prot) mies368, HIGHWAY BRIDGES 1355.11 TABLE 135.18 Tabulated Design Values for Mechanically Graded Dimension Lumber ‘Design Vales in Pounds per Square Inch (psi) “Tension Compression Modulus Paral! Parallel of Grading Species and Size Bending to Grain to Grain Elasticity Rules CommersialGrade __Cassifvation Fe Fe Rr E Agency ‘MAGHINE STRESS RATED (MSR) LUMBER 9008.08 00 350~—«1050—=—«1,000,000-WCLIB, WWPA 120061.28 120 © 400—1,200,000 LGA, SPIB, WCLIB, WWPA 135061.38 13907501690 1,300,000. SPIB, WCLIB, WWPA 145061.3E 450-800-1625 1,300,000 NLGA, WCLIB, WWPA 15008138 1500 9001650 1,300,000 SPIB 1500148 13009001650 1,400,000 NLGA, SPIB, WCLIB, WWPA 16506146 1650 10201700 1,400,000 SPIB 3650F1 SE 1650 1020 1700—_1,500,000_NLGA, SPIB, WCLIB, WWPA 1800-165 160011751750 1,600,000 NLGA, SPIB, WCLIB, WWPA 1950 SE 2 & less in thickness 1950 1373 1800——1,500,000 SPIB 195064.75 1950 1375 1800 +1,700,000_NLGA, SPIB, WWPA 21001.8E Fawide — 21001575 187S—_1/800,000_NLGA,SPIB, WCLIB, WPA. 225061.66 2) 17501925. 1,600,000 SPIB 225011.98 20 17501925 1,900,000_NLGA, SPIB, WWPA 20061 7E 240019251975 1700,000SPIB 2A0012.06 240019251975 -2/000,000 NLGA, PIB, WCLIB, WWPA 255062-1E 2550 20602025 2,100,000-NLGA, SPIB, WWPA 270062.2E 27m) 21502100 -2:200,000_NLGA, SPIB, WCLIB, WWPA 28506-2.3. 2350 2300 ©2150 -2:300,000 SPIB, WWPA. 30006246 30 2400200 2'400,000NLGA, SPIB 31500256 30 2500 250 2,500,000 SPLB 33008268 330026502305 _—_2,600,000_SPIB 0061 28 300 350—~—«1050~—«1,200,000 NEGA, WLIB 120004.58 F S&less in thickness 1200 60 ©1400 1,500,000NLGA, WCLIB 13506188 13507501600 1,800,000 NGA 150061 8E © & wider 1500 9001650 1,800,000 WCLIB 18006218 iso 117517502, 100,000_NLGA, WCLIB 1. Design values ae taken fom the 71 Baton ofthe NDS and are fora 10-year load duration and dry service conditions, Refer 10 the 1991 NDS® for adtional grades and fora summary of grading rales agencies. 2. Desig values for shear parallel wo grin and compression perpenicalar to ran shall be as specified in Table 13 .1A for No, 2visualy ‘traded denon himber ofthe eporopite specie, 3. Use of the wet service factor, seat set factor, repetitive member factor, aod Oat us factor shall be as specified in Table 13.5.1, for visually graded dinension lumber. tors, Cy, given in footnotes to Tables 13.5.1A and 1BS.1B. 13.55.1.2 ‘Tabulated values for glued laminated tim- ber and structural composite lumber assume thatthe ma- terial isused under continuously dry conditions where the ‘moisture content in service does not exceed 16%, When. te moisture content in service is expected to exceed 16%, tabulated values shall be reduced by the wet service fac- tors, Cw given in the footnotes to Tables 13.5.3A and 13.538 for glued laminated timber and Tables 13.544. and 13.5.4B for structural composite lumber. 13.55.13 The moisture content of wood used in exposed bridge applications will normally exceed 19% and tabulated values shall be reduced by the wet service factor unless an analysis of regional, geographic, and cli- ‘matological conditions that affect moisture content indi~ cate that the in-service moisture content will not exceed 1% for sawn lumber and 16% for glued laminated tim- ber and structural composite lumber over the life of the structure Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.13352 DIVISION I-DESIGN 369 ‘TABLE 132A Tabulated Design Values for Bearing Parallel to Grain Sess eer eer ee Sewn Lamber Wet Service sxe Tor Giued ‘Species Combination Conditions ‘& Larger ‘Thick ‘Laminated Timber ‘Douglas Fir-Larch (Dense) 1570 1730 Be 2750 ‘Douglas Fir-Larch_ 1350 1480 2020 2360 Easter Softwoods 380 = 140 — Hem-Fic m0 1220 1610, 1940 Mixed Southern Pine 1270 1390 1500 = Northern Red Oak. 1130 20 170 2010 Red Maple 1100 m0 1650 1930 Red Oak 1010 1110 1520 1770 ‘Southern Pine 1320 1450. 1970 2300 Southern Pine (Dense) 1540 1650 2310 2690 Spruce-ine-Fir 940 1040 410 1650 SprucePine-Fic (South) 810 300 10 1430 Yellow Poplar 350 1340 1560 1. Design values are taken from the 1991 Edition of the NDS*. Refer to the 1991 NDS® for addtional species. 2. Wet and dry service conditions are as defined in Article 13. 1. The wet service factor has been applied to values tabulated for wet service conditions and further adjustment by this factor is not required. 13552 Load Duration Factor, Co 1335.21 Wood can sustain substantially greater ‘maximum loads fr short load durations than for long load durations. Tabulated stresses for sawn lumber, glued lam- inated timber, and structural composite lumber are based ‘on a normal load duration which contemplates that the member is stressed to the maximum stress level, either ‘continuously or cumulatively, for a period of approxi ‘mately 10 years, and/or stressed to 90% of the maximum {design level continuously for the remainder of the mem- ber lite 1355.22 When the fall maximum load is applied cither cumulatively or continuously for periods other than. 10 years, tabulated stresses shall be multiplied by the load uration factor, Cp, given in Table 13.5.5A. 135523 The provisions ofthis article do not apply to modulus of elasticity or to compression perpendicular to grain, but do apply to mechanical fastenings, except as ‘otherwise noted. The load duration factor for impact does not apply to members pressure-impregnated with prese vative solts to the heavy retentions required for marine ex posure. 13.3.5.24 Incteases in tabulated stresses resulting from various load duration factors are not cumulative and the load duration factor forthe shortest duration load in ‘combination of loads shall apply for that load combi- nation. The resulting structural members shall not be ‘smaller than required for a longer duration of loading (refer to the 1991 Edition of the NDS® for additional commentary). 1355.25 Modification of design stresses for load combinations, as specified in Section 3, are cumulative ‘with load duration adjustments. 13553 Adjustment for Preservative Treatment ‘Tabulated values apply to untreated wood and to wood that is preservatively treated in accordance with the re- ‘quirements of AASHTO M 133. Unless otherwise noted, no adjustment of tabulated values is required for preserv- ative treatment, 136 BENDING MEMBERS 1361 General 1361.1 The provisions ofthis article are applicable tostraight members and to slightly curved bending mem- bers where the radivs of curvature exceeds the span in inches divided by 800, Additional design requirements for Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.sy ont with Members Stressed Privarly la Bending! Dale a ame Spe eh Teg fi YA (one ete Pet of ai) ‘eng Absa OX Ace (Lene Pept Pe tan) TABLE 13534. Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood Timber HIGHWAY BRIDGES 13.6.1. aE ra te tena ie tou ion ee) Tam toa a i Meow Tena fd Ta roan toa thea a er) ea “amar sean Ral Gm na ay Omi he ror ‘Se ‘a0 ‘aa am iS (aoe s8 acme Sous vee Ta tame ey) mac 1 ‘some essa |saaa| jag sa lss|sses| jas SERRISR/ER) |8R] [BR)AR|RRAR| [88 REGS |R888| 82 ‘sunny GRADED WesTERN EGE Copyright 2002 AASHTO. Al rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.a7 DIVISION DESIGN 136.11 xe] 21qvardde Jo uorejora e st uoneor{dng -paasosar siYaL TV “OLHSVY Z00z THBUAdoD “p64 OLY 228 vonmmcjr azo wonpnsoco yepads Wiis sey seq a HOW CGE OLIV Kn AURORE Uy poreaeat 29 Au Sa 20) sonqen cop ofa gndop ST ue HovRoH8 ss3ao “Buypueg onre¥ou pur ox apedestenbo apyiosd poe suoddns sex0 pasosaynueo 30 snonunio siaquu 205 papusiy are pue p2OueIeg 28 “Ade ou op suonaunta: 99% Gop asmeoag ‘apes aouesvadde eusnps pur osn sp soy sequrou parequeo “wossuo) ot noyson ax wot 059 970 werd oy eyoypuadaod vorssad ‘Supeds yrol-puo 2:29 18d 90¢ paseoxaUt 29 ft porolqns are suopeatue] au0z worssardwios oq yep ons popeo|s| aqua ax) ag-went ad) wre (ST stoquaeN 30} sgeyeae Ses 1pPaH oq 00 fees dap UY ST PUR suf reamionas€ “ON 01 H9}24 EN sou Aaguqegese ypaRp prnogs 19u81s9p ota PUY Ia pg 28 swore ¢ 30 2 Syn sgt 0g ore 220 1 By sages sana 278 Ie SH ‘a 298 “sou Kp corer 2 pe Aprnd popeoy soquow o grande suonratBe 10“ e ‘ot reed pow zeeapadid mog 2upeo 20; sasanoy ‘prea 27 sone wc, ‘Shun a of rotpuadiod padde spot ot ap Bupa ot possens sage “sonpea Sysop Pure suOHWUIqMCD [F poneorne pong fering) 1661-T O61 OLIVASNY brepumis HORAN UESUEW te SUNpIOANY wf PSI sate Jo simpy weouDury kq(s9P-eds poossjos Jo 39quNL pereurUTe] Ponip [esns2ANS 30} sYONEOATHAMS prEpITe ee cyuae raven wo pore 878 pe aorgpuon Sores Aap poe UOReanp peo| 94-0 € 20} 98 19H 1s suoqumagy sae oysonyea uiised VESEY STENHIGHWAY BRIDGES 136.11 37 xe] 2[quoyjdde Jo worzora vst wonyorjdng “paasoser SWB TY “OLHSWY cooz Wado ao o~CO=CSC 0 2 aa = = "SHOVE IIANES LE 121qm Boqwony ay wosy soi axa am ovendonde om 2m sony 3p “2491 posers mm oo1s09 smo axaHN porn HGH parE pon uaNA "MD “IN 2 “Add cumjon smojoud 93 sea reat 2p ol s8p2-papuog wim suoreuje| aoou-o¢dnmn Sup 20 aopeupne s2ad-of8s Fun pasnnejnses agus epaoqan qi suoneuwe| sop adn Su posmoeynue saga oy Kda'g puR™g ero zed says 3) SOPMA 244 “Ct sg dnai ‘am ‘noses sefBo0q 30) psd 059 = "ION a cd 2 sic 2 se 30 047 2 cos a 095 30 065 y 059 Bomouuep aa AOS e pur Buna ds 20) af sdn0i0 sebads ‘suoqoy su 7 “urea op _serospuadiod sonqea sop worssaxdinon paytsose fq pourmsayap 29 pmnoyssuorouuoo ated reays pus Buu pds 30} snox8 som>ads “Zt “sonyea uBio uy afuey> om upem Ly-woH pores pagnads om wey Ki smnpow wy soy 1 ggg’ gpg ame exp suoreuraey yours] sePBRog parerg soransqns eur exazMDeFMUEMH suONEUIAWOD 25H) 10] “TT ~ 29g saquopY HEe mA BBO VESEY ITAL,DIVISION DESIGN 33 136.11 “axey aqqeondde yo uonerora e st uoneartdng “paatosay siyBt TTY ‘OLHSWY 7002 WatKdo>, ar ee a oF oz ont mt | ost ee | cot ort et | omit | et | oe o oot om | on | cost cot com | ont cot_ «| com | Om » oc amt om | ost om | oct stat | ostt—cot_| cet | oe o ‘BNId NSHLLNOS GBQVAO ATIVNSIA stmt S| mmm | ome «| m= | som | om : a st cote | st tet] mete | mat | om | ae i * st cate | stk tet, me] amt amet_ammt_ | somet, amet. | mt | ce i stot | ett se | meee | emt | om | ‘om 5 some | etm Sse | ott ate | som ome, | om | om t su wee mut et set emt |e mt cmt | ot cmt | ott | coe t ‘Su10aaS NWGLSGM GZOVEO ATIVASTA a AR [ON A |e ea [a | mane mon copoly peal sopes yore ioop | some ote rns (eps | oogte —wops sont | ons wots | motes | ami Sm one wer Te foe emer ee [erm vent | emery | et | ono sa fen Go some | TE © moa | tem | ce aeM | om | mp snerore eer yur wey adn ry mr | we | aay @ om soyment oN sey = ‘=r aie wpe) Rape (0 ape Rs Tape wuoapnag | wap a aed ‘oqentang’ | ‘area as eat Ronee ms opr To sapern Ty mu on epg PPT pak Pred oreo vx ey Papen mv ack ony Bape (0s) pa onnbs od peed ATA ‘yamu passang szquayy qm ig 30} MIKA UHH ESET ATAVL vetoing 20 wo soqui poouyjos pareujareyHIGHWAY BRIDGES 1611 374 “mo apqeariddt Jo uonefors v st uoneonidng “pansosox siySix [TY “OLHSVY Z00c 1StAdo3 “veer f¢ey 1 seim00) omy of wan sonny aocaos ta anerdond af ‘29 teas sonra eisop ‘3597 poooxe mm woIuoD sxmsio™ a1ouM posn Ht ZoquN porEUTUN, pond Wau "n> sonyea ups oy orered zeays amy sof 28p=-pepu0q tat sone 2014-014 “sujof ope paptoqun qi suoneurur|2oan- ordre Sus pasnasejes ss9qi3 “ange uBisop Stmpuaq paxinbor 2xn é93 mp ‘Toqans woryrarquoes Aq pogpods st raquo oxy pre uliop wy pom azesenfea ofemn USHA one sri 4teas am VE'sey aqgRL, ut suoReCIquOD xn WFnoMNE “Popa ost ae (Soe X-x NOR oman cemtina -pardde spac ov onp Sumpueq 305 sonqea uBtsaq (ame AA rnoge Sump Tpirered Bune spe, at Gidm Stmpuag ur 10 Ajrepe souy9 papeoy sroquraw 10} Ajuewd pepuont (porunuoa) worsaade 20 ors09 saquut], poowuos poreure] pang ATO,DIVISION DESIGN 315 1361.1 “me ajquordae o wonpora v st uoneordng ‘paasaser siyBls TY “OLHSVY Zo0Z WSUKdoD, wo oso 0 a ane aeaee a @ *)SHOLOVESOTANAS LAM ‘rope 21628 124 SIMO ‘9q es sanqes uBisop ‘2491 poooxs fm rw2}000 amystow asaya pasn sj s2quIM s30UIK ponwUTLU U=MNY “MO ‘10% “9645-€1 FALSY Jo stu2maninbar xp Mien aoueproone uy pauRasorep TeuNIEE OIC oR 20} ‘y99} oY s9quroW ors 50 yi8u>] = "1 rye @) =» . womb Supmoros mp Aq wan 0 ‘sory a a parse 29 regs wre ot fired uogsum oy somes PodeINgRL *E -suoppuco aapucs Asp pue Uoneznp peor sar # 20} 27 pu siomiaeynowar wos agree AvouIED a1 yep sepedB pow ropeds o aanewuoroxdas au sONTEA USSG coor Ost sz Ss a ee ee ee oo'ooo'z Sut sm er oe OES, H_—_ svays puoqsoy resp o1 semompuediag’ anog UY SNA WSIS] evemnqen oaperuasardoy at's Ct TEV aquiny puss mean 20)136.11 TABLE 135A _Load Duration Factor, Co Load Daration Co Permanent 0.90 2 months (vehicle live load) 1.15 7 days 125 ay 13 5 minutes (railing only) 165: ‘curved glued laminated timber members shall be as spec- ifled in the 1991 Edition of the NDS®. 13.612 For simple, continuous, and cantilevered ‘bending members the span shall be taken as the clear dis- tance between supports plus one-half the required bearing Tength at each support. 13.613 Bending members shall be transversely braced to prevent lateral displacement and rotation and transmit lateral forees to the bearings. Transverse bracing shall be provided at the supports forall span lengths and at intermediate locations as required for lateral stability and load transfer (Article 13.6.4). The depth of trans- ‘verse bracing shall not be less than Ye the depth of the bending member. 136.14 Support attachments for bending members shall be of sufficient size and strength to transmit vertical, Tongitudinal and transverse loads from the superstructure to the substructure in accordance withthe requirements of Section 3. 1346..$ Glued laminated timber and stractral com- posite lamber girders shall preferably be cambered a mi ‘mum 3 times the computed dead load deflection, but not less than Ys inch, 13.62 Notching Notching of bending members can severely reduce member capacity and is not recommended. When notch- ing is required for sawn umber members, design limita- tions and requirements shall be in accordance with the [NDS#, 1991 Edition. Design requirements and limitations for notching glued laminated timber members shall be as given inthe “Timber Construction Manual,” 1985 Edition by the American Institute of Timber Construction, pub- lished by John Wiley & Sons, New York, New York. De- sign requirements and limitations for notching structural composite lumber shall be as specified for glued lomi- nated timber. DIVISION I—DESIGN. ote 37 13.63 Modulus of Elasticity ‘The modulus of elasticity used for stiffness and stabil- ity computations shall be the tabulated modulus of elas~ tivity adjusted by the applicable adjustment factor given in the following equation: EB -ECy 3-1) ‘where: E allowable modulus of elasticity in psi; E_ = tabulated modulus of elasticity in psi; Cyc = wet serviee factor from Article 13.5.5.1. 1364 Bending 13.6.4.1 Allowable Stress “The allowable unit stress in bending shall be the tabu- lated stress adjusted by the applicable adjustment factors sven in the following equation: Fy ROCCE (132) where: Fy ~ allowable unit stress in bending in psi Fy = tabulated unit stress in bending in pst ret serviee factor from Article 13.5.5.1 joad duration facto from Article 13.5.5.2 bending size factor for sawn lumber and struc- tural composite lumber, and for glued laminated timber with loads applied parallel to the wide face ofthe laminations, from Article 13.6.4.2 , = volume factor for glued laminated timber with Toads applied perpendicular to the wide face of the laminations, from Article 13.6.4.3 Cx = beam stability factor from Article 13.6.44 Cy = form factor from Article 13.6.4.5 Cj = flat use factor for sawn lumber from footnotes 0 ‘Tables 13.5.1A and 13.5.1B repetitive member factor for sawn lumber from Footnotes to Table 13.5.1. “The volume factor, C, shall not be applied simultane ‘ously with the beam stability factor, C., and the lesser of the two factors shall apply in Equation (13-2) 1364.2 Size Factor, Cr 13.642. The tabulated bending stress for dimen- sion lumber 2 inches 1 4 inches thick shall be multiplied by the bending size factor, Cr, given in the footnotes 10 Table 13.5.1. Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.378. HIGHWAY BRIDGES : 13.642.2 For rectangular sawn lumber bending ‘members 5 inches or thicker and greater than 12 inches in, ‘depth, and for glued laminated timber with loads applied parallel to the wide face of the laminations and greater than 12 inches in depth, the tabulated bending stress shall, ‘be multiplied by the size factor, Cp, determined from the following relationshi (3-3) ‘where d is the nlember depth in inches, 13.64.2.3 For structural composite lumber bending members of any width, the tabulated bending stress shall ‘be reduced by the size factor, Cy given by the following. equation: C= UL ™(12/8) 3-4) where: L = length of bending member between points of zer0 ‘moment in feet; = depth of bending member in inches; 1m = parameter forthe specific material determined in accordance with the requirements of ASTM D 5456, 1364.3 Volume Factor, C, 13.64.3.1 The tabulated bending stress for glued laminated timber bending members with loads applied ‘perpendicular to the wide face of the laminations shall be adjusted by the volume factor, C,, as determined by the following relationship: y= QILy (1218) (5.125/)"* 5 1.0 (13-5) where: L = length of bending member between points of 2er0 moment in feet; = depth of bending member in inches; ‘width of bending member in inches: 20 for Southern pines 10 forall other species. a > 13.64.3.2. When multiple piece width layups are used, the width of the bending member used in Equation (13-4) shall be the width of the widest piece used in the layup. 136.422 136.44 Beam Stability Factor, C, 13.6.44.1 Tabulated bending values are applicable tomembers which are adequately braced. When members are not adequately braced, the tabulated bending stress shall be modified by the beam stability factor, Cy. 13.644.2 When the depth of a bending member does not exceed its width, or when lateral movement of the compression zone is prevented by continuous support and points of bearing have lateral support to prevent rota- tion, there is no danger of lateral buckling and C, = 1.0. For other conditions, the beam stability factor shall be de- termined in accordance withthe following provisions. 13.6.4.4.3 The bending member effective length, ly, shall be determined from the following relationships for any loading condition: 2.061, when b/d <7 163,434 when 7/65 143 184), when Lid > 143 dd = depth of bending member ches. If lateral support is provided to prevent rotation at the points of bearing, but no other lateral support is provided throughout the bending member length, the unsupported length ly is the distance between points of bearing, or the length ofa cantilever. If lateral suppor is provided to prevent rotation and lateral displacement at intermediate points as well as at the bearings, the unsupported lengthy jis the distance be- tween such points of intermediate lateral suppor. 13.64.44 The slenderness ratio for bending mem- bers, Ry i determined fiom the following equation i bending member slenderness rat depth of bending member in inches; b= width of bending member in inches. (3-6) 13.644. The beam stability factor, Ci, shall be ‘computed as follows: Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved, Duplication is a violation of applicable law.136.445 c=) _ (CR « 1.90 3.61 095 3-7) 03-8) plicable adjustment factors given in Equation (13-2) except the volume factor, C, the beam stability factor, Cy, and the flat-use factor, Cas Kye = 0.438 for visually graded sawn lumber 0.609 for glued laminated timber, structural com- posite lumber, and machine stress rated lum- bers E ~ allowable modulus of elastic termined by Article 13.63. in psi as de- 13645 Form Factor, Cy. For bending members with circular cross sections the tabulated bending stress shall be adjusted by the form factor, Cy = 1-18. A tapered circular section shall be considered as a bending member of variable cross 1365 Shear Parallel to Grain 1365.1 General 1365.1.1 The provisions of this article apply to shear parallel to grain (horizontal shear) at or near the points of vertical support of solid bending members. Refer to the 1991 edition of the NDS® for additional design re- quirements for other member types. 1365.12 The critical shear in wood bending mem- bers is shear parallel to grain, itis unnecessary to verify the strength of bending members in shear perpendicular 10 agra. 13652 Actual Stress ‘The actual unit stress in shear parallel to grain due to applied loading on rectangular members shall be deter- ‘mined by the following equation: wv 6s (13-9) DIVISION DESIGN 319 whe 4 = sctual unit stress in shear parallel to grain in psi 'b = width of bending member in inches; 4d depth of bending member in inches; vertical shear in pounds, as determined in accor- dance withthe following provisions. For uniformly distributed loads, such as dead load, the ‘magnitude of vertical shear used in Equation (13-9) shall bbe the maximum shear occurring at a distance from the support equal to the bending member depth, d. When ‘members are supported by full bearing on one surface, with loads applied to the opposite surface, all loads within adistance from the supports equal tothe bending member depth shall be neglected. For vehiele live loads, the loads shall be placed to pro- duce the maximum vertical shear at a distance from the ‘support equal to three times the bending member depth, 734, of at the span quarter point, L/4, whichever is the lesser distance from the sopport. The distributed live load shear used in Equation (13-9) shall be determined by the following expression: Vis = 0.50 (0.60 Vix) + Vin} (13-10) where Vu. © distributed live load vertical shear in pounds; Voy = maximum vertical shear, in pounds, at 34 or L/4 due to undistributed whect loads; Vio = maximum vertical shear, in pounds, at 34 or 1LJ4 due to wheel loads distributed laterally as specified for moment in Anicle 3.23 For undistributed whee! loads, one line of wheels is as- sumed to be earried by one bending member. 1365.3 Allowable Stress ‘The allowable unit stress in shear parallel to grain shall bbe the tabulated stress adjusted by the applicable adjust- ‘ment factors given inthe following equation: F,~F.CuCo 3-1) where FF, — allowable unit stress in shear parallel to grain in psi FF, = tabulated unit stess in shear parallel to grain in siz (Cy wet service factor from Article 13.5.5.1; Co = Toad duration factor from Article 13.5.5. Copyright 2002 AASHTO. Alll rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.380, HIGHWAY BRIDGES For sawn lumber beams, further adjustment by the shear stress factor may be applicable as described in the footnotes to Table 13.5.1. For structural composite lumber, more restrictive ad- Jjustments to the tabulated shear stress parallel to grain shall be as recommended by the material manufacture. 13.6.6 Compression Perpendicular to Grain 1366.1 General When calculating the bearing stress in compression. ‘perpendicular to grain at beam‘ends, a uniform stress dis- tribution shall be assumed, 1366.2 Allowable Stress The allowable unit stress in compression perpen- dicular to gran shall be the tabulated stress adjusted by the appliceble adjustment factors given in the following equation: (3-12) where: F,, ~ allowable unit stress in compression perpendic- ‘lar to grain, in psi; F., = tabulated unit srs in compression perpendic- ular to grain, in psi Gy = wet service factor from Article 13.5.5.1; G,_= bearing area factor from Article 13.6.6. 136.63 Bearing Area Factor, Cy ‘Tabulated values in compression perpendicular to rain apply to bearings of any length at beam ends, and to all bearings 6 inches or more in length at any other loca- tion. For bearings less than 6 inches in length and not nearer than 3 inches to the end of a member, the tabulated value shall be adjusted by the bearing area factor, Cy, aiven by he following equation: 440375, (13-13) where isthe Iength of bearing in inches, measured par- allel tothe wood grain, For round washers, or other round, bearing areas, the length of bearing shall be the diameter of the bearing area, ‘The multiplying factors for bearing lengths on small areas such as plates and washers aze given in Table 136.14. 13653 ‘TABLE 13.61A Values ofthe Bearing Area Factor, Cy {for Small Bearing Areas Length of Bearing, Go) 1 1 2 34 berm ‘Bening Area Radon, C175 138 125 149 143 1.40 Lo 13.6.7 Bearing on Inclined Surfaces For bearing on an inclined surface, the allowable unit stress in bearing shall be as given by the following equa- ‘in: RR Fy sin" 0+, cos (3-14) stress for bearing on an inclined stress in bearing parallel to grain from Antcle 13.7.4; Fa = allowable unit stress in compression perpendic- ular to the grain from Article 13.6.6; © = angle in degrees between the direction of load and the direction of grain, 13.7. COMPRESSION MEMBERS 137.1 General 137.141 The provisions of this article apply to simple solid columns consisting of a single piece of sawn lumber, piling, structural composite lumber, oF tlued laminated timber. Refer to the 1991 Edition ofthe 'NDS® for design requirements for built-up columas, consisting of a number of solid members joined to gether with mechanical fasteners, and for spaced columns consisting of two or more individual members with their longitudinal axes parallel, separated and fastened atthe ends and atone of more interior points by blocking. 137.12 The term “column” refers to all types of compression members, including members forming part of a truss or other structural components, 13.7.1.3 Column bracing shall be provided where necessary to provide lateral stability and resist wind or other lateral forces. Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.1372 7.2 Recentric Loading or Combined Stresses ‘Members with eccentric loading or combined stresses shall be designed in accordance with the provisions of the 'NDS®, 1991 Edition 13.73 Compression 1373.1 Net Section ‘The actual unit stress in compression parallel to grain, {, shall be based on the net section as described in Article 13.1 except that it may be based onthe gross section when the reduced section does not oceurin the critical pat ofthe column length that is most subject to potential buckling. 1373.2 Allowable Stress ‘The allowable unit stress in compression parallel to grain shall not exceed the tabulated stress adjusted by the applicable adjustment Factor given inthe following equa = FCCC HC ass) where: FF, ~ allowable unit stress in compression parallel to ‘ain in psis {abulated unit stress in compression parallel to grain in psi (Gq = wet service factor from Anicle 13.55.15 Go = load duration factor from Article 13.5.5.2; Cy = compression size factor for sawn lumber from footnotes to Table 13.5.1A; Cy = column stability factor from Article 13.7.333, R 13733. Column Stability Factor, Cy 137.33.1 Tabulated values in compression parallel to grain ae applicable to members which are adequately ‘braced. When members are not adequately braced, the tabulated stress shall be modified by the column stability factor, Cy. 137.332 When a compression member is supported ‘throughout its length to prevent lateral displacement in all directions, Cp = 1.0, For other conditions, the column sta- bility factor shall be determined in accordance with the following provisions 137.3.3.3 The effective column length, J, shall be determined in accordance with good engineering practice. DIVISION DESIGN 381 ‘Actual column length, , may be multiplied by an effective Tength factor to determine the effective column length: Lek 13.16, where: 1, = effective column length in inches K = effective length factor from Table C-1 of Appen- dixC actual column length between points of lateral ‘support in inches. 1 13.7.33.4 For columns of rectangular cross section, the column slendemess ratio, 1/@, shall be taken asthe larger of the ratios, ld of fd. (See Figure 13.7.1A.) The slendcmess rato shall not exceed 50. (ad, enunce ewer prin of ur app in planes 1a 2 fee yan y= cou sen meson of engl compreton mem ein panes ofr ppb. FIGURE 137.14 13.7335. Thecolumn stability factor, Cp, shall be as given by the following expressions a3n (13-18) Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.382 HIGHWAY BRIDGES | TABLE I374A Support Condition Cocficlents for ‘Tapered Columns Support Condition Support Condition Coefficient, a Large end fixed, small end unsupported 0.70 ‘Small end fixed, large end unsupported 0.30 Both ends simply supported ‘Tapered toward one end 0.50 ‘Tapered towards both ends 0.70, where: F$ = tabulated stress in compression parallel to grain adjusted by all applicable modification factors given in Equation (13-14) except Cys Ke = 0.300 for visually graded sawn lumber; 0.418 for glued laminated timber, structural compos- ite lumber, and machine stess-rated lumber; © =0.80 for sawn humber; 0.85 for round piles; 0.90 for glued laminated timber and structural composite lumber. For especially severe service conditions or extraordi- nary hazardous conditions, the use oflower design values than those obtained above may be necessary. Refer to the 1991 Edition of the NDS®. 137.34 Tapered Columns 1373441 For rectangular columns tapered at one or ‘oh ends, the cross-sectional area shall be based on the representative dimension of each tapered face. The repre- sentative dimension, dra, of each tapered face shall be ‘based on the support condition coefficient given in Table 1B. 137342 For support conditions given in Table 13.714, the representative dimension, dys of each ta pered face shall be as given by the following equation: fon ante a(~ S58] (13-19) where: gy = representative dimension for a tapered column face, in inches; ia = minimum columa face dimension, in inches; doa. maximum column face dimension, in inches; = coefficient based on support conditions. 13.7342 1373.43 For support conditions other than those in ‘Table 13.7.1, the representative dimension of each ta- pered face shall be as given by the following equation: dep = dass + 033% — den) (13-20) 137.344 For any tapered column, the actual stress incompression parallel o grain f, shall not exceed the al- lowable stress determined by Equation (13-14), assuming the column stability factor Cy = 1.0. 13.735 Round Columns ‘The design of round colufin shall be based on the de- of a square column of the same cross-sectional area 1 The actual stress in bearing parallel to grain shall be based on the net rca and shall not exceed the tab- ulated stress for bearing parallel to grain adjusted by the applicable adjustment factor given in the following ‘equation: ,-F.Co (13-21) where: FF, — allowable unit stress in bearing parallel to grain in psig FF, = tabulated unit stress in bearing parallel to grain from Table 13.5.2A, in psi; load duration factor from Article 1.5.5.2 Co: 137.42 When the bearing load is at an angle to the ‘grain, the allowable bearing stress shall be determined by Equation (13-14), using the design values for end-grain ‘bearing parallel to grain and design values in compression, perpendicular to grain. 137.43 When bearing parallel to grain exceeds 75% of the allowable value determined by Equation (13-21), ‘bearing shall be ona metal plate or on other durable, rigid, homogeneous material of adequate strength and stifiness to distribute applied loads over the entire bearing area. 138 TENSION MEMBERS 1381 Tension Parallel to Grain ‘The allowable unit stress in tension parallel to grain hall be the tabulated value adjusted by the applieable ad- jjustment factors given in the following equation: F, FCuCuCr (13-22) Copyright 2002 AASHTO. Alll rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.1381 where: F, —allowable unit stress in tension parallel to grain inpsis <= tabulated unit stress in tension parallel to grain inpsis Gy = wet service factor from Article 13.5.5.15, (Cp. = load duration factor fom Article 13.55. Cy. = tension size factor for sawn lumber from foot- notes to Table 13.5.1A and for structural com- posite lamber from footnotes to‘Tables 13.544. and 135.48. 1382 Tension Perpendicular to Grain Designs which induce tension perpendicular to the grain of wood members should notbe used. When tension perpendicular to grain cannot be avoided, mechanical re~ Fnforcement sufficient to resist all such forces should be used. Refero the 1991 Edition ofthe NDS® for addtional information. 13.9. MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS 139.4 General 139.1 Except as otherwise requited by this speci fication, mechanical connections and their installation shall conform to the requirements of the NDS®, 1991 Eai- tion, 139.12 Components at mechanical connections, in- cluding the wood members, connecting elements, and fas- tener, shall be proportioned so that the design strength ‘equals or exceeds the required strength forthe loads act- ing on the structure. The strength of the connected wood ‘components shall be evaluated considering the net Se°~ tion, ceeentrcity, shear, tension perpendicular to grain ‘and other factors that may reduce eomponent strength. 139.2. Corrosion Protection 13924 Except as permitted by this section, all steel hardware for wood structures shall be galvanized in ac- cordance with AASHTO M 232 or cadmium plated in ac- cordance with AASHTO M 299. DIVISION'_DESIGN 383 139.22 All steel components, timber connectors, and castings, other than malleable iron, shall be galva- nized in accordance with AASHTO M 111 139.23 Alternative corrosion protection coatings, such as epoxies, may be used when the demonstrated per- formance ofthe coating is sufficient to provide adequate protection forthe intended exposure conduction. 13.9.2 Heatreated alloy components and fasten ings shal be protected by an approved alternative protee- tive treatment that does not adversely affect the mechani- cal properties of the material 139.3. Fasteners 1393.1 Fastener design values shall be adjusted by the applicable adjustment factors forthe intended use con ition. 13.9.3.2 When determining fastener design valves, ‘wood shall be assumed to be used under wet-use or 6x- ‘posed to weather conditions. 13.933. Glulom rivets shall not be used in perma- nent structures. 139.4 Washers 139.41 Washers shall be provided under bolt and lag serew heads and under nuts that are in contact with ‘wood. Washers may be omitted under heads of special timber bolts or dome-head bolts when the size and strength of the head is suficient to develop connection strength without excessive wood crushing. 139.42 Washers shall be of sufficient size and strength to prevent excessive wood crushing when the fas- tener is tightened. For bolts or rods loaded in tension, washers shall be of sufficient size and strength to develop the tensile strength of the connection without excessive bending or execeding wood strength in compression per pendicular to grain Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All sights reserved. Duplication i a violation of applicable law.Section 14 BEARINGS 141 SCOPE. ‘This section contains requirements forthe design-and selection of structural bearings. ‘The selection and layout ofthe bearings shall be con- sistent with the proper functioning of the bridge, and shall, allow for deformations due to temperature and other time dependent causes. “The loads induced inthe bearings and structural mem- bers depend on the stffnesses of the individual elements and the tolerances achieved during fabrication and erec- tion. These influences shall be taken into account when calculating design loads forthe elements, ‘Units used in this section shall be taken as KIP, IN, RAD, °F and Shore Hardness, unless note. 142 DEFINITIONS Bearing—A structural device that transmits loads while facilitating translation andr rotation. Bronze Bearing —A bearing in which displacements or0- tations take place by the slp ofa bronze surface against a mating surface, Cotton Duck Reinforced Pad (CDP)—A pad made from closely spaced layers of elastomer and cotton duck, bonded together during vulcanization Dise Bearing—A bearing which accommodates rotation by deformation of a single elastomeric dise, molded froma urethane compound. tmay contain a device for pattally confiaing the ise sgaist lateral expansion. Double Cylindrical Bearing —A bearing made fiom two cylinial bearings placed on tp of each other with thei axes at right anples to eachother, in order to pro- de rotation about any horizontal axis Fiberlass Reinforced Pad (FGP)—A pad made feom di ercte layers of elastomer and woven fiberglass, bonded together during vuleanization Fixed Bearing—A bearing which prevents differential longitudinal wanslaton of abutting strcture elements may of may not provide for differential lateral trans- Jaton o rotation 385 & noopend Knuckle Bearing—A beating in which a concave metal surface rocks on a convex metal surface to provide ro- tation capability abeut any horizontal axi Longitudinal—The direction associated withthe axis of the main structural trusses or girders inthe bridge. Metal Rocker or Roller Bearing—A bearing which caries vertical load by direct contact between two metal sur- faces and which accommodates movement by rolling of one surface with respect to the other. Movable Bearing—A bearing that facilitates differential horizontal translation of abutting structural elements in 1 longitudinal and/or lateral direction. It may or may not provide for rotation, Plain Elastomeric Pad (PEP}—A pad made exclusively of clastomer Pot Bearing—A bearing which carries vertical load by ‘compression on an elastomeric disc confined ina steel cylinder and which accommodates rotations by defor- mations ofthe die. PTFE Sliding Bearing—A bearing which carries vertical load by contact stressesbetween a PTFE sheet or woven, {fabric and its mating surface, and which permits move- ‘ments by sliding ofthe PTFE over the mating surface. Rotation about the Longitudinal Axis—Rotation about an, parallel to the longitudinal axis of the bridge Rotation about the Transverse Axis—Rotation about an axis parallel tothe transverse axis of the bridge RMS—Root mean square. Sliding Bearing—A bearing which accommodstes move ‘ment by slip of one surface over another. Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing —A bearing made from altemate laminates of tee! and elastomer, bonded together during vuleanization, ‘Translation—Horizontal movement of the bridge in the longitudinal or transverse direction. ‘Transverse—The horizontal direction normal tothe lo gitudinal axis of the bridge, 143 NOTATIONS A B = Plan area of elastomeric bearing (in?) = length of pad if rotation is about its transverse axis, or width of pad ifrotation is about its longi- tudinal axis (in) Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.386 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 1143 ¢ = Design clearance between piston and pot wall (in) D__ = Diamcterofthe projection ofthe loaded surface of the bearing in the horizontal plane (in) D, = Diameter of dse element (in) D, = Internal pot diameter in pot bearing (in) D, = Diameter of curved surface of rocker or roller unit (a) D, “Diameter of curved surface of mating unit (Dy ~~ fora fat plate (n) 4, = Diameter ofthe j* hole in an elastomeric bearing = Young's modulus (ksi) Be — BIS C ck coin ofclsomesic bearing (ksi) 1B, = Young's modulus for stel (ksi) © = Eccentricity of loading on a bearing (in) F, = Allowable fatigue stress range for over 2,000,000 cycles (ksi) F, = Yield strength ofthe least strong steel atthe eon- tact surface (ksi) G year modulus of the elastomer (ksi) H,. = Maximum horizontal load on the bearing or re- straint considering all appropriate load combins- tions (kip) ‘hg = Thickness of i elastomeric layer in elastomeric bearing (in) beat Thickness of thickest elastomeric layer in elas- tomerie bearing (in) hy =Total elastomer thickness inan elastomeric bear ing (in) hh, = Thickness of steel laminate in stec-laminated elastomeric bearing (i) 1 foment of inertia (in') L__ = Length of a rectangular elastomeric bearing (par- allel to longitudinal bridge axis) (in) M,_ = Maximum bending moment (K-in) n= Number of interior layers of elastomer Po = Compressive load de to dead load (kip) Pau = Compressive load due to live plus dead load (kip) PL = Compressive load due to live load (kip) P= Maximum compressive load considering all ap- propriate load combinations (kip) R= Radius ofa curved sliding surface (in) Ry = Radial distance from center of bearing to object, such as an anchor bolt, for which clearance must be provided (in) Shape factor of one layer of an clastomeric bearing as Plan Area ‘Area of Perimeter Free to Bulge Lw S for rectangular bearings without Bren (L + W) polar ri Die i = Fay fr srl beasngs without holes ty = Pot wall thickness W = Width of the bearing in the transverse direction Gn) Ww) =THeight of piston rim in pot bearing (in) B= Effective angle of fiction angle in PTFE bear- ings = tan! (He/Ps) ‘4p = Maximum serve horizontal displacement of the bridge deck (in) 4, = Maximum shear deformation of the elastomer (in) {8 = Instantaneous compressive deflection of bearing (in) 8_ = Maximum compressive deflection of bearing (in) € = Instantaneous compressive strain of a plain elas- tomerie pad ‘6 = Instantancous compressive strain in if elastomer layer ofa laminated elastomeric bearing © = Component of maximum service rotation in di- rection of interest onan elastomeric bearing under load for Article 14.653 > = Maximum rotation due to dead load (rad) + 6 = Maximum rotation due olive load (rad) ax = Maximum rotation considering all. appropriate Toad and deformation combinations about trans- verse axis (rad) 0, = Maximum rotation considering all appropriate Jad and deformation combinations about longi- tudinal axis (ad) 6, = Maximum design rotation considering all appro- priate load and deformation combinations includ- ing live and dead load, bridge movements, and construction tolerances (rad) = Coefficient of fiction y= Average compressive stress due to dead load (si) oy = Average compressive stress duc to live load (ksi) x. = Average compressive stress due to total dead plus ive toad (ksi) Gq = Maximum average compressive stress (ksi) 144 MOVEMENTS AND LOADS Bearings shall be designed to resist loads and accom- ‘modate movernents. No damage due to joint or bearing ‘movement shall be permitted under any appropriate load and movement combination Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.‘Translational and rotational movements of the bridge shall be considered in the design of bearings. The se- {quence of construction shall be considered and all critical ‘combinations of load and movement shall be considered in the design. Rotations about two horizontal axes and the vertical axis shall be considered. The movements shal in clude those caused by the loads, deformations and dis- placements caused by creep, shrinkage and thermal ef- fects and inaccuracies in installation. In all cases, both instantaneous and long-term effects shall be considered, ‘Butthe nfuence of impact ned not be included. The most adverse combination of movements shall be used for de- sign, All design requirements shall be tabulated ina ratio nal form such as shown in Figure 144. M44 Design Requirements ‘The minimum thermal movements shall be computed from the extreme temperature defined in Article 3.16 of Division {and the estimated setting temperature. Design loads shall be based on the Toad combinations and load factors specified in Section 3 of Division I. ‘The design rotation, Om, for bearings such as elasto- ‘meri pads or stee! reinforced elastomeric bearings which {do not achieve hard contact between metal components shall be taken as the sum of: —the dead and live load rotations. —an allowance for uncertainties, which is normally taken as less than 0.005 rad. “The design rotation, Og, for bearings such as pot bearings, dise bearings and curved sliding surfaces which may de- velop hard contact between metal components shall be taken asthe sum of: —the greater of either the rotations due to all applicable factored loads othe rotation at the service limit state. =the maximum rotation caused by fabrication and in- stallation tolerances, which shall be taken as 0.01 rad unless an approved quality control plan justifies a smaller value. an allowance for uncertainties, which shall be taken ‘480.01 rad unless an approved quality control plan jus- tifes a smaller value. 145. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BEARINGS. Bearings may be fixed or movable as required for the bridge design. Movable bearings may include guides to control he direction of translation. Fixed and guided bear- 144 DIVISION I-DESIGN 387 ‘ngs shall have lateral strength adequate to resist all ap- plied loads and restrain unwanted translation. Combinations of different types of fixed or moveable bearings should not be used atthe same expansion joint, ‘bent of pier unless the effects of differing deflection and rotational characteristics on the bearings and structure are accounted for inthe design. 145.1 Load and Movement Capabilities ‘The movements and loads to be used in the design of the bearing shall be clearly defined on the coatract, drawings. 1452 Characteristics ‘The bearing chosen fora particular application must have appropriate load and movement capabilities. Those. listed in Table 14.5.2-1 may be used as a guide. Figure 145.2-1 may be used as a gide in defining the different bearing systems. ‘The following terminology shall apply to Table 145.2-1: S = Suitable U_ = Unsuitable L__ = Suitable for limited applications R= May be suitable but requires special considera tions or additonal elements such as sliders or guideways. Long. = Longitudinal xis ‘Trans, = Transverse axis Vert. = Vertical axis 14.53 Forces in the Structure Caused by Restraint of Movement at the Bearing Horizontal forces and moments induced in the bridge by restraint of movement at the bearing shall be taken to account in the design of the bridge and the bear- ings. They shall be determined using the calculated movements and the bearing characteristics given in Article 14.6. 1453.1 Horizontal Force Horizontal forces may be induced by sliding fiction, rolling friction or deformation ofa flexible element inthe bearing. The force used for design shall be the largest one applicable, Sliding frit mn force shall be computed as, Hy = wPas (1453.11) Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved, Duplication is a violation of applicable law.388, HIGHWAY BRIDGES ‘Bridge Name or Ref. Bearing Identification Mark Number of bearings required 1453.1 ‘Seating Material Upper Surface Lower Surface ‘Allowable contact pressure ‘Average «sp Edge Load Design load effects (KIP) Vertical Transverse Bax, Loagitudiaal Trasshation Irreversible Transverse Loagitudinal Reversible Transverse Longitudioal Rotation (RAD) Irreversible Transverse Longitudioal Reversible Transverse Congitudioal Maximum Beariog dimensions (IN)| Upper surface Transverse Longitudioal Lower surface Transverse Longitedinal ‘Overall_beight Tolerable movement of bearing under wansient loads (DN) Vertical Transverse Longitudieal Allowable wesistance to wanslatioo wader service toad (KIP) Transverse Tongitudieal Allowable resistance (0 rotalioa under service load (QN-KIP) Trasverse Longitudinal Type of attachmect to suucture and subsuucure Trassverse Loogitudieal Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.1453.1 DIVISION I-DESIGN 389 Table 1452-4 Bearing Suitability Rotation about bridge Movement ais indicated Resistance to Loads ‘Type of Rearing Long Trans Trans Long Vert Vert. —sLong Trams, Plain Elastomerie Pad iE 8 s 3 Lok ow L Fiberglass Reinforced Pad 8 Ec s 8 tee L Cotton Duck Reinforced Pad u u u u u a it L Steol-reinfrced Elstomeric Bearing S Z s 8 Lee L L Plane Sliding Bearing 8 8 u u s fe R Curved Sing Spherical Bearing R R 8 s s ah R Curved Siding Cylindrical Bearing == R R 8 u ee R Dise Bearing R R 8 8 ee R Double Cylindrical! Bearing R R 8 8 Asloepeian spect R Pot Bearing R R 8 s L 8 8 s Rocker Bearing s vu 8 u us R R Kouele Bearing u u 8 u u 8 8 R Single Roller Bearing 8 u s u u sou R ‘Maile Roller Bearing 8 u u u u sou u Spherion) Bearing Rocker Bearing Pot Bearing Elastomeric Bearing FIGURE 1452-1 Typical Bearing Components Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.390. HIGHWAY BRIDGES ‘where: Hi, = maximum horizontal load (kip) coefficient of friction ‘maximum compressive load (kip) ‘The force required to deform an elastomeric element shall ‘be computed as: Ha = GAA (1453.1-2) whe G = shear modulus ofthe elastomer ( ‘A. = plan area of elastomeric clement or bearing (i) ‘A, = maximum shear deformation ofthe elastomer (in) hhg = total elastomer thickness (i Rolling forces shall be determined by test. 1453.2 Bending Moment ‘The bridge substructure and superstructure shall be de- signed for the largest moment, Mz, which can be trans~ ferred by the bearing. For curved sliding bearings without @ companion flat sliding surface, Ma shall be estimated by: Ma=wPaR —— (14.5.3.2-1A) and for curved sliding bearings with a companion flat sliding surface, Ma shall be estimated by: Mg =2uPaR — (14.5:3.2-1B) where: M,= maximum bending moment (K-in) R= radius of curved sliding surface (in) For unconfined elastomeric bearings and pads, My shall be estimated by: My=(0.5EDOq/hy — (14.53.2-2) joment of inertia of plan shape of bearing (in) iaximumn desiga rotation (rad) fective modulus of elastomeric bearing in com- pression (ksi) ‘The load ‘deflection curve of an clastomeric beating is nonlinear, so E, is load-dependent, However, an accept able constant approximation is as (1453.23) where: G = shear modulus of elastomer (ksi) = shape factor Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable 1453.1 146 SPECIAL DESIGN PROVISIONS FOR BEARINGS. ‘The stress inereases permitted for certain load combi- nations by Table 3.22.14 of this specification shall not apply in the design of bearings. 146.1 Metal Rocker and Roller Bearings 146.11 General Design Considerations ‘The rotation axis of the bearing shall be aligned with, the axis about which the largest rotations of the supported! ‘member occu. Provision shall be made to ensure thatthe ‘bearing alignment does not change during the life ofthe bridge. Multipfe roller bearings shall be connected by ‘gearing to ensure that individual rollers remain parallel to ‘each other and at their original spacing. ‘Metal rocker and roller bearings shall be detailed so that they can be easily inspected and maintained. 146.2 Materials Rocker and roller bearings shall be made of stainless steel conforming to ASTM A 240, or of structural steel conforming to AASHTO M 169 (ASTM A 108), M 102 (ASTM A 668), or M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grades 36, 50 or SOW. Material properties of M 169 (ASTM A 108), M 102 (ASTM A 668), and M270 (ASTM A 709) steel ae given in Tables 10.2A and 1028. 146.13 Geometric Requirements ‘The dimensions of the bearing shall be chosen taking, into account both the contact stresses and the movement of the contact point due to rolling. Each individual curved contact surface shall have a ‘constant radius. Bearings with more than one curved sur- face shall be symmetric about line joining the centers of | their two curved surfaces. Bearings shall be designed to be stable. Ifthe bearing. has two separate cylindrical fuces, each of whieh rolls on 4 flat plate, stability may be achieved by making the dis- tance between the two contact lines no greater than the sum ofthe radii ofthe two eylindrcal surfaces, 146.14 Contact Stresses ‘The maximum compressive load, Pay shall satisfy: * for cylindrical surfaces: (idea146.14 «fehl fies age te =n) , = the diameter of rocker or roller surface (in), and , = the diameter of the mating surface (in). Dy shall be taken as: ‘positive if the curvatures have the same sign « infinite if the mating surface is at F, = specified minimum yield strength of the least strong steel at the contact surface (ksi) E, = Young’s modulus for steel (ksi) W = Width of the bearing (in) (14.6.1.4.2) whi 146.2 PTFE Sliding Surfaces PTFE, polytctrafluorethylene, may be used in sliding surfaces of bridge bearings to accommodate translation oF rotation. All PTFE surfaces other than guides shall satisfy the requirements of this section. Curved PTFE surfaces shall also satisfy Article 14.6.3. 1462.1 PTFE Surface ‘The PTFE surface shall be made from pure virgin PTFE resin stistying the requirements of ASTM D 4894 ‘or D 4895. It shall be fabricated as unfilled sheet, filled ‘sheet or fabric woven from PTFE and other fibers. ‘Unified sheets shall be made from PTFE resin alone. Filled sheets shall be made from PTFE resin uniformly blended with glass fibers or other chemically inert filler. ‘The maximum filler content shall be 15%. ‘Sheet PTFE may contain dimples to act as reservoirs for lubricant. Their diameter shall not exceed 0:32-in at the surface ofthe PTFE and their depth shall be not less than 08-inch and not more than half the thickness of the PTFE. The reservoirs shall be uniformly distributed over the surface arca and shall cover more than 20% but less than 30% of it. Lubricant shall be silicone grease which satisfies military specification MIL-S-8660. Woven fiber PTFE shall be made from pure PTFE fibers. Reinforced woven fiber PTFE shall be made by interweaving high strength fibers, suchas glass, with the PTFE in such a way thatthe reinforcing fibers do not ap- pear onthe sliding face ofthe finished fabri. 1462.2 Mating Su ‘The PTFE shall be used in conjunction wth a mating sur- face. Flt mating surfaces shall be stainless stel and curved ‘mating surfaces shall be stainless steel or anodized aluminium, Flat surfaces shall be a minimum #8 mirror finish Type 304 stainless steel and shall conform to ASTM A 167/A 264, DIVISION I~DESIGN : 391 (Curved metalic surfaces shall ot exceed 16 micro in RMS. (Other surface finishes may be employed ifthe coefficient of | fiction is substantiated by test results. The mating surface shal be large enough to cover the PTFE at all times. 1462.3 Minimum Thickness Requirements 146.23. PTFE Forall applications, the thickness of the PTFE shall be atleast Yis inch after compression, Recessed shect PTFE, shal beat least inch thick when the maximum dirien- sion of the PTFE is less than or equal to 24 inches, and Ye inch when the maximum dimension of the PTFE is ‘greater than 24 inches. Woven fabric PTFE which is me- ‘chanicaly interlocked over a metallic substrate shall have ‘2 minimum thickness of Y/« inch and a maximum thick- ‘ness of Minch over the highest point of the substrate. 146.232 Stainless Steel Mating Surfaces ‘The thickness ofthe stainless steel mating surface shall ‘beat least inch when the maximum dimension of the surface is less than or equal to 12 inches and "* inch when the maximum dimension is larger than 12 inches. Backing plate requirements are specified in Article 1462.62. 1462.4 Contact Pressure ‘The maximum contact stress, 5, between the PTFE and the mating surface shall be determined with the max- imum compressive load, Py using the nominal area ‘The average contact sires shall be computed by divid- ing the load by the projection ofthe contact area onio a plane perpendicular to the diretion ofthe load. The contact stress at the edge shall be computed by taking into account the maximum moment, My transferred by the bearing as- suming a linear distribution of stress across the PTFE. Suesses shall nt exceed those given in Table 14.6241 Permissible stresses for intermediate filler contents Table 14.6.2.5 Coefficient of Frietion ‘The design coefficient of friction of the PTFE sliding surface shal be determined from Table 14,6.2.5-1. Inter- ‘mediate values may be determined by interpolation. The coefficient of friction shall be determined by using the stress level associated with the maximum compressive load, Py. Lesser values of the coefficient of friction may bbe used if verified by tests, ‘Where friction is required to resist applied loads, the design coefficient of friction under dynamic loading may be taken as not more than 10% of the value listed in Table 14,6.2.5-1 forthe bearing stress and PTFE type. Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.392 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 14625 ‘TABLE 1462.41 Limits on Contact Stress for PTFE TABLE 1462.51 Design Coefficints of Friction ‘Type ot PTFE Presare Dimples Latico Unsied or Dimple ‘Unhbcated| Filet Coeiciet of Freon 00) 1000 72000 >a000 008 oms a 0.06 oo on 10 8.6 ous O08 bs on 020 os on 020 a3 10 2 809 ra as 2s 020 6s as 035, 08 006 bois 020 ou O10 00a O10 ‘The coefficients of friction in Table 14.62.5-1 are based on a #8 mirror finish mating surface. Coefficients of friction for rougher surface finishes must be established by test results in accordance with Division If, Section 18. 1462.6 Attachment 146.261 PTFE Sheet PTFE confined ina recess ina rigid metal backing plate for one half its thickness may be bonded or unbonded, Sheet PTFE which is not confined shall be bonded by ‘an approved method to a metal surface or an elastomeric layer with a Shore A durometer hardness of atleast 90. Woven PTFE on a metallic substrate shall be attached to the metallic substrate by mechanical interlocking which ‘can resist a shear force no less than 0.10 times the applied ‘compressive force. 146.262 Mating Surface The mating surface for flat sliding shall be attached to a backing plate by welding in such a way that it remains flat and in full contact with its backing plate throughout its service life. The weld shall be detailed to form an ef- fective moisture seal around the entire perimeter of the mating surface so that interface corrosion cannot occur. ‘The attachment shall be capable of resisting the maximum, friction force which can be developed by the bearing under service loads. The welds used forthe attachment shall be clear ofthe contact and sliding area of the PTFE surface. 1463 Bear 1gs with Curved Sliding Surfaces Bearings with curved sliding surfaces shall consist of. two metal pats with matching curved surfaces and a low friction sliding interface. The curved surfaces shall be cither cylindrical or spherical. The material properties, characteristics, and frictional properties of the sliding interface shall satisfy the requirements of either Article 14.6.2 or Anicle 14.6.7. 1463.1 Geometric Requirements The radius ofthe curved surface shall be large enough ‘toassure that the maximum average bearing stress, fa, 07 ‘the horizontal projected area of the bearing at the maxi ‘mum load, Pay shall satisfy the average stress require- ments of Anticle 14.6.4 or Anicle 14.6.7.3. The maxi ‘mum average bearing stress shal be taken as Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.(463.4) «For spherical bearings =n on = 2 (463.12) where D = diameter ofthe projection of the loaded surface ‘of the bearing in the horizontal plane (in) \W = length ofthe cylinder (in) The two surfaces ofa sliding interface shall have equal rai, 146.32 Resistance to Lateral Load In bearings which are required to resist horizontal loads, either an extemal restraint system shall be pro- vided, or for a cylindrical sliding surface the horizontal load shall be limited t0 Hy 5 2RW opie sin(¥ ~ B~ 8.) sinB (14.63.21) and fora spherical surface the horizontal oad shall satisfy Ha S oR ore sin(¥ — 8 ~9,)sinB (1463.22) Where (1463.23) DIVISION I_DESIGN 393 and (1463.24) voor() ‘= maximum horizontal load. ‘= projected length of the siding surface perpen- dicular to the rotation axis. ‘= compressive load due to permanent loads radius ofthe curved sliding surface. ‘= length of the cylindrical surface. angle between the vertical and applied loads. ‘maximum design rotation angle. See Article 144.1. ‘ore = maximum average contact stress permitted on the PTFE by Table 14.6.2.4-1 = subtended semi-angle ofthe curved surface, and: "PF peer: 1464 Pot Bearings 1464.1 General ‘Where pot bearings are provided with a PTFE slider to provide for both rotation and horizontal movement, such sliding surfaces and any guidance systems shall be designed inaceordance with the appropriate Anicles 14.6.2 and 14.69. ‘The rotational elements of pot bearing shall satisfy the requirements ofthis section. They shall consist of atleast ‘pot a piston, an elastomeric dise, and sealing rings. For the purpose of establishing the forees and defor- mations imposed on a pot bearing, the axis of rotation shall be taken as lying in the horizontal plane at mid- height ofthe elastomeric disc. FIGURE 1463.24 Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved, Duplication is a violation of applicable law.304, . HIGHWAY BRIDGES. “The minimum vertical load on a pot bearing should not bbe less than 20% of the vertical design load. 1464.2 Materials ‘The elastomeric dise shall be made from a compound based on virgin natural rubber or virgin neoprene. Its ‘nominal hardness shall ic between 50 and 60 onthe Shore “A' seale. ‘The pot and piston shall be made from structural steel conforming to AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grades 36, 50 or SOW, or from stainless steel conform- ing to ASTM A 240. The finish of surfaces in contact with the elastomeric pad shall be smoother than 63 Sealing rings satisfying Articles 146.45.1 and 14.6.4.5.2 shall be made from brass conforming to ASTM. B 36 (half hard) for rings of rectangular ross-section, and Federal Specification QQB626, Composition 2, for rings of circular cross-section. 14643 Geometric Requirements ‘The depth ofthe elastomeric disc, h, shall satisfy 2 333D,0, (1464341) internal diameter ofthe pot (in) maximum design rotation specified in Article 14.4.1 (rad) ‘The dimensions ofthe components shall satisfy the fol- owing requirements under the least favorable combina- tion of maximum displacements and rotations: * the pot shall be deep enough to permit the seal and piston rim to remain in full contact withthe vertical face of the pot wal * contact or binding between metal components will, ‘ot prevent further displacement or rotation. 14644 Elastomerie Dise ‘The maximum average stress on the elastomer shall not exceed 3.5 ksi. To facilitate rotation, the top and bot- tom surfaces of the elastomer shall be treated with a hue bricant which is not detrimental to the elastomer, or thin PTFE dises may be used on the top and bottom ofthe ela tomer. 14 S- Sealing Rings A seal shall be used between the pot and the piston. The seals shall be adequate to prevent escape of elastomer 1464.1 under compressive load and simultancously applied ‘cyclic rotations. The seals shal also be adequate to pre- ‘vent escape of elastomer under compressive load and si- ‘multaneously applied static rotation, Brass rings satisfying the requirements of either Arti- cle 14.64.5.1 or 14.64.52 may be used to satisfy the above requirements. The Engineer may approve other sealing systems on the basis of experimental evidence. 1464.5.1 Rings with rectangular cross-sections ‘Thee rings shall be used. Each rng shall be circular in plan, but shall be cut at one point around its cincumfer- ence. The faces ofthe cut shall be ona plane at 45° to the vertical andto the tangent of the circumference. The rings shall be oriented so that the cuts on each ofthe three rings are equally spaced around the circumference of the pot ‘The width ofeach ring shall be equal to or greater than. larger of 0.02 D, or “inch, but it shall not exceed 94 th. The depth of each shall be equal to or greater than (02 times the width, 14.64.52 Rings with circular cross-sections (One circular closed ring shall be used with an outside diameter ofD, It shall have a cross-sectional diameter not Jess than the larger of 0.0175 D, or Ye inch, 14646 Pot ‘The pot shall consis at leat of a wall and base. Alleom- ponents shall be designed to act as single structural unit. ‘The minimum thickness of the base shall exceed 0.06 D, and % inch when bearing directly against concrete ot ‘grout, and shall exceed 0.04 D, and A inch when bearing. \izectly on steel girders or load distribution plates, ‘The pot walls shall be thick enough to resist all the forees induced in them. In lu of a more precise analysis, this requirement may be satisfied for unguided sliding pot ‘bearings by using a minimum wall thickness such that (146.46-1) and where ty = pot wall thickness (in) jy = maximum average compressive stress (ksi) FF, = yield strength of the steel (ksi) 146.47 Piston ‘The piston shall have the same plan shape as the inside Of the pot. Is thickness shall be adequate to resist the Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.1464.7 nding nt sl ste as dan fe tite aiaca pany ceptors ‘he dance ad al ne mene sterpdicncbenere tose ‘Covina prc a ae Cina tern od sates Piston rim is cylindrical, the clearance shall satisfy xo fe 2) user where D, = intemal diameter of pot (in) \w = height of piston rim (in) 0g = design rotation specified in Anticle 144.1 (rd) 14648 Lateral Loads Pot bearings which are subjected to lateral loads shall ‘be proportioned so that the thickness, ofthe pot wall and the pot base shall satisfy t> [Ole For pot bearings which transfer lateral load through the piston (146.481) wes (146.48.2) and wee ‘where w isthe rim thickness ofthe piston which is in con- tact withthe pot wall, 146.5 Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings— Method B 1465.1 General Steel reinforced clastometic bearings shall consist of alternate layers of steel reinforcement and elastomer, bonded together. Tapered elastomer layers shall not be used. All internal layers of elastomer shall be of the same thickness. The top and bottom cover layers shall be no thicker than 70% of the intemal layers. In addition to any intemal reinforcement, bearings may have extemal steel load plates bonded tothe upper or lower elastomer layers ‘or both, DIVISION I-DESIGN 395 1465.2 Material Properties ‘The elastomer shall have a shear modulus between 0.08 and 0.175 ksi anda nominal hardness between 50, and 60 on the Shore A scale. ‘The shear modulus of the elastomer at 73°F shall be ‘used asthe basis for design: Ifthe elastomer is specified explicitly by its shear modulus, then that value shall be ‘used in design and the other properties shall be obtained from Table 14.6.5.2-1. Ifthe material is specified by its hardness, the shear modulus shall be taken as the least favorable value from the range for that hardness given in ‘Table 14.6.5.2+1, Intermediate values shall in all cases be cobiained by interpolation. For the purposes of bearing design, all bridge sites shall be classified as being in temperature Zones A, B, C, D or E, Characteristics for each zone are given in Table 14.6.52-2. In the absence of mote precise information, Figure 14.65.2-2 may be used asa guide in selecting the zone required fora given region, Bearings shall be made fom AASHTO low tempera ture grades of elastomer as defined in Section 18 of Dis sion Il. The minimum grade of elastomer required for cezch low temperature zone is specified in Table 146522. ‘Any of the three design options listed below may be used: * specify the elastomer with the minimum low tem- perature grade indicated in Table 146.5.2-2 and de termine the shear force transmitted by the bearing as specified in Article 1453.1. ‘specify the elastomer with the minimum low tem- perature grade for use when special force provisions are incorporated in the design and provide a low fric- tion sliding surface, in which case the special force provision is that the bridge components shall be de- signed to withstand twice the design shear force specified in Article 14.53.1, or * specify the elastomer with the minimum low tem- perature grade for use when special force provisions are incorporated in the design, but do nat provide & low fiietion sliding surface, in which case the com- ponents of the bridge shall be designed to resist four times the design shear force as specified in Article 1453.1. Table 1465.21 Elastomer Propeities At Different Hardaesses Mardnes Shore A) = « 0 ‘Shearmeduhs at 73°F (ps) 95-130 130-200 200-300 (Clee deflcin at 25 rs : mn 2% 8% 9% Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.396 HIGHWAY BRIDGES * 14653 ‘Table 14.65.22 Low Temperature Zones and Elastomer Grades [Low Tenperature Zone a B © > ¥ “Soyearlow temperate (°F) Mav po. of days below 32°F FIGURE 14.652-1 Map of Low Temperature Zones 1465.3 Design Requirements 14.6532 Compressive Sires a In any bearing layer, the average compressive stress jit (ksi) shall satisfy the following: Bearings designed by the provisions of this sec shall be subsequently tested in accordance with the re- quirements for steel reinforced elastomeric bearings of ‘+ for bearings subject to shear deformation Article 18.7 of Division I ofthis Specification, Stel re- om 5 16 ksi inforced elastomeric bearings may also be designed under eons 166G5 (1465321) the provisions of Article 14.6.6. 0, 50.66.63 1000 100, Shope tacer 2 1400 1400 ¢ So duometer | 120 1200} fenreed = beatings 5 3 1000 1000 a 2 00 = 2 8 coo 2 600) eg s 8 «00 3 400 200 220) °0 7 ‘Compressive stain (X) Compressive san (4) FIGURE 1465331, Le Deilection Behavior of Elatomerie Rearings Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.146532 ‘for bearings fixed against shear deformation on $1.75 ksi oms200GS —(14653.2-2) 0. = 1.0068 where GL = average compressive stress due tothe live load (ssi) on, = Average compressive stress due to total dead plus live Toad (ksi) G = shear modulus of elastomer (ksi) S_ = shape factor ofthe thickest layer of the bearing 146.533 Compressive Deflection Deflections dueto total load and to lve loadalone shall be considered separately. A maximum relative deflect (of inch across a joint is preferred. Instantaneous deflection shall be calculated as follows: B= Zebs (146533-1) where: ‘6 = instantaneous compressive strain in thei elas- tomer layer ofa laminated elastomeric bearing ‘hg = thickness of i elastomeric layer in elastomeric bearing (in) ‘Values for shall be determined from test results or by rational analysis. The effects of ereep of the elastomer shall be added tothe instantaneous deflection when con- sidering long-term deflections. They should be computed. from information relevant to the elastomeric compound ‘used, Inthe absence of material-specifc data, the values. given in Article 14.6.5.2 shall be used. In the absence of information specific to the particular bearing to be used, Figure 14.65.3.3-1 may be used. 46534 Shear ‘The horizontal movement of the bridge superstructure, ‘Ao shall be taken as the maximum possible displacement ‘caused by creep, shrinkage, post-lensioning, combined with thermal effects computed in accordance with this Specification. The maximum shear deformation of the bearing, 4, shall be taken as dy, modified to account for the pier flexibility and construction procedures. If low friction sliding surface is installed, A, need not be taken larger than the deformation corresponding to firs slip. “The bearing shall be designed so that hg = 2a, (1465341) where DIVISION DESIGN 397 hy = total elastomeric thickness (in) 4, = maximum service shear deformation of the elastomer 4653.5 Combined Compression and Rotation Rotations shall be taken as the maximum possible if- ference in slope between the top and bottom surfaces of the bearing. They shall include the effects of initial lack cof parallelism and subsequent girder end rotation due to imposed loads and movements. Bearings shall be de- signed so that uplift does not occur under any combina tion of loads and corresponding rotation. All rectangular bearings shall satisfy on BY an 210092) 2) (14.6.5.3.5-1) ‘A rectangular bearing subject to shear deformation shall also satisfy Equation (14.653.5-2); those fixed against shear deformation shal also satisfy Equation (14.6.53.5-3). on stsiso{i-oan(%e)(2}) asesssa on $2. 2001-0 vera 2) ) (046.5353) where B= length of pad if rotation is about its transverse axis, or width of pad ifotation is about its lon- gitudinal axis (in) shear modulus of elastomer (ksi) thickness ofthe #* layer of elastomer (in) ‘numberof interior layers of elastomer, where in~ terior layers are defined as those layers which are bonded on each face. Exterior layers are de- fined as those layers which are bonded only on ‘one face. When the thickness of an exterior layer ‘ofelastomer is more than one-half the thickness ‘of an interior layer, the parameter, n, may be in- ‘creased by one-half foreach such exterior layer. shape fictor of the thickest layer ofthe bearing, component of maximum service rotation in di= rection of interest (04) om =average compressive stress due to the total dead plas live load (ks) Al circular beatings shall satisfy on >orses(Sa (2) G hy (1465354) Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.398 HIGHWAY BRIDGES Acircular bearing subjectto shear deformation shall also satisfy Equation (14.6.53.5-5); those fixed against shear formation shal also satisfy Equation (14.6.53.5-6). Se 20m R, where be = thickness of stee! laminate (a) Fy = allowable fatigue stress range for over 2,000,000 ceyees hole existin the reinforcement te minimum tick ess shal be increased by a factor of 2gross width)/(nct wid). 146.6 Elastomerie Pads and Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings—Method A 1466.1. General ‘This section ofthe specification covers the design of plain elastomeric pads, PEP, pads reinforced with discrete layers of fiberglass, FGP, and pads reinforeed with closely spaced layers of eatton duck, CDP and steel reinforced elastomeric bearings. Layer thicknesses in FGP may be different from one another. For steel reinforced elas- tomeric bearings designed in accordance with the provi- sions of this section, internal layers shall be of the same thickness and cover layers shall be no more than 70% of the thickness of internal layers. 1466.2 Material Properties ‘The materials shall satisfy the requirements of Article 14.6.5.2, except thatthe shear modulus shall lie between (0,080 and 0.250 ksi and the nominal hardness shall lie be= tween 50 and 70 on the Shore ‘A’ scale, This excep- tion shall not apply to steel reinforced elastomeric bear- ings designed in accordance with the provisions of this, article. 1466.3 Design Requirements 146.63.1 Scope Plain elastomeric pads, fiberglass reinforced pads and ‘cotton duck reinforced pads shall be designed in accor- ddance with the provisions ofthis ariel. Steel reinforced elastomeric bearings designed in accordance with the provisions of this article shall qualify forthe test require- ‘meats appropriate for elastomeric pads. ‘The provisions for FGP apply only to pads where the fiberglass is placed in double layers 4 inch apart The physieal properties of ncoprene and natural rubber used in these bearings shall conform to the following, ASTM requirements, with modifiations as noted: Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.146.63. Neoprene: D4014 ‘Natural Rubber: D014 Modifications: (1) The Shore A Durometer hardness shall lie within the limits specified in Artiele 14.66. (2) Samples for compression set tests shall be pre- pared using a Type 2 die, 14.6.63.2 Compressive Stress esvengecomprsive es on aye all sats *# for PEP, on, < 0.80 ksi, and on, < 0.55GS * for FGP, on = 0.80 ksi, and on, = 1.006. © for CDR on 5 1.50 ksi In FGP, the value of S used shall be that for the great- est distance between the mid-point of double reinforce- ‘ment layers atthe top and bottom of the elastomer layer. For steel reinforced elastomeric bearings designed in accordance withthe provisions ofthis article oy, = 1.00 ksi, and on. = 1.0 GS where the value of $ used shall be that forthe thickest layer of the bearing. These stress li its may be increased by 10% where shear deformation is prevented, 146.633 Compressive Deflection ‘The provisions of Article 14.6.5.3.3 shall apply. Ap- propriate data for PEP, FGP and CDP may be used to e- timate their deflections. In the absence of such data, the ‘compressive deflection of PEP and FGP may be estimated ‘at 3 and 1.S times the deflection estimated for stel rein- forced bearings of the same shape factor in Article 14.6533, respectively CDP are typically very stiff in compression and the provisions of his article may be considered as satisfied on the basis of past experience, and no calculations need be done, provided the provisions of Article 146.6.3.2 are met, 146.634 Shear ‘The horizontal bridge movement shal be computed in accordance with Article 14.4, The maximum shear defo mation of the pad, A,, shall be taken as the horizontal bridge movement, reduced to account forthe pier flexi= bility and modified for construction procedures. Ia low friction sliding surface is used, A, need not be taken larger than the deformation corresponding to first slip. ‘The pad shall be designed as follows: hy = 2A, for PEP, FGP and steel reinforced elastomeric bearings DIVISION I_DESIGN, 399, by 104, for CDP (14663441) 146.635 Rotation ‘The rotation about each axis shal be taken as the max- pad caused by initial lack of parallelism and girder end ro- tation. 14663.5a PEP and CDP “The shape factor of CDP shall be defined as 100 for use in Equations (14.6.63.52-1) and (14,6.6.3.50-2). They. shall satisty: « for rectangular pads ie om 20564) 04x or on s0ia{ Jae c4ssssen * for circular pads sosrsad?)'o on! hg) 8m 146.6.3.50-2) 146.6356 PGP and Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings ‘They shall satisfy: ‘+ forrectangular pads or bearings ; ox 20sof £) Pa on 2030{#) 2 a463s01 + for circular pads or bearings DO. on 20srsef ye 4563.52) where 18 = number ofinterior layers of elastomer, where in- terior layers are defined as those layers which are bonded on each face. Exterior layers are de- fined as those layers which are bonded only on ‘one face. When the thickness of an exterior layer of elastomer is more than one-half the thickness Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.400 HIGHWAY BRIDGES ‘ofan interior layer, the parameter, n, may be in- ‘creased by one-half for each such exterior layer. hy = thickness ofthe i* layer of elastomer (in) 146.63.6 Stability ‘To ensure stability, the total thickness of pad shall not exceed the least of L/3, WI, or D4. 146.63. Reinforcement ‘The reinforcement in FGP shall be fiberglass with failure strength in each direction of at least 2.2 hy K/in of ‘width, For the purpose of this article, ifthe layers of elas- tomer are of different thickness, hy shall be taken asthe ‘mean thickness ofthe two layers ofthe elastomer bonded to the reinforcement. Ifthe fiberglass reinforcement con- tains holes, its strength shal be increased over the mini= ‘mum value specified above by two times the gross width divided by net width. Reinforcement for steel reinforced elastomeric bear- ings designed in accordance with the provisions. of this article shall conform to the requirements of Article 1465.32. 146.64 Resistance to Deformat ‘The shear force on the structure induced by deforma- tion of the elastomer shall be based on a G value not less than that of the elastomer at 73°F, Effects of relaxation shall be ignored. If the design shear force, Hyy due to pad deformat exceeds one-fifth of the minimum vertical force, the pad shall be secured against horizontal movement. ‘The pad shall not be permitted to sustain uplift forces. 1446.7 Bronze or Copper Alloy Stiding Surfaces, Bronze or Copper Alloy may be used in ‘flat sliding surfaces to accommodate translational movements, ‘+ curved sliding surfaces to accommodate translation and limited rotation, ‘= pins or cylinders for shaft bushings of rocker bear- ings or other bearings with large rotations. 146.71 Materials Bronze sliding surfaces or castings shall conform to AASHTO M 107 (ASTM B 22) and shall be made of Alloy (€30500, €91100 or C86300 unless otherwise specified ‘The mating surface shall be structural steel which has a 146.635 Rockwell hardness value at least 100 points greater than that ofthe bronze. Copper alloy 913 or 911 or copper alloy plates, AASHTO M 108 (ASTM B100), shall be used unless oth= cexwise specified 146.72 Coefficient of Friction “The design coefcient of ition shall be determined ty applying an appropiate safety factor tothe measured ceelisieot of fton obtained using aajonal at proce die, tales of sich tat dats, the design coefficient of fiction may be taken as 01 for self ibiaing bronze componcnts and OA for ober ype. 146.73 Limits on Load and Geometry ‘The nominal bearing stress due to combined dead and live load shall be no greater than 2.0 ksi 146.74 Clearances and Mating Surface ‘The mating surface shall be steel which is accurately ‘machined to match the geometry ofthe bronze surface and provide uniform bearing and contact. 146.8 Dise Bearings 1468.1 General For the purposes of establishing the forces and defor- ‘nations imposed on a disc bearing, the axis of ro ‘may be taken as lying in the horizontal plane at mid- Iheight of the disc. The urethane disc shall beheld in place by a positive location device. ‘The dise bearing shall be designed forthe design rota- tion, Oy, defined in Article 14.4.1. 146.82 Materials “The elastomeric dise shall be made from a compound based on polyether urthane, using only virgin materials. ‘The hardness shall lie between 45 and 65 on the Shore D seal, ‘The metal components of the bearing shall be made from structural steel conforming to AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 708) Grades 36, 50, oF SOW, or from stainless steel conforming to ASTM A 240, 146.83 Overall Geometric Requirements “The dimensions of the components shall be such that hhard contact between metal components which prevents Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.14683 further displacement or rotation will not occur under the least favorable combination of design displacements and rotations. 146.84 Elastomeric Dise ‘The elastomeric disc shall be held in location by a pos- ive locator device. The disc shall be designed so that * its instantancous deflection under total load does not ‘exceed 10% of the thickness ofthe unstressed dise, and the additional deflection due to ereep does not ‘exceed 8% ofthe thickness ofthe unstessed dise; * the average compressive stress due to the maximum load, Pp, on the dise does not exceed 5.0 ksi. If the ‘outer surface ofthe disc isnot vertical, the stress shall ‘be computed using the smallest plan arca of the dis. Ifa PTFE slider is used ‘+ the stresses on the PTFE slider do not exceed 75% ofthe allowable values for average and edge stresses siven in Article 14.6.2. The effect of moments in- duced by the urethane dise shall be included in the stress analysis. 146.85 Shear Resisting Mechanism In fixed and guided bearings, a shear-esisting mecha- ‘nism shall be provided to transmit horizontal forcesbetween the upper and lower steel plates. It shall be capable of re- sisting a horizontal force in any direction equal to the larger ‘ofthe design shear force and 10% of the design vertical load. ‘The horizontal design clearance between the upper and lower components of the shear-rstricting mechanism shall not exceed the value for guide bars given in Article 14.6.9. 14686 Steel Plates ‘The thickness ofthe upper and lower stel plates shall not be less than 0.045 Dg ifthe plate is in direct contact with a stecl girder or distribution plate, of 0.06 Dy if it bears directly on grout or concrete. 14.6.9 Guides and Restraints 1469.1 General Guides may be used to prevent movement in one di- rection. Restraints may be used to permit only limited jovement in one or more directions. Guides and restraints shall have a low-frction material at thet sli surfaces. DIVISION I_DESIGN 401 14692 Design Loads ‘The guide or restrain shall be designed using the max- {mum load combinations forthe larger of * the horizontal design load, or + 10% of the maximum vertical load acting on all the ‘earings atthe bent divided by the mumber of guided ‘earings atthe bent. 1469.3 Materials For steel bearings, the guide or restraint shall be made from stel conforming to AASHTO M270 (ASTM A 709) Grades 36, 50 or SOW, or stainless steel conforming to ASTM 240, The guide for aluminum bearings may also be aluminum. ‘The low-friction interface material shall be approved by the Engineer. 1469.4 Geometric Requirements Guides shall be parallel, long enough to accommodate the full design displacement ofthe bearing inthe sliding, direction, and shall permit a minimum of /2-inch and a ‘maximum of Yicinch free slip inthe restrained direction. Guides shall be designed to avoid binding under all design Toads and displacements, including rotations. 14695 Design Basis 1469.5.1 Load Location ‘The horizontal load acting on the guide or restraint shall be assumed to act atthe centroid ofthe low-frction interface material. Design ofthe connection between the ‘guide or restraint and the body ofthe bearing system shall take into account both shear and overturning moment 4695.2 Contact Stress The contact stress onthe low-frction material shall not exceed that recommended by the manufacture. For PTFE, the stresses due to the maximum loads, Py and Hyg shall not exceed those given in Table 14.6.24.1 under sustained loading or 1.25 times those stresses for short-term loading, {6 Attachment of Low-Frietion Material ‘he low-frction material shall be attached by atleast ‘to of he following three methods: + mechanical fastening * bonding + mechanical interlocking with a metal substrate. Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.402 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 146.10 Other Bearing Systems ‘Bearing systems made from components not described in Articles 14.6.1 through 14.6.8 may also be used, subject to the approval of the Engineer. Such bearings shall be ad- ‘equate to resist the forces and deformations imposed on then’ without material distress and without inducing defor ‘mations lange enough to threaten their proper functioning. ‘The dimensions ofthe bearing shall be chosen to pro- vide for adequate movements at all times. The materials used ‘shall have sufficient stength, stiffness, and resis- tance to creep and decay to ensure the proper functioning of the bearing throughout the design life of the bridge. ‘The Engineer shall determine the tests which the bearing ‘ust satisfy. The tests shall be designed to demonstrate any potential weakness in the system under individual compres- sion, shear or rotational loading or combinations thereof. ‘Testing under sustained or eylic loading shall be required, 14.7 LOAD PLATES AND ANCHORAGE FOR BEARINGS 14.7.1 Plates for Load Distribution ‘The bearing, together with any additional plates, shall bbe designed so that ‘the combined system is stiff enough to prevent dis- tortions ofthe bearing which would impai its proper functioning; * the stresses imposed on the supporting structure sat- isfy the limits specified by the Engineer. Allowable stresses on concrete and grout beds shall be assumed to be based on the maximum compressive load, Pay ‘on the bearing; * the bearing can be replaced within the jacking height limits specified by the Engineer without damage to the bearing distribution plates or supporting stucture. If ‘no limit is given, a height of inch shall be used. 14.69.10 ‘Computations ofthe strength of steel eomponents and ‘beam stiffener requirements of sce girders shall be made in conformance with Section 10 of Division I of these specifications. mn lieu of amore precise analysis, the load from a bear- ing fully supported by a grout bed may be assumed to spread out ata slope of 1.5:1, horizontal to vertical, from the edge ofthe siallest element ofthe bearing which car- ries the compressive load. 14.7.2 Tapered Plates 1f, under fll dead load atthe mean annual temperature forthe bridge ste, the inclination of the underside of the Birder tothe horizontal exceeds 0.01 ra, a tapered plate shall be used in order to provide a level load surface to be placed on the bearing. 1473 Anchorage All load distribution plates and al bearings with exter- nal steel plates shall be positively secured to their supports bby bolting or welding All girders shall be positively located on their support= ing bearings by a connection which can resist the horizon tal forces which may be imposed on it. Separation of bear- ‘ng components shall not be permited. A connection, adequate to resis the least favorable combination of loads, shall be installed wherever necessary to prevent separation, 148 CORROSION PROTECTION All exposed tee parts of bearings not made from stain- less steel shall be protected against corosion by zine me- tallization, hot-dip galvanizing or a paint system approved by the Engineer. A combination of zine metallization or hhot-dip galvanizing anda paint system may be used, Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.Section 15 STEEL TUNNEL LINER PLATES 18.1 GENERAL AND NOTATIONS 15.1.1 General IS.L.L.1 These criteria cover the design of cold- formed panel steel tunnel Tiner plates. The minimum thickness shall be as determined by design in accordance ‘with Articles 15.2, 3, 4,5, and 6 and the constuction shall ‘conform to Section 26—Division Il. The supporting ea- pacity ofa nonrigid tunnel ining such asa ste! liner plate results from its ability to deflect under load, so that side restraint developed by the lateral resistance of the soil ‘constrains further deflection. Deflection thus tends to ‘equalize radial pressures and to load the tunnel liner as a ‘compression ring. 1511.2 The load to be carried by the tunnel liner 1 function ofthe type of soil. Ina granular soil, with ttle ‘oF no cohesion, the load is a function of the angle of in- ternal friction ofthe soil and the diameter of the tunnel ‘being constructed. In cohesive soils suchas clays and silty clays the load to be carried by the tunnel liner is depen- ‘dent on the shearing strength ofthe soil above the roof of the tonnel. 15.113 A subsurface exploration program and ap- propriate sol tests should be performed at each installa- tion before undertaking a design. terpreted as prohibiting the use of new developments ‘where usefulness can be substantiated. 18.1.2 Notations A =ross-sectional area of liner plates (Article 153.4) Cy = coefficient for tunnel liner, used in Marston's formula (Anicte 15.2.4) D__ = horizontal diameter or span ofthe tunnel (Arti- cle 15.2.4) D__ = pipe diameter (Article 15.3.3) 403 Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. = critical pipe diameter (Anicle 153.4) E_ = modulus of elasticity (Anticle 15.3.3) FS = factor of safety forbucling (Atcle 15.3.4) = buckling stress (Article 153.4) = minimam specified tensile strength (Antile 153.4) H__ = height oso over the top ofthe tunnel (Article 152.4) “ 1 = moment of inertia (Antcle 15.3.3) k= parameter dependent on the value of the friction angle (Article 15.3.4) = external load on tunnel lier (Article 15.2.1) = vertical load atthe level ofthe top of the tunnel liner due to dead load (Article 15.2.1) ‘= vertical load atthe level ofthe top of the tunnel liner due to live load (Article 15.2.1) radius of gyration (Amtile 15.3.4) thrust per unit length (Aticle 15.3.4) = total (moist) unit weight of soil (Article 152.4) fiction angle of soil (Article 15.3.4.1) 182 LOADS 15.2.1 Extemal load on a circular tunnel liner made up of tunnel finer plates may be predicted by various meth- ods including actual tess. In cases where more precise ‘methods of analysis are not employed, the external load P can be predicted by the following: (@) Ifthe grouting pressure is greater than the co puted external load, the extemal load P on the tunnel liner shall be the grouting pressure (B) In general the extemal load can be computed by the formula: ast) where: P y = the external load on the tunnel Liner; = the vertical load atthe level ofthe top ofthe tunnel liner due to live loads; Duplication isa violation of applicable law.404 HIGHWAY BRIDGES = the vertical load at the level of the top ofthe ‘tunnel liner due to dead load. 152.2 For an H 20 load, values of P, are approximately, the following: HD 45 6 7 8 9 10 Pi (IbpersqM) 375 260 190 140 110 90 75 1823 Values of P, may be calculated using Marston's, formula for load or any other suitable method. 15.24 Inthe absence of adequate borings and sil tests, the full overburden height should be the basis for P, inthe tunnel liner plate design. ‘The following is one form of Marston's formula: P,= WD (152) where: Cs = coefficient for tunnel liner, Figure 15.2.3; |W = total (moist) unit weight of soil; 1D = horizontal diameter o span ofthe tunnel; H_ = height of sol over the top of the tunnel. 1524 153 DESIGN 153.1 Criteria ‘The following criteria must be considered in the design of ner plates: (@) Joint strength. (b) Minimum stiffness for installation. (©) Critical buckling of tiner plate wal. (@) Detection or flattening of tunne! section. 153.2 Joint Strength 1832.1 The scam strength of liner plates must be sufficient to withstand the thrust developed from the total, Toad supported by the liner plate. This thrust, T, in pounds. per linear foot is T=Pp2 (153) ‘where P = load as defined in Anicle 15.2, and D = diameter or span in feet. Values of coefficient Cy FIGURE 15.2.3A Diagram for Coefficient C, for Tunnels in Sol (p = Friction Ange) Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.153.22 153.22 The ultimate design longitudinal seam strengths are: TABLE 153.22 ‘Ultimate Seam Strength of Liner Pts Plate Thickness ‘Ukimate Sregth, a) (ip ‘2 Flange 4 Flange ors 200 0.105 300 260 0.138 410 80 0.168 350 ‘00 079 20 M0 0.209 0 a0 0239 2.0 810 0313 uso 0375 119.0 153.23 The thrust, T, multiplied by the safety fac- tor, should not exceed the ultimate seam strength. 153.3 Minimum Stiffness for Installation 15.3.3.1 Thelinee plate ring shall have enough rigid ity to resist the unbalanced loads of normal construction: grouting pressure, local slough-ins, and miscellancous concentrated loads. “The minimum stffoess required for these loads ean be ‘expressed for convenience by the formula below. It must bbe recognized, however, that the limiting values given here are only recommended minima, Actual job conditions may require higher values (greater effective stiffness). Final de- termination on this factor should be based on intimate knowledge of the project and practical experience. 15.332 Theminimum stiffness for installation is de- termined by the formula: Minimum stiffuess = EVD? (15-4) where: D = diameter in inches; E = modulus of elasticity, psi 29 x 10"), = moment of inertia, inches tothe fourth power per inch; For 2-Flange (EVD?) = 50 minimum; For 4-Flange (EVD?) = 111 minimum; 1534 Critical Buckling of Liner Plate Wall 1534.1 Wall buckling stresses are determined from the following formulae: DIVISION I~DESIGN 405 For diameters less than D,, the ring compression stress at which buckling becomes critical is: fe 388 f Jers as9 For diameters greater than D: a aay as 05-6) where: D, = (k)V24E/f, = critical pipe s-7) 1510 0.44 for soils 6 < 15. 183.42 Design for buckling is accomplished by lim- iting the ring compression thrust T to the buckling stress multiplied by the effective cross-sectional area ofthe liner plate divided by the factor of safey. «as-8) where T= thrust per linear foot from Article 15.3.2; fective cross-sectional area of liner plate in ‘square inches per foot; factor of safety for buckling FS 1535. Deflection or Flattening 1535.1 Deflection of a tunnel depends significantly on the amount of over-excavation of the bore and is af- fected by delay in backpacking or inadequate backpack- . The magnitude of deflection is not primarily a func tion of soil modulus or the liner plate properties, so it cannot be computed with usual deflection formulae, 183.52 Where the tunnel clearances are important, the designer should oversize the stracture to provide for a normal deflection. Good construction methods should result in deflections of not more than 3% of the normal diameter. Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.406 : 154 CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL, REQUIREMENTS 15.4.1 Chemical Composition Base metal shall conform to ASTM A 569. 154.2 Minimum Mechanical Properties of Fat Plate Before Cold Forming Tensile strength Yield strength Elongation, 2 inches 1543 Dimensions and Tolerances ‘Nominal plate dimensions shall provide the section properties shown in Article 15.5. Thickness tolerances shall conform to Paragraph 14 of AASHTO M 167. 155 SECTION PROPERTIES ‘The section properties per inch of plate width, based on the average of one ring of linear plates, shall conform to the following: TABLE IS.5A_ Section Properties for Four-Flange Liner Plate Hifeative Momcat Thickness Area Area of eta Gage Gin) Ginn) (in/inyin*iny R005 01330067002 n 0.1196 012 0.075009 10.135, 0.170.085 0.055 3 O68 0209 0.108 0.070 7 019 © 027 oer 5 0209 ©0264 0.132 0.087 30239 0300.18) 0.100 vs 0250 ©0309 O.ISS 0.101 sis 038 0.193.123 38 0.460 og HIGHWAY BRIDGES 15.4 ‘TABLE 15.5B Section Properties for Two-Flange Liner Plate ifective Moment ‘Thickness Agen of Inertia Gn) Gain) Ginn) ons 0086 «Ota 0105 0350.9 0135 OM O.64 ous 913 0m 0283 15.6 COATINGS ‘Steel tunnel liner plates shall be of heavier gage or thickness or protected by coatings or other means when required for resistance to abrasion or corrosion. 157 BOLTS 15.7.1 Bolts and nuts used with lapped seams shall be rot less than Yinch in diameter. The bolts shall conform to the specifications of ASTM A 449 for plate thickness equal to or greater than 0.209 inches and A 307 for plate thickness less than 0,209 inches. The nut shall conform to ASTM A307, Grade A. 15.7.2 Circumferential seam bolts shal be A307 or bet- ter forall plate thicknesses. 15.7.3 Bolts and nuts used with four flanged plates shall ‘be not less than ¥ inch in diameter for plate thicknesses, to and including 0.179 inches and not less than % inch in diameter for plates of greater thickness. The bolts and nuts shall be quick acting coarse thread and shall conform to ASTMA 307, Grade A. 188 SAFETY FACTORS Longitudinal test seam strength = 3 Pipe wall buckling =2 Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.\ Section 16 SOIL-REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE INTERACTION SYSTEMS 16.1 GENERAL b= width of section which resists M,N, V—Usually b= 12 inches (Article 16.4.6) 16.1.1 Scope 1B, = out-to-out horizontal span of pip or bo, ft (Ar- : ticles 1644, 1645, 1664, and 16.74) ‘Speifications in ths Section govern the design of py = horizontal wih of tench top of pipe or box, f buried reinforced concrete structures. buried reinforeed (CAricls 16.44, 16.64, nd 16.7.4.) conerete element becomes part of a composite system B= bedding factor (Article 16.4.5) Comprising the reinforced conercte section and the soll By, = earth load bedding factor tenvelope, both of which contribute tothe structural be= havior of the system. 16.1.2 Notations A= effectivetension area of conerete surrounding the flexural tension reinforcement and hav-ing the ‘same centroid as that reinforcement, divided by the number of bars of wires, sqin3 when the flex tural reinforcement consists of several bar sizes or ‘wire the number of bars or wires shall be com- puted asthe total area of reinforcement divided by the area of the largest bar or wire used (Arti cles 16.64 and 16.7.4) total active lateral pressure acting on pipe, Ibs/ft (Aicle 164.5 and Figure 16.40) tension reinforcement area on width b, in2/ (Asticles 164.66, 16.647, 16.747, and 1685.7) rea of total inner cage reinforcement required in length b in2/ (Article 16.4.6.6) area of total outer cage reinforcement required in length b, in (Article 16.4.6.6) stirrup reinforcement area to resist radial ten sion forces on width b, in2/ft in each line of stimups at circumferential spacing s (Article 16.46) required are of stirups for shear reinforcement, in? (Anicle 16.46.6.6.2) steel area required for an individual circumferen- tial wire for flexure ata splice or atthe point of maximum moment for quadrant mat reinforee~ ment, in! Anicle 16.4.7) 407 Bax, = live load bedding factor BR c G & Ge G = erack control coefficient for effect of cover and spacing of reinforcement (Article 16.4.6) out-to-out vertical rise of pipe, ft (Figure 164C) Joad coefficient for embankment installations (Anicle 16.4.5) = load coefficient for tench installations (Article 16.44) = constant corresponding tothe shape of pipe (At= ticle 164.5) = parameter which is a function ofthe distribution of the vertical load and the vertical reaction (Ar ticle 164.5) = crack control coefficient for type of reinforce- ment (Article 16.4.6) = distance from compression face to centroid of tension reinforcement, in, (Articles 16.4.6.6, 16.6.4, 16.7.4.7, and 168.5.7) = thickness of concrete cover measured from ex- treme tension fiber to center of bar or wite located. closest thereto (Articles 16.6.4.7, 16.7.4.7, and 16.8.5.7) = D-load of pipe, three-edge bearing test load ex- pressed in pounds per linear foot per foot of span to produce a 0.01-inch crack (Anicle 16.4.5) = inside diameter of pip, in. = service load stress in reinforcing steel for crack control (Articles 1664.7, 1.7.4.7, and 16.8.5.7) = maximum allowable strength of stirrup material, Ibsfin? (Article 16.4666) ecified yield strength of reinforcement, Ibsfin? (Amie 16.4.6) Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.408, HIGHWAY BRIDGES * F, = factor for effect of curvature on diagonal tension (shear) strength in curved components (Article 164.665) = factor for adjusting erack contro relative to aver- age maximum crack width of 0.01 inch when Fa, = 1.0 (Antic 16.4.6.6.4) Fy = factor for crack depth effect resulting in increase in diagonal tension (shear) strength with decreas- ing d (Article 16.4.6.6.5) F, = soil-structure interaction factor (Articles 16.4.4, 16.64, and 16.7.4) Fy = soil structre interaction factor for embankment installations (Articles 16.4.4, 1664, and 16.7.4) Fa =soll-siuctute interaction factor for trench installations (Articles 16.44, 16.64, and 16.74) F, = factor for process and local materials that af- fect the radial tension strength of pipe (Article 164.6) Fq = factor for pipe size effect on radial tension strength (Atile 16.4.6.6.3.1) Fy = factor for process and local materials that affect. the shear strength of pipe (Article 164.6.6.5) Fy = coefficient for effect of thrust on shear strength (Amicle 164.66.5) fe — design compressive strength of concrete, Ibs/in? (Amicles 16.4.6, 16.62, and 16.7.2) b= overall thickness of member (wal thickness, in. (Articles 16.4.6.6, 16.6.4.7, 1674.7, and 1685.7) H__ = heightoffillabove top of pipe or bor, (Articles 16.44, 164.5, 1664, and 16.7.4) HAF = horizontal arching factor Figure 164) i coefficient for effect of axial force at service load stress, f, (Aricles 16.4.6.6.4, 1664, 16.7.4.7, and 1685.7) oefficient for moment arm at service lead stress, f, (Articles 164.664, 1664.7, 167.47, and 1685.7) K = ratio of the sctive unit lateral soil pressure to unit vertical soil pressure-Rankine’s coefficient of active earth pressure (Figures 16.4B-D) uy evelopment length of reinforcing wire or bar, in (Anite 164.7) Ma = factored moment acting on length b as modified for effects of compressive or tensile thrust, in- Ist (Anticle 16.4.6.6.5) M, = moment acting on etoss section of with, b, ser vice load conditions, in-lbs/t (Taken as absolute value in design equations, always +) (Articles 164.6.644, 1664.7, 16.7.4.7, and 1685.7) M, = factored moment acting on eross section of width », in-lbs/ft (Article 16:4.6.6.6.1) rumber of layers of reinforcement in a cage—1 or2 (Article 164.6.6.4) 16.12 N al thrust acting on cross section of width service load condition (+ when compressive, ~ ‘hen tensile), hs/t (Articles 164.6.6.4, 16.6.4.7, 167.47, and 16.8.5.7) 1N, = factored axial thrust acting on cross section of width, Ibs (Article 164.6) projection ratio (Article 164.5:2.1) ‘negative projection ratio (Figure 16.4A and Table 164A) PL = PL denotes the prism load (weight ofthe column. ‘of earth) over the pipe’s ouside diameter, bs! (Figure 16.4.4) 4 = Mito ofthe total lateral pressure tothe total verti- cal load (Article 16.4.5) F, = radius of the inside reinforcement, in. (Article 16.4663.1) a ™ settlement ratio (Article 164.52.1) 8 = spacing of reinforcement wire or bar, in. (Article 164.664) ireumferential spacing of stimups, in. (Anticle 1646.6) Se = spacing of circumferential reinforcement, in. (Ar~ ticle 16.4.6.6.4) S, = intemal horizontal span of pipe, in. (Articles 164.66 and 16.4.5.1) ty clear cover over reinforcement, in, (Article 164.664) Vs = basic shear strength of critical section, Ibs/R ‘where Mud(Vad) = 3.0 (Article 164.6.6.5) Ve = nominal shear strength provided by width b of concrete cross section, Ibs/R (Article 16.4.6.6.6) factored shear force acting on cross section of ‘wiih bot (Anite 16.4.6.6.5) Vee = factored shear force at eriical section, Ibs Where Mu(Vsd) = 3.0 (Arle 16.4.6.6.5) tical arching factor (Ale 164.4.2.1.1) unit weight of soil, hs/® (Article 16.4.4) We = total earth load on pipe at bor, Ibs! (Articles 16.4.4, 164.5, 16.64, and 16:74) VAF Wy = Suid load in the pipe as determined according to Anicle 16.4.4.2.2, Ibs W, = total live load on pipe or box, Ibs/ft (Articles 16.44 and 16.4.5) Wy = total load, earth and live, on pipe or box, Ibs/t (Antictes 16.4.4 and 1645) X = parameter which isa funetion of the area of the vertical projection of the pipe over which lateral pressure is effective (Article 16.4.5) = coefficient of internal friction of the soil (Fig- ure 16.48) 1 ~coeflicientof friction between backfill and trench walls (Figure 16.43) Y= central angle of pipe subtended by assumed dis tribution of external reactive foree (Figure 16.4F) Copyright 2002 AASHTO. Alll rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.DIVISION I—DESIGN 409 16.12. © = ratio of reinforcement area to concrete area (Ar- ticle 16.4.6) r= strength reduction factor for flexure (Article 164.6.6.1) 4 = strength reduction factor for radial tension (Arti- ele 16.4.6.63.1) 4, =strength reduction factors for shear (Article 164.665) 161.3 Loads Design loads shall be determined by the forces acting ‘onthe structure. For earth loads, see Article 3.20. For ive loads see Articles 3.4 through 3.8 and Articles 3.11 and 3.12. For loading combinations see Article 3.22 16. Design Design may be based on working stress or ultimate strength principles. The design criteria shall include structural aspects (eg. flexure, thrust, shear), handling ‘and instalation, and crack control. Footing design for castin-place boxes and arches shall be in conformity with Article 44, 16.15 Materials ‘The materials shall conform to the AASHTO materials specifications referenced herein, 16.1.6 Soil Structural performance is dependent on soil structure interaction, The type and anticipated behavior ofthe ma- terial beneath the structure, adjacent to the structure, and ver the structure must be considered. 16.1.7 Abrasive or Corrosive Conditions ‘Where abrasive or corrosive conditions exist, suitable protective measures shall be considered 16.1.8 End Structures Structures. may require special consideration where erosion may occur. Skewed alignment may require special end wall designs. 16.1.9 Construction and Installation ‘The construction and installation shall conform to Sec tion 27, Division I 162. SERVICE LOAD DESIGN 16.241 For soil-einforced concrete structure interact systems designed with reference to service loads and al~ lowable stresses, the service load streses shall not exceed, the values shown in Article 8.15 excepts modified herein. 16.2.2 For precast reinforced concrete circular pipe, elliptical pipe, and arch pipe, the results of three edge bearing tests made in accordance with AASHTO mate- rials specifications may be used in lieu of service load design. 163 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN 16.3.1 inforced concrete structure interaction systems shall be designed to have design strengths ofall sections atleast equal to the required stengths calculated forthe factored loads as stipulated in Anicle 3.22, except as modified herein. 163.2 For precast reinforced concrete circular pipe, el- liptical pipe, and arch pipe, the results of three edge-bear- ing tests made in accordance with AASHTO materials specifications may be used in lieu of load factor design, 164 REINFORCED CONCRETE PIPE 164.1 Application ‘This Speciation is itended for usein design for p cast renfreod concrete crcl pie elit pipe, and arch pipe. Standard dimensions are shown in AASHTO ‘mail spciations M170, 4205 M207, end M 242. Design wll thicknesses che han he standard wal rersionsmy be sed, provide he eign complies with all applicable requirements of Seon 16, 1642 Materiats 1642.1 Concrete CConerete shall conform to Article 8.2 except that eval- uation off; may be based on cores. 16422 Reinforcement Reinforcement shall mect the requirements of Articles 8.3.1 through 83.3 only, and shall conform to one of the following AASHTO material specifications M31, M 32, M55, M 221, or M 255. For smooth wire and smooth Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.410 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 16.422 TABLE 164A Standard Embankment Installation Soils and Minimum Compaction Requirement Haunch and Installation Type Bedding Thickness Outer Bedding Lower Side Type T 'B,/24* (600 ram) minimum, not less than 95% SW 90% SW, 95% ML, 3° (5 mm), frock foundation, use B12" or (200 man) minimum, not less than 6” 100% CL. (30mm). ‘Type2 1B./24" 600 mm) minimum, not less than 90% sw 85% SW, 90% ML, (SeeNote3) __3°(75 mm), Ifrock foundation, use B/12" or or (200 mm) minimum, not less than 6° 95% ML. 95% CL (150.mm). ‘Type3 1/24" (600 inn) minimum, not less than 85% SW, 90% ML, or 85% SW, 90% ML, (See Note 3) 3° (75 mm). Ifrock foundation use B12" 95%CL or (G00 mm) minimum, not less than 6” 95% CL. (150mm). Typed ‘No bedding required, except if rock [No compaction required, No compaction required, foundation, use B,/12" (300 mm) minimum, ‘except if CL, use except if CL, use not less than 6” (150 mam). 85%CL. 85% CL ores: Te compaction and si symbols Le. "95% SW" refer a SW sil materi wih a maim standard procter compotion 095%. ‘Ser Table 64C for equivalent modifedprocor ae na he eae 2. Soilin the outer Boing, hunch, and loner side aoe, except within By om the pipe sringin, hl be compact ‘compaction athe majority of sili the verl zoe. 3, Galy Type and3inallatione are availble fr hors lip, vertical elliptical and arch pipe @ susreewcnes 11 ‘Aiatcch i defied sa wench with top below fhe rade by more thn 0.1 ofr ondways its tp isatn elevation lower han 1 (03 below the atom ofthe paveret tase srl, 42. Themminimam with ofa sabtonch shal be 1.33 By or wider required fer adequate space atin he specified compton in the hac tnd bedding zones Pry Femaved an ele wih sll compacted tthe specif level welded wire fabric, a yield stress of 65,000 psi and for de- formed welded wire fabric, a yield stress of 70,000 psi ‘may be used. 164.23 Concrete Cover for Reinforcement “The minimum concrete cover forthe reinforcement in precast concrete pipe shall be 1 inch in pipe having a wall thickness of 2 inches or greater and Ys inch in pipe hav- ‘ng a wall thickness of less than 2/s inches. 16.4.3 Installations 1643.1 Standard Installations Standard Embankment Installations are presented in Figure 16.4B and Standard Trench Installations are pre- sented in Figure 16.4C; these figures define sol areas and critical dimensions. Generic soil types, minimum com- paction requirements, and minimum bedding thicknesses ‘are listed in Table 16.4A for four Standard Embankment Installation Types and in Table 16.4B for four Standard ‘Trench Installation Types. Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. For sobenches wih walls of satura cil, any potion ofthe lower side zone in be subtench wallshall ea {Sol placed tothe compaction resuiements seid othe lower tide zone ands frm a the majo sl a form aan equivalent he oer zone, shal be 1643.2. Soils ‘The AASHTO Soil Classifications and the USCS Soil Classifications equivalent to the generic soil types the Standard Installations are presented in Table 164C. 1644 Design 1644.1 General Requirements Design shall conform to applicable sections of these specifications exeept as provided otherwise in this arti- cle, For design loads, sce Article 16.1.3; for standard in- stallation, see Article 16.4.3.1; and for bedding condi tions, see Section 27, Division II--Construction and the Soil-Structure Interaction Modifications that follow. Live loads, W,, shall be included as part ofthe total load, Wr, and shall be distributed through the earth cover as, specified in Anice 6.4, except thatthe 2-foot minimum. inthe first paragraph of Anicle 64 does not apply. Other methods for determining total load and pressure distrib ‘ution may beused, ifthe are based on successful design Duplication is a violation of applicable law.164.421 DIVISION I~DESIGN au TABLE 164B Standard Trench Installation Solls and Minimum Compaction Requirements Haunch and Installation Type Bedding Thickness Outer Bedding Lower Side Type 'B/24* (600 man) minimum, not ess than 95% SW 90% SW, 959% ML, 3° (75 mm). If rock foundation, use By/12" 100% CL, ot (00 mm) minimum, not less than 6° natural coils of (50 mm) qual firmness ‘Type? 18/24” (600 mm) minimum, nt less than 90% sw 85% SW, 90% ML, (See Note 3) 3" (75 mm) If rock foundation, use By/ 12" or 95% CL, or natural (200 mm) minimum, not less than 6° 98%ML soils of equal (50 mm). firmness ‘Type3 18/24" (600 mn) minimum, not Tess than 85% SW, 90% ML, or 85% SW, 90% ML, (See Note 3.) 3° (75 mmm). If rock foundation, use By/12" 95% CL 95% CL, or natural (200 mm) minimum, not less than 6° soils of equal (50 mn). firmness ‘Typed "No bedding required, except if rock No compaction required, 85% SW, 90% ML foundation, use B,!12" 300 mes) minimum, except if CL, use 9% CL, or natural not less than 6” (150 mm). 85% CL soils of equal firmness NoreS ‘See able 1GAC fr equvalen modifedProcer values. 1 (03. below the botom of the pavenent base mata ‘Compaction ad sil symbols -i.954% SW'efers to SW sol material with minimum standard Proctor compaction f 95%, ‘The wench op elevation shal be no lower tan OH below Snished grado for ronduays itp shal eno onerha an elevation of (Only Type 2a 3 instalation are svi fx horzntal eli, vena clip and arch pipe, away Soin Bedding and haunch zones shal be cnpated a le the same compton a specie fo the mojo of lin the backil zoe ‘The teach wi shal be wider han shown i ped for adequte space eta the Spied cormpacton nh hanes Bedding Fortcach walls hat are within 10 deres of verical, the compaction o mes ofthe cil in the teach was snd aver ide sone need ot be considered. Foctresch walls with geste than L0degree dps tat conti of embankment, the we side shal be compacted oat east the same ‘compaction at speci for he soil inthe ack zoe. practice or tests that reflect the appropriate design con- ditions, 1644.2 Loads 1644.21 ‘The effects of sol-structure interaction shall be taken {nto account and shall be based on the design earth cover, sidefill compaction, and bedding, characteristics of the pipe-soil installations. Earth Loads and Pressure Distribution 1644211 Standard Installations For the Standard Installations given in Anicle 16.4.3.1, the earth load, Ws, may be determined by multiplying the prism load (weight ofthe column of earth) over the pipes ‘outside diameter by the soil-structure interaction factor, F,, for the specified installation type. We = FewB.H 61) ‘Standard Installations for both embankments and trenches shall be designed for positive projection, embankment Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. loading conditions where Fy = VAF given, in Figure 164A for each Type of Standard Installation. For Standard Installations the eath pressure distribu tion shall be the Heger pressure distribution show in Fig ure 16.44 for each type of Standard Installation “The unit weight of soil used to calculate earth load shall be the estimated unit weight forthe soils specified for the pipe-soil installation and shall nt be less than 110 Ibscu ft 164.4212 Nonstandard Installations ‘When nonstandard installations are used, the earth load and pressure distribution shall be determined by an ap- propriate soi-structre interaction analysis 1644.22 Pipe Fluid Weight ‘The weight offi, Ws inthe pipe shall be considered in design based on a Muid weight of 62.4 Ihs/®, unless ‘otherwise specified. For Standard Installations, the uid ‘weight shall be supported by vertical earth pressure that is assumed to have the same distribution over the lower ‘art of the pipe as given in Figure 16.4A for earth load Duplication is a violation of applicable law.412. HIGHWAY BRIDGES 16.4423 TABLE 164C_ Equivalent USCS and AASHTO Soil Classifications For SID Soil Designation Representative Soil Types Percent Compaction SIDD Soil uscs AASHTO Standard Proctor Modified Proctor Gravelly Sand SW, SP. ALAS 100 95 ew Gw, GP 95 0 90 3s 85 80 80 15 6 3 ‘Sandy Silt (ML) GM, SM, ML A2,A4 100 95 ‘Also GC, SC 95 90 with Jess than 20% 90 85 passing No. 200 sieve 85 0 80 15 9 46 Silty Clay (CL) GL, MH, Gc, sc AS.AG 100 90 95 8s 90 30 85 15 80 0 45 40 cH Ar 100 90 95 3s 90 80 4s 40 1644.23. Live Loads Live loads shall be ether the AASHTO HS-Series or the AASHTO Interstate Design truck loads. Live loads shall be distributed through the earth cover as specified in Article 6.4, except that the 2-foot minimum in the first, paragraph of Article 64 does not apply. For Standard In- stallations the live load on the pipe shall be assumed to have @ uniform vertical distribution across the top of the pipe and the same distribution across the bottom of the pipe as given in Figure 16.44 for earth load. 164.43 Minimum Fill For unpaved areas and under flexible pavements, the minimum fill over precast reinforced concrete pipe shall be 1 foot or ” of the diameter or tise, whichever ‘greater. Under rigid pavements, the distance between the top of the pipe and the bottom of the pavement slab shall, bbe a minimum of 9 inches of compacted granular fil. 16444 Design Methods ‘The structural design requirements of installed precast. reinforced concrete pipe may be determined by either the Indirect or Direct Method. 164.5 Indirect Design Method Based on Pipe Strength and Load-Carrying Capacity 1645.1 Loads ‘The design load-carrying capacity ofa reinforced con- crete pipe must equal the design load determined for the pipe as installed, or o-[2]%e%-2] sen SIL Be Ba where D__ = Ditoadof the pipe (three edge-bearing test load ‘expressed in pounds per linear foot per foot of diameter) to produce a 0.01-inch crack, For ‘Type I installations, D-load as calculated above shall be modified by multiplying by an installation factor of 1.10; temal diameter or horizontal span of the pipe ininches; bedding factor, see Article 164.5.2; ‘earth load bedding factor; Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication isa violation of applicable law.1645.1 DIVISION I~DESIGN 413 NorEs. |. VAF and HAF ae veil anhorzontl arching factors. These coefficients tpi eimensional tl vertical and orzo toads on the pip, ‘respectively, Th acti tl verial and horizontal ons are (VAF) (PL) an (HAF) > (PL, especie, where PL the pi oad, 2 Coefficients AU trough A repesent the integration of nondimensional vet and hovizontal components of oil essure unde the indicted potions ofthe component pressure diagrams (ete are unde the comsponeat pee agra). The esr are asmedt vary eet pone oli ores 5 shown, withthe nondlmenoal magne at govecnng pos epesned by bts ui ve aandb Nondaresaca foe leon and vera mensions of compencat press regans are defined by & de, van face 3.discaeulaed as (054) 4, iceaeulned a (11) (0) (+ 9) is caeaatedas(15A2)/ 0 + 9+ Cod. FIGURE 164A Heger Pressure Distribution snd Arching Factors Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.a4. HIGHWAY BRIDGES 1645.1 STANDARD EMBANKMENT INSTALLATIONS FIGURE 16.48, STANDARD TRENCH INSTALLATIONS neh = See Tole 1748 Love Side = Son Tae 48 Satie bees FIGURE 164C Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.1645.1 Wr = Wet Ws |W, = total load on the pipe as determined according to Article 16.4.4; We = earth load on the pipe as determined according to Article 16.4.4; Wp, = fluid load in the pipe as determined according toArtcle 16.4.4.2.2; Wi. = live load on the pipe as determined according to Article 16.4.4. * 1645.11 Ultimate D-toad ‘The required D-load at which the pipe develops its ul- timate strength in a three-edge-bearing test isthe design ‘Diload (at 0.01-inch crack) multiplied by a strength fac- {or that is specified in AASHTO materials specifications M 170 or M 242 (ASTM C 76 or C 655) for cireular pipe, M206 (ASTM C 506) forarch pipe and M 207 (ASTM C '507) for elliptical pipe. 164.52 Bedding Factor ‘The bedding factor, B, isthe ratio ofthe supporting strength of buried pipe to the strength of the pipe deter- mined in the three-edge-bearing test. The supporting strength of buried pipe depends on the type of Standatd Installation. See Figures 16.4B and 164C for ctcular pipe and Figures 16.4D and 16.4E for other arch and elliptical shapes. The Tables 164A and 16.4B apply to cicular, arch and elliptical shapes. 164.32.) Earth Load Bedding Factor for Circular Pipe Earth load bedding factors, By, for circular pipe are presented in Table 164. 164.522 Earth Load Bedding Factor for Arch and Elliptical Pipe ‘The bedding factor for installations of arch and ellip- tical pipe, Figures 16.4D and 16.48, is nee y-xa (16-3) Values for C, and Cy are listed in Table 16.40. Cx =a constant corresponding to the shape of the Pipe; (Cy = a parameter which isa function of the distribu- tion of the vertical load and vertical reaction; X= aparameter which is a funetion ofthe area ofthe vertical projection ofthe pipe over which lateral pressure i effective: Copyright 2002 AASHTO. Alll rights reserved. Duplication is a DIVISION I~DESIGN < 41s 4. = the ratio of the total lateral pressure tothe total vertical ill load. 1645.23 Live Load Bedding Factor “The bedding factors fo live load, W,forboth circular pipe and arch and elliptical pipe are given in Table 16.5F. If By is ess than Br, use By instead of By forth load bedding factor. Design values for Cy, Cys and x are found in Table 64D. The value of q is dcermined by the following equations: ‘Arch and Horizontal Elliptical Pipe » By) 4) 23 P(t spt) (6-4) Vertical Elliptical Pipe P B, 7 48 P(! mp) (6-5) where P= projection ratio, ratio of the vertical distance between the outside top of the pipe and the ground or bediding surface tothe outside ver- tical height ofthe pipe. 16.4.5.24 Intermediate Trench Widths For intermediate trench widths, the bedding factor may ‘be estimated by interpolation between the narrow trench, ‘and transition width bedding factors, 164.6 irect Design Method for Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular Pipe 16.6.1 Application ‘This Specification is intended for use indirect design of precast reinforced concrete circular pipe, and is based fon design of pipe wall for effects of loads and pressure distribution for installed conditions. Standard dimensions are shown in AASHTO M 170, Design wall thicknesses cother than the standard wall dimension may be used pro- vided the design complies with all applicable requite= ‘ments of Section 16. 164.62 General Design shall conform to applicable sections of these specifications, except as provided otherwise in this article.416 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 164.62 ‘The total load on the pipe shall be determined accord- ing to Article 16.4.8 and Table 322.14. ‘The pressure distribution on the pipe from applied loads and bedding reaction shall be determined from a soilstructure analysis or shall be a rational approxima tion, Acceptable pressure distibution diagrams are the Heger Pressure Distribution (see Figure 16.44) for use with the Standard Installations: the Olander/Modified Olander Radial Pressure Distribution (see Figure 16.7); or the Paris/Manual Uniform Pressure Distribution (see Figure 16.4F), {URE 16.40 Trench Beddings, Miscellancous Shapes For use with the Heger Pressure Distribution, four ‘Types of Standard Embankment Installations, soil types, and compaction requirements are depicted in Figures 16.48 and 16.4B and Tables 16.44 and 16.48, Table 16.4C relates to the Standard Insalltion desig- ‘ated soils to the AASHTO and Unified Soil Classifica- tion System categories. For other bedding conditions, see Section 27, Division Construction, Other methods for determining total load and pres- sure distribution may be used, iTbased on successful de- Copyright 2002 AASHTO. Alt rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.164.62 DIVISION I—DESIGN 417 season - 508 = ARCH PIPE FIGURE 164E Embankment Beddings, Miscellancous Shapes sign practice or tests that reflect the appropriate design condition, 16.4.6.3 Strength-Reduction Factors Strength-reduction factors for load factor design of plant made reinforced concrete pipe may be taken as 1.0 for flexure and 0.9 for shear and radial tension, For Type 1 installations, the strength-reduction factor shall be 0.9 for flexure and 0.82 for shear and radial tension. 164.64 Process and Material Factors Process and material factors, F. for radial tension and F,, for shear strength for load factor design of plant made reinforced concrete pipe are conservatively taken as 1.0 Higher values may be used if substantiated by appropriate test data approved by the Engineer 164.65 Orientation Angle ‘When quadrant mats, stirrups and/or elliptical cages are used, the pipe installation requires a specific orienta- Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.418. fi ‘TABLE 16.4D Design Values of Parameters in Bedding Factor Equation ‘Values ‘Typeof Values Projection Values Pipe Shape of Cy Bedding of Cy Ratio _ofx Horizontal Eipt- caland Arch 1337 Type? 0630 09042 07 030 Types 0.763 0S 0268 03 os Vertical Ediptical Tye2 0516 09 oe 07 069 1021 Typed 061s 05 0457 03 one tion. Designs shall be based on the possibility of rotation ‘misorientation during installation by an Orientation Angle of 10° in either direction, 16, 6 Reinforcement 164.6.6.1 Reinforcement for Flexural Strength As=(ebed-Ny ~ Yets00,0*-N, @bd=1)-2M,])/(5) (6-6) 16.4.6.6.2 Minimum Reinforcement For inside face of pipe (+n?/(f) (67 where b = 12 in For outside face of pipe An =0.60( Ps, nF he) 068 where b = 12 in. For elliptical reinforcement in circular pipe and for Pipe 33-inch diameter and smaller with a single cage of feinforcement in the middle thitd of the pipe well, rein- forcement shall nt be less than A, where! hsn?/(6) (16.9) HIGHWAY BRIDGES 16.4.6.5 ‘where b = 12in. where b= wall thickness in inches; ‘S, = intemal diameter or horizontal span of pipe in inches. In no case shall the minimum reinforcement be less ‘than 0.07 square inches per linear foot. 164.663 Maximum Flexural Reinforcement Without Stirrups 164.6.63.1 Limited by Radial Tension Inside Ay ae = (8 Yrscea (2 (t:)e Js) 6-10) vie ‘Aseu = maximum flexural reinforcement area without stirrups in n/t b= 12in, F, = 1+0,00833 (72 ~s) For 2 in. = $= 72 in, Ounless a higher value substantiated by test ata is approved by the Engineer; For72 in. 144i, 1, = radius ofthe inside reinforcement in inches. 164.6.6.3.2 Limited by Concrete Compression omn-([ssstree I ons.) (r,) a6-1 (67,0004) where fe[o8s-o os sem) 000 S61 and ag = O65 bf 164.664 Crack Width Control (Service Load Design) i 30,0000,dA,, (46-12) Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.16.4.6.6.4 DIVISION 1—DESIGN a9 TABLE 164K Bedding Factors For Circular Pipe ‘Standard Installations Pipe Diameter, in, Type! ‘Tpe2 ‘Typed ‘Typed R 44 32 25 uw m 42 3.0 24 re] 36 40 29 23 7 n 38 28 22 w 14a 36 28 22 17 Nore: 1 Forpipe dice thr than iste, emtasknest onion bedding fSctor Bybee hy ie 2 —_‘Badng itr are based on sol eng placed with th minimum compen sete in Tables 16 and 1B fr each Sundard F., = crack contol factor, see Note ¢; M,= bending moment, service load; N« = thrust (positive when compressive), service load. Crack control is assumed to be 1 inch from the

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