international Business & —_ mmm Engineering Consulting, S.A. | Arc Welding Processes | Presented By: Albert J. Moore Jr. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 1Power Supplies The welding process dictates the type of power supply used. The welding machine is classified as a constant current or constant potential (voltage) power supply. The relationship between the arc voltage and welding current, called slope, determines whether the machine is a CC or CP power supply. Manual welding processes, such as shielded metal arc and gas tungsten arc welding processes use constant current machines. Semiautomatic processes such as gas metal arc and flux core arc welding use the constant potential power supplies. ‘Some new inverter welding machines have the ability to switch between CC and CV. They are multi-process machines. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab 5 Welding Processes - 2Voltage & Amperage / — ~ | Arc voltage, as the name implies, is the actual voltage drop across | the welding arc. It is measured using a voltmeter. | The open circuit voltage is the voltage measured at the welding ' machine terminals when the welding machine is energized, but no | welding is being performed. | The shop inspector usually measures the arc voltage at the machine terminals when verifying the voltage. Consideration must be given to the voltage drop due to the length of the welding leads, condition of the connections, etc. Long cables and loose connections will cause voltage drops that must be considered. Field inspectors should measure the voltage at the electrode holder or welding gun and the work piece. The welding amperage is measured while the welding arc is “on”. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006: Welding Processes - 3Measuring Welding Parameters _/- Ne Ate Open Circuit Voge ‘Aro On - Are Voltage Fundamentals of Welding-Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 4Duty Cycle Welding machines produce heat. The transformers will overheat and be damaged if sufficient cooling is not provided. To reduce the chance of harming the transformer due to overheating, the machines are rated by their Duty Cycle. Duty cycle is the time the machine can be used at its rated amperage without over heating during any 10 minute interval. | 2 an rated T actual oe | x T rated actual Where: T is the duty cycle e@ lis amperage Problem: Given: Rated amperage = 200 amps Rated duty cycle = 100% Find the new duty cycle if the machine is to be operated at 300 amps. Fundamentals of Welding Technology ; Tab5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 5e Max. Available Arc Voltage “Piet only do we concem ourselves with the amperage requirements | to weld with a certain electrode, but consideration must aiso be given to the arc voltage requirements and the voltage drop that occurs in | the welding leads, connectors, etc. Due consideration must be given | to the maximum dynamic arc voltage that can be delivered by the | power source. The following equation can be very helpful in | determining the size of the power source required. E = 20 +0.04I (200) £ = 28 E = arc voltage (under load) |= amperage Potential voltage loses: Loose connections and long welding leads (assume 2 volt drop per 33 meters for 210 welding cable. Problem: Required voltage under load — 30v Assume 2 volt drop in the leads and 1 volt drop in connections and welding gun. The welding machine is rated at 200 amps. What is the maximum voltage this machine can deliver under the stated conditions? Can this power supply be used for this applications? Fundamentals of Welding Technology . Tab5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 6Nameplate Information ! “The nameplate on the welder provides important information about | the power supply. It tells the inspector, welder, and electrician what » the input requirements are: | Voltage — 220, 240, 460 volts i Amperage — 100, 80, 60 amps | Phase (@) - single or three phase Cycles — 60 or 50 Hz It also provides information about the output. Max. OCV — 40, 60, 80 volts DC Rate Amperage — 200, 400, 600 amps Duty Cycles — 20%, 40% 100% Welding machines intended for light intermittent duty are usually rated at 20% duty cycle. Industrial welding machines are rated at 60% or 100% Duty Cycle. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 7_Common Features i The are several features common to all welding or brazing processes. They include: I + Source of energy | = Chemical or electrical | + Means of shielding the molten weld puddle | = Slag or gas * Source of filler metal when required = Manual or mechanized feeds, rods or spooled Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tap 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 8Consumable Electrode Processes A welding process that employs a consumable electrode is one in | which the end of the electrode is melted by the arc. The molten metal | is then transferred through the arc to the molten weld puddle. The electrode is the source of filler metal. Arc welding processes that | utilize a consumable electrode include: « SMAW =» SAW =» GMAW = FCAW « EGW « ESW Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore dr. - 2006 Tab5 Welding Processes - 9Nonconsumable b> | I Some welding processes utilize a nonconsumable electrode. Thatis, | | the arc is established between the electrode and the work piece, but i the electrode is not consumed, nor is metal transferred through the arc to the weld puddle. The electrode is not considered to be a filler metal. ' Typically processes included in this category are: « Gas Tungsten Arc Welding = Plasma Arc Welding = Carbon Arc Welding = Stud Welding (entire stud is not consumed) Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 10SMAW SMAW was one of the earliest economical welding processes developed for modern industry. SMAW began to see wide use as early as WWI. The system utilizes either an AC or DC constant current power supply. The arc is established between the end of the electrode and the work piece. The end of the electrode is melted by the heat of the arc and is deposited on or in the joint. Electrode Lead Work Lead Electrode Positive - Reverse Polarity Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 11| Elements of SMAW | ~ Metal Core Fumes y ‘Ecruded Fix ~~ coating Fundamentals of Welding Technology ; Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 12Electrode The electrode is a metal core surrounded by a flux coating. | Extruded Flux Covering Wire Core The alloy of the electrode wire core is usually similar to the chemistry of the base metal e being welded. In some cases the chemistry may be adjusted to improve the characteristics of the weld. The final chemistry of the weld deposit is strongly influenced by the presence of various deoxidizers and alloys added to the flux coating. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tabs © Albert J. Moore dr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 13Specifications Electrodes are grouped into families based on the base metals to be welded. | a SFAS.1 Mild Steel Covered Electrodes | = SFAS.5 Low Alloy Stee! Covered Electrodes | = SFAS.4 Corrosion and Heat Resistant Covered Electrodes * SFAS.11 Nickel and Nickel Alloy Covered Electrodes Many base metals and their alloys can be joined using SMAW. Filler metal specifications are developed by the American Welding Society and adopted for use by the ASME. SFA specifications are the same as the AWS filler metal specifications. Fundamentals of Welding Technology ; Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 14Electrode Classification \ Filler metals are then grouped into classifications. The electrodes in | each classification has similar welding characteristics, strength, | ability to weld out of position, flux type, etc. The following system is i | used for carbon steel electrodes. i Electrode Classification . E7024 iL Flux Type and Current Position Tensile Strength Electrode ~ AL Position e ! g - Flot N Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 15Fluxes | Different covered electrodes use different flux systems. The last two ‘ digits provide information about the flux covering, welding positions, , and current requirement, i.e., alternating current or direct current. | Examples of flux systems used for carbon steel alloys: | + EXX10~ cellulose - sodium ~ DC + EXX11 — cellulose — potassium ~ AC/DC + EXX12 — rutile — potassium — AC/DC + EXX18 — low hydrogen — limestone — DC. + EXX24 — rutile — iron powder — AC/DC + EXX28 — low hydrogen ~ iron powder — limestone AC/DC. Position Designations: EXX1X ~ all positions EXX2X ~ flat groove welds and flat and horizontal filet welds EXX3X — 3 is not used EXX4X — downhill vertical progression. Use for cross country pipelines. Not sure if any company is currently producing the electrode. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 16Fluxes spb 7 Most electrode use one of three basic fluxing systems, cellulous, tutile, or limestone, however in each case the fluxes serve several | similar functions. The functions include: Shielding gases (CO, from decomposition of cellulous, rutile or limestone) Stabilize the arc (ionizing elements — sodium or potassium) Forms slag (rock and earth materials) « Deoxidizes (Al, Mn, Si) Adds alloying elements (Ni, Cr, Fe, Mo...) Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tabs © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 17Flux Elements nm Hydrogen Control E6010 Borcote Calcium Carbonate 3% SiO, Tale Bentonite FeSi Na,SiO, Moisture Coating - Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J, Moore Jr. - 2006 TiO, 13% FeMn 12% limenite 10% 3-6% 10 to 14% Hydrogen caco, CaF, Fe powder Potassium Silicate FeMn Tio, FeSi Clay Moisture Coating E7018 Controlled 20% 20% 24% 12% 10% 4% 0.3 - 0.5% 30 - 35% Tab 5 Welding Processes - 18AWS A5.5 is the specification for high strength low alloy steel covered electrodes. The system of electrode designation is similar to that used for the electrodes contained in AWS A5.1, however a suffix may be Major Elements 0.5% Molybdenum 0.5% Molybdenum |__& 0.5% Chromium _| 0.5% Molybdenum & 1.25% Chromium added to designate the alloy B3 1% Molybdenum addition contained in the flux & 2.25% Chromium coating. 1 2.5% Nickel Sete c2 3.5% Nickel 5% Nickel £8018-B2L c3 4% Nickel Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 19Common SMAW Electrodes : | Carbon Steel Corrosion and Heat Resistant Steels | E6010 £308-15,16, & 17 | E6011 E308L- 15,16, & 17 “5 | £6013 E309- 15,16, & 17 | 6022 E309L- 15,16, & 17 | E7014 E309Mo- 15,16, & 17 | £7016 E312- 15,16, & 17 : £7018 E316- 15,16, & 17 Ib 7018-41 E316L- 15,16, & 17 E7024 E316H- 15,16, & 17 E7028 E317- 15,16, & 17 £7048 ES17L- 15,16, & 17 E8018 E320/E347/E410 etc. 9 E8018-C18C28C3aW 18: DCEP, lime based £9018-B3L ~16: AC or DC, ia based, wi K -A7: AC oF DC, titania w/ silica -25 and -26, core of mild stee! Is this the proper way to store filler metals? Are they protected from the influences of the environment? Can the welder use the wrong filler metal because there is no oversight on what filler metal the welder takes? Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 20_Diffusible Hydrogen | AWS has recently added several suffixes to the low hydrogen, also known as controlled hydrogen, classification system. This only | applies to low hydrogen electrodes. E7018-H4 £7018-H8 £7018-H4R £7018-H8R The H4 and H8 indicated the diffusible ml of hydrogen per 100 g of weld deposit. The R indicates the flux covering is moisture resistance. The suffix R permits extended limits for atmospheric exposure. Low hydrogen electrodes are hygroscopic. The limestone flux will absorb moisture from the air. The low hydrogen electrodes must be stored in electrode holding ovens to prevent them from absorbing moisture. Typical storage temperatures are between 250°F and 300°F. Exposure to atmospheric conditions, ie., humidity, is limited by the AWS Structural Welding Code. £7018 —4 hours E8018 — 2 hours E9018 — 1 hour £10018 / £12018 — % hour (should be baked at 600°F for one hour before use) Electrodes must be discarded if they get wet or contaminated with grease or oil. Exposed electrodes can be rebaked at temperatures of 600°F to 800°F one time. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J, Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 21a = Numbers Both AWS D1.1 and ASME —_F4 B&PV Code, Section IX group . the electrode classifications iairinie rsauledtecceteaestehe base on their “ease of use”. The groups are assigned “F F2 numbers. The lower the EXX12, 13, 14, 13-X number, the easier itis touse. F3 7 7 EXX10, 11, 10-X, 11-X The F1 grouping contains “drag” or “Jet” rods that are fs used in the flat position. The EXX15, 16, 18, 15-X arc length is maintained by the F5 heavy flux covering. Austenitic Stainless Steel Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 22. Power Supply | Welding machines used to perform SMAW are called droopers. The characteristics of the power supply are such that the relationship | between the voltage and amperage under a static load produces a | drooping slope. Steep Slope Shallow Slope / e Are Voltage Steep Slope ~ ‘Small Variations t/a “~— Shallow Slope In Amperage Large Variations In Amperage ‘Arc Amperage Peres Tab 5 Fundamentals of Welding Technology Welding Processes - 23 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006e Capabilities Low capital investment Simple equipment requirements Good selection of electrodes No external'shielding gas or supplementary flux required Unaffected by wind or breezes Capable of all position welding Relatively easy to learn Portable Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 24Submerge Arc Welding : One of the major limitations of SMAW is the néed to change electrodes every several minutes. Therefore, optimum productivity is not achieved. SAW overcomes this difficulty by using a continuous wire as the electrode and a separate granular flux. The fat that the arc is “submerged” under a blanket of flux is the reason it is call SAW. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 25e u SAW System | | ‘Spool of Electrode a Flux Hopper — \ upply Work Piece Flux Blanket e The welding head can be moved over the stationary work piece or the work piece moved under the stationary welding head. ‘Seam welders used to make longitudinal butt joints in tanks mover the welding head along the joint. Circumferential butt joints, such as a head to shell joint, utilize a stationary welding head and roll the shell and head seam while the weld is made. In some installations the welding head is mounted on a tractor that moves the welding head along the joint as the weld id deposited. Tractors are used extensively in the fabrication of bridge girders. Fundamentals of Welding Technology 7 Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 26SAW Arc Details | "Flux Hopper Contact Ti [7 Unfused oN Flux — Sla < GaN Flux Bed -- Base Metal The granular flux can be fed by gravity or by an air delivery system. Portable SAW systems use a pressurized flux tank and a hand held gun. The gun is moved along the joint by the welder the same as would be done using a GMAW or FCAW torch. The flux is delivered to the torch by an air feed system and flows on to the weld joint through the torch nozzle. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 27_Electrode Specification / Classification The Specification for carbon steel electrode and flux is AWS A5.17. | Since SAW uses a flux that is separate from the electrode, the AWS classification system includes both a flux component and an electrode component. | AWS AS.23 is the specification for fluxes and electrodes used for low | alloy steels. The classifications system is similar to that used for low carbon steels. F7A6 - EM12K - H4 e eux —I alts Optional Diffusible Hydrogen 4mL/100g 70,000 psi Tensile Strength Silicon Killed Stee! As Welded 0.12% Carbon Content Notch Toughness of 20 ftibf @ -60°F Medium Manganese Reston ofp med Electrode Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 28_Flux Systems Submerged arc welding fluxes are classified as: = Active Fluxes * usually bonded + easy to add deoxidizers + easy to add alloys * are hygroscopic and may accumulate surface moisture + may become “dusty” + Used for single pass welds = Neutral Fluxes * usually fused + are not hygroscopic, but may have surface moisture * less sensitive to variations in voltage and current + less likely to become “dusty” + Used for multipass welds Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 29| Considerations = active flux - alloying additions | « is flux compatible and does it result in the proper chemical | balance? | | = does the flux - electrode combination provide the mechanical properties required? flux will influence the side wall wetting without undercut or overlap, ability to weld over rust, and ease of slag removal = Electrode chemistry influences deposited weld chemistry «= Flux selection influences mechanical properties, i.e., charpy impact strength Fundamentals of Welding Technology ; Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore dr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 30_SAW Advantages / Disadvantages Advantages = high deposition process = provides a wide selection of flux - electrode combinations easily welds carbon steels and corrosion resistant steels High productivity good appearance litle or no smoke = no welding hood needed Disadvantages = limited to flat only can not be used to weld refractory or reactive metals welder can not see the weld while welding variations in welding parameters can result in unacceptable welds Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 31Gas Tungsten Arc Welding i Beg eee eee GTAW was introduced in the late 1930's. It's development was driven by the need to weld aluminum alloys faster, more reliably, and | more economically. The process employs a nonconsumable tungsten electrode to | establish an arc between the welding torch and the work piece. The | welding arc is the source of heat to facilitate the melting of the edges of the joint. Filler metal may be added or it. may be omitted, depending on the joint details and the alloys being joined. The temperature of the GTAW arc is approximately 11,000°F, which is about twice as hot as the 6000°F flame produced by the oxy- acetylene torch. Electrode Lead Work Lead Electrode Negative - Straight Polarity Fundamentals of Welding Technology ; Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 32Regions ‘the Arc 000 avo tats wetrg Pa Fundamentals of Welc —_schnology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. 3 Welding Processes - 33e _GTAW Systems Optional accessories include: | high frequency oscillator i foot or hand amperage i controls | gas / water solenoids ' water cooled torches | gas preflow and post flow timers square wave generator wave balance control pulse generator timers gas lenses for torch cold and hot wire feeders Sources of information on gas tungsten arc welding incluée AWS 5.5 Recommended Practice for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding, The Welding Hand Books, and the James F. Lincoin Welding Foundation guidebook Gas Tungsten Are Welding. Many of the major welding machine manufactures such as ESAB and Miller also publish guides that can be helpful. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 34Shielding Gases The system employs an inert shielding gas to displace atmospheric | gases, i.e., oxygen and nitrogen, and envelop the molten weld puddle in a gaseous atmosphere that does not react with the hot metal. | The shielding gases used include: | = Argon - heavier than air— inexpensive + 1.3X heavier than air * 10X heavier than helium « Helium - lighter than air — expensive * 2.5 times more expensive than argon « Used with DC = mixes of the two omer ae mare AWS A5.32 Specification for Welding ‘Specification for Shielding Gases contains useful ‘Welding Shielding information about shielding gases. Gases Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 35Inert Gases —— Inert gases are those gases that will not normally react with the | Melted base metal. There are several inert gases, but only argon and | helium are used for normal welding operations due to cost considerations. Argon Helium Xenon Krypton Neon Density Approx. Cost % of Air Per ft? e 130 $0.05 13 $0.13 $4.00 $20.00 $250.00 From Lincoln Electric Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 36Flow Meter A flow meter is used to regulate ee the flow of shielding gas to the J ran * torch. \ | The pressure is very low, it is ' flow, in ft/hr or liter/min., that is controlled. The sight gage must be positioned vertically to obtain an accurate reading. The flow regulator must be purchased for the gas to be metered. Some sight gages are calibrated for more than one gas. Be sure to read the correct gage for the gas being used. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 37Flow Rates pralechotshleeths The flow rate, typically expressed in cubic feet per hour, is dependent on the shielding gas being used, the welding position, and whether a gas lens is being used. ‘Argon Helium Nozzle Size jem en #4 57 20-25 #5 7-9 25-35 #6 912 30-40 #7 12-45 35-45 #8 15-18 40-50 The diameter of the gas nozzle is expressed in 1/16 inch increments. A number 4 cup is % inch in diameter. A number 8 cup is % inch in diameter. Excessive gas flow can result in turbulent flow, which can draw air into the gaseous envelop. The oxygen and nitrogen will react with the molten weld puddle to form porosity. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab 5 Welding Processes - 38Preflow / Postflow Preflow refers to the flow of shielding gas prior to the initiation of the welding arc. As the welder depresses the amperage control a solenoid opens and allows the shielding gas to flow for a preset time before the welding arc is initiated. The purpose is to purge the torch lines of any air that may be in the gas lines. + Postflow refers to the flow of shielding gas that floods the area of the solidifying weld puddle after the arc is terminated. The flow of shielding gas must be maintained to protect the weld puddle as it cools and solidifies. The flow of preflow and postflow shielding gas is controlled by a timer that can be adjusted to accommodate varying welding conditions. i Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 39e Ac or DC \ | ‘The welding output of the power supply may be AC or DC. | AC current is used to weld aluminum and magnesium. AC provides cathodic cleaning action that spalls the heavy oxides that may be present on the surface of the base metal. When AC is used, a high | frequency oscillator is used to stabilize the welding arc. About 50% of ' the energy is wasted through the tungsten when welding with AC. DC is typically used for welding most metals other than aluminum and magnesium. Most DC welding is done using straight polarity (DCEN). About 70% of the energy goes into the work. Very little welding is done using reverse polarity (DCEP), where about 70% of the energy is wasted through the tungsten electrode. Fundamentals of Welding Technology ‘ Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 40_Wave Forms Most power supplies allow the welder to select either AC or DC. The wave forms of DC (from a storage cell) or generator, single phase AC, and rectified AC are shown below. oe A VN ZN 7 ee Current Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Welding Processes - 41e Arc Instability 4- | i rina pope KA UK A YA Arc instability occurs when the voltage drops below the voltage required to ionize the shielding gas for a given arc length. The welding arc is extinguished as the voltage drops below the ionization e voltage required by the shielding gas. The ionization voltage for each gas, argon, helium, or mixes of each) are different. The arc voltage is also dependent of the arc length. Along arc length requires more voltage to *jump” the air gap. Short arc lengths require less voltage. Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 42High Frequency Oscillator The high frequency oscillator is used to superimpose a high frequency (kilocycles to megacycles) high voltage over the welding arc. The high frequency voltage is on the order of several thousand volts. It is enough to wake the welder up if he becomes part of the circuitry. However, one of the properties of HF is the “skin effect”. That is, the | current flows on the surface, i.e., the skin of the welder, and does not penetrate to cause permanent harm. High frequency is on continuously when welding with AC. It is usually used with DC to initiate the are, but then once the arc is established it switches off automatically. Fundamentals of Welding Technology ; Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore dr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 43Square Wave GTAW | The square wave generator power supply switches the polarity | instantaneously thereby reducing the time when the voltage is below | that required to ionize the shielding gas. This minimizes the tendency | to extinguish the arc when the AC switches from one polarity to the other. ‘Arc Instability (arc Extinguished) Fundamentals of Welding Technology ; Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Welding Processes - 44| Materials such as aluminum form | thick tenacious oxide layers that / are natural rectifiers. The oxide will cause an unbalance of the | AC wave form and will cause the transformer to overheat and the | arc to become unstable. Electronic controls, fixed or variable, are added to the circuitry to overcome the effects of self-rectification. The welder can use this feature to increase the cathodic cleaning action of the arc. The same controls can be used to increase the “heat” of the welding arc. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 I Unbalanced Wave (Ajo vedligicocto» ) Tab 5 Welding Processes - 45Drooping Voltage/Ampere 4——_——— | The GTAW power supply is classified as a constant current power | supply. As such the static volt ampere relationship is said to be | “drooping” or is sometimes referred to as a “Drooper’. Tong Are Length Normal Are Length ‘Short Arc Length Are Voltage A shallow slope gives the welder more control over the amperage by simply increasing or decreasing the arc length. As the arc length increase, the voltage increases and the amperage decreases. Decrease the arc length, the voltage drops and the amperage increases. Tab5 Fundamentals of Welding Technology Welding Processes - 46 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006Torch | The torch holds the tungsten electrode and directs the shielding gas around the electrode and to toward the weld joint. Asmall, light duty torch may be cooled by the flow of shielding gas. | Aheavy duty torch will require additional cooling capacity. An | integral water jacket around the collet assembly is required to carry | away the waste heat. The collet is used to secure the tungsten in place. A knob on the back of the torch head is loosed to insert or reposition the tungsten. Ceramic Gas Cup Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 47Cooling Water | The cooling passages around the head of the torch are small. They | can become blocked if the water is not clean or if there are elements | in the water that can precipitate out. | 5 | It is best to use recirculated water, that is, use a water cooler with | clean, filtered water instead of city water that flows continuously. Another problem that can be ‘encountered with a continuous flow of water is that of condensation in the gas cup and head of the torch on warm humid days. Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 48Tungsten —-g3 ' Tungsten is used as a nonconsumable electrode for a couple of reasons. They include: = high melting point - 6000°F; = good electron emitter (high thermionic emissivity) Pure tungsten is use to weld aluminum with AC. Zirconia can be added to improve the longevity of the electrode and to improve the thermionic emissivity of the tungsten. Other metallic oxides are added to pure tungsten when DC is to be used veces e —E: EE: Specification for Tungsten and Tungsten-Alloy Electrodes for Are Welding and Cutting Fundamentals of Welding Technology - Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 49Tungsten Electrodes ‘identification Characteristic | EWP (green) Pure tungsten, balled end when using AC | EWZr-1 (brown) Zirconium oxide (.25%), balled or hemispherical end when | using AC. EWTh-1 (yellow) Thorium oxide (1%), tapered end when using DC. EWTh-2 (red) Thorium oxide (2%), tapered end when using DC EWCe-2 (orange) Cerium oxide (2%), tapered end when using DC. EWLa-1 (black) Lanthanum oxide (1%),tapered end when using DC What type of tungsten is depicted in the photograph below? Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 50End Preparation Tapered wi Small Flat used w/ DCEN pS 30" toot —/ ___ 5+ Ad Hemispherical or Balled used with AC The small flat on the end of the tapered tungsten tends to concentrate the are in the weld puddle. A sharp point tends to allow the arc to form a larger cone and reduces the penetration obtained for a given amperage. The balled end preparation is used for pure tungsten and zerconiated tungsten when welding aluminum using AC. The tungsten will ball even if it starts with a tapered end when welding with AC. Thoriated tungsten does not form a balled end when welding with AC. Instead, the end of the thoriated tungsten will have a series of littie bumps on the end, not very conducive to making good quality welds. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 51Filler Metals i The filler metals used are of the same specification and classification as | | those used for GMAW. The filler metal is added to the leading edge of | the weld puddle manually or mechanically. Plain Carbon Steel A518 Copper AST Stainless Steel ASD ‘Aluminum 5.10 Tungsten Electrodes A512 Nickel A514 Specitication for Bare Stainless Stee! Welding Electrodes and @ Rods Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 52F. M. Classification | Each filler metal specification contains a number of electrode classifications. Different classifications are needed to provide matching filler metal — base metal mechanical and chemistries. ERZOS-2 Electrode Chemistry Deoxiizers Recommended Shielding Gas Rod Sold Wire TO ksi Tensile Strength The rods are either flag tagged or impression stamped with the appropriate classification or paint stripped for identification. The aerospace industry uses filler metals that meet AMS specifications. e welding rod with a flag tag identifying it as a nickel based alloy. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 ‘Welding Processes - 53e@ Pulsed | GTAW using pulsing power is as if the welder momentarily increased and then quickly decreased the welding amperage. The increased amperage increases the penetration and heat input momentarily. This is followed by a decrease in amperage, less penetration, and | less heat input. The weld puddle is allowed to cool during the low , power portion of the cycle. The pulser increases and decreases the amperage automatically once it is set. Frequency (pulses per second) . dali I : ' Pulse 7 Amperage & Duration Slop, Background if 7 (pulse wiath) ‘Amperage Time > | Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tabs © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 54Pulse Variables Geer | The welder must be aware of how each variable associated with a i pulsed GTAW power supply influences the welding operation. | « Pulse Frequency — number of times the amperage is | increased per second. | + Pulse Amperage — maximum amperage of each pulse. 1 * Pulse Width — the duration of each pulse. + Background Amperage — usually expressed as a percentage of the peak pulse amperage. + Up Slope — gradual increase in starting amperage. + Down Slope / Crater Fill — gradual decay of amperage when the welder terminates the weld. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 55Variable Polarity | Variable polarity was developed to weld aluminum alloys. The electrode negative (straight polarity) portion of the AC cycle provides | maximum heat input, greatest penetration. The electrode positive | (reverse polarity) portion of the AC cycle provides cathodic cleaning. | The variable polarity power supply allows the welder to optimize the | welding conditions to provide the best balance between cleaning and ' penetration. Amperage Time———»— Increased penetration, reduced cathodic cleaning. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab 5 Welding Processes - 56Gas Metal Arc Welding | GMAW enjoys the high productivity associated with a continuous | electrode with the added advantages of an external shielding gas. | GMAW was developed in the late 40's for welding aluminum. By the 60's it was in wide use by industries that were welding both _ aluminum and carbon steel. Originally the shielding gas was an inert gas, hence the name — Metal Inert Gas Welding or simply: MIG. It was discovered that certain gas mixes that react with the molten weld metal, i.e., carbon steel, improves the welding characteristics. The term MIG was no longer appropriate and the name of the process was changed to Gas Metal Arc Welding. AWS C5.6 Recommended Practice for Gas metal Arc Welding is a good source of information about GMAW. Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 57@ GMAW System Power Supply Wire Feeder $ Shielding Gas Work Lead e Tabs Fundamentals of Welding Technology ; © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 58Control Panel | The control panel on the power supply typically has a volt meter and an ammeter. Some machines have a control called “pinch effect”, and others will have variable slope and inductance. GMAW typically employs a constant potential, which is the same as a constant voltage, power supply. More elaborate systems employ an inverter with pulsing capabilities. Pulsers can utilize either constant tr current or constant potential power supplies. Pulser systems need additional controls such as frequency, duration, peak amperage, background amperage, voltage, slope, prepurge (preflow), post flow, etc. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 59_Wire Feeder | The wire feeder holds the spool of electrode. The feeder has a constant speed electrode motor that pull the electrode off the spool | and pushes it through the conduit to the gun. | The wire feeder has a contro! to vary the speed of the drive rolls that | feed the electrode through the conduit. Some wire feeders have a remove voltage control so the welder does not have to go back to the power supply to adjust the arc voltage. Fundamentals of Welding Technology F Tab § © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 ‘Welding Processes - 60Electrodes P | | | | A5.18 AS.9 A5.10 AS.14 AS.7 AS.16 Frequently used electrode specifications include: Carbon Steel Aust. Stain. Stl. Aluminum Nickel Copper Titanium ‘Specification for ‘Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes and Rods for Gas Shielded Are Welding Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tabs Welding Processes - 61Electrode Classification | Many of the same filler metals used for GTAW are used for GMAW. The difference is that the filler metal, now considered an electrode, is | supplied in spool form. Information such as the specification, | classification, diameter, etc. are on the spool. 1 Solid, cored, and composite electrodes for carbon steel are included in AWS AS.18. A legend of the classification system for carbon steel filler metal used by AWS A5.18 is shown below. ER70S-2 Electrode — Chemical Composition Rod Tensile Strength Electrode Tensile Strength Cored Wire (composite) Solid Wire E70C-3 M H4 Ll ‘Optional - Defusable Hydrogen Shielding Gas (S¢-AC-25) ‘Chemistry of Weld Deposit == if Present °N" indicates the electrode is formulated for special welds in the core belt region of nuclear reactors. | t t u, ‘Typical label on a carton containing spooled GMAW filler metal. If the filler metal meets the requirements of AWS and ASME filler metal standards, it must list the filler metal specification, classification, diameter, weight, and heat/lot number. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tabs © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 62Electrode Selection Electrode selection should be based on several considerations: = base metal being welded «= thickness and joint details | + single pass | + multipass = surface conditions + mill scale * rust + paint = service conditions * Notch toughness * abrasion «= shielding gas * CO, /Ar0./ArHe/ other mixes Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 63_Shielding Gases Shielding gases influence the final weld chemistry, mode of metal transfer, and mechanical properties. | Common shielding gases include inert, reactive, and mixed gases. | = CO, Ar = ArO, = He = ArHe and HeAr = CO,ArO, = ArCO,0, = ArCO, e Base Metal Gas Spray Mode Advantages Aluminum SGA SG-HeA-35, Up to 1 inch thick, stable arc, little spatter. ‘Over 1 inch, higher heat input, improved fusion Carbon Steel SG-AO-3 to 5 SG-AC- 5 to 10 Improved arc stability, fluid puddle, good bead shape. Less oxidation, improved penetration, improved wetting. Example of recommendations for proper shielding gas selection from AWS C5.6. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab 5 Welding Processes - 64AWS A5.32 Specification for Welding | @ Shielding Gases § | A relatively new AWS specification is available for shielding gases. | The specification includes requirements for purity, classification, | certification, dew point, i.e., moisture content, packaging, identification, | intended use, etc. | SG-B Single Gas SG-BX-% 2.Component Mix SG -B XY-%/% 3 Component Mic SG -BXYZ-%/%/% — aconponenttx go o8 38h 3 3G falyd eee Specification for Welding Shielding Gases Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 65e Purity of Shielding Gases | The term “welding grade” has long been used to specify the purity of the shielding gas. What is ‘welding grade"? One has to ask the question, | ‘what is the purity of welding grade gas? i | AWS AS.32 sets the standard that has to be met by the gas supplier. The standard also lists the various gas mixes and their suggested use. Minima — Maximum Aws Product Pity, Moisture_§ | cw coin "RAC" Mom eek aia as toca | ae igo sell oe ST gees eo on ces co eG igi ae Gaal ta Gea oe iw salam Ge = r a mt “Sti 680m ae tal none) st—ye 083 ien oe 5 5 = ae ee = tof eo Ot oe = 5 Nail GD tigi 93 Napeie e200 one Noes Notre cea an pam fal ps, oi yn ae ing neon Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Welding Processes - 68Shielding Gas Designations | The following table are examples of typical shielding gas designations. AWS Classification Typical Mix Gas ' SG-AC-25 75125 ‘Argon & CO? $G-AO-2 98/2 Argon & Oxygen SG-AHe-10 ‘Argon & Helium ‘SG-AH-5 ‘Argon & Hydrogen SG-HeA-25 Helium & Argon SG-HeAC-7.5/2.5 Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Helium, Argon & CO, Tab 5 Welding Processes - 67lonization Potential §-———- | Each gas has a certain ionization potential. As such, the selection of | Shielding gas will affect the total heat input and shape of the weld | deposit. oo? Argon Argon Helium Carbon Dioxide @ & Helium Q = _NxAx60 tS Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tabs © Albert J, Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 68Transfer Mode | The selection of shielding gas may determine the transfer mode. = Short circuiting - CO, > 70%, Ar < 70% + shallow penetration, all position «= Globular - CO, - 100% | + deep penetration, high travel speed, flat and horizontal (fillets) = Spray - Ar > 70%* + deep penetration, high travel speed, flat and horizontal (fillets) = Pulse - Ar > 70%* + deep penetration, high travel speed, all position *Recommend no less than 80% to insure a stable arc. 80% Ar required by some codes. Transfer Mode} Voltage] Amperage} Travel Speed Heat Input Short Circuiting| co, Low Globular co, High Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 69Pinch Effect _ | The pinch effect plays an important role during short circuiting transfer. As the electrode shorts against the workpiece, the arc voltage approaches zero volts, the amperage is limited only by the internal resistance of the welding machine and the welding leads. As the amperage goes up, the magnetic field around the electrode intensifies and causes the end of the electrode to drop away from the rest of the electrode. An arc is established and the voltage increases, the amperage decreases, meltoff rate decreases to the point where the electrode shorts out against the work piece again. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 € 2 5 3 Tab 5 Welding Processes - 70Voltage vs. Amperage i | Constant potential power supplies tend to self regulate, or correct the arc length while welding is underway. ‘Arc Voltage Amperage ‘Short arc length, low voltage, high current, high melt- off rate. Long arc length, high voltage, Low current, low melt-off rate Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 71Melt-off Rate | Melt-off is directly proportional to the amperage. All change in the | system that effects a change in resistance will change the amperage i and the melt-off rate. | A change in electrode extension will change the resistance, hence the | amperage. Therefore a change in electrode extension will change the melt-off rate. da Wore Be bao~ A popevet oad A dmnprrasé Resistance " Electrode Extension Increased extension = higher resistance Lower amperage = lower mett-off rate Decreased extension = lower resistance Higher amperage = higher melt-off rate Tab 5 Fundamentals of Welding Technology tee a lelding Processes - © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006Wire Feed Speed / Amperage 4 | The graph depicts the wire feed speed for various diameters of carbon steel | electrode. The values are based on 98% Ar and 2% O,. The graph represents one of several graphs included in AWS C5.6 Recommended Practice for Gas Metal Arc Welding. The information contained in the recommended practice can be used to set up a new GMAW procedure or to check a WPS that been submitted for review. WFS / Amps for Carbon Steel Electrode 0.030 inch 0.035 inch Short 0.045 inch Circuiting Wire Feed Speed (ipm) 0.062 inch Welding Current (amps - DCEP) Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J, Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 73GMAW Gun (Torch) The GMAW torch directs the electrode and shielding gas toward the weld joint. It is where the electrode is energized as it passes through the contact | tip inside the torch’s gas nozzle. The contact tip is made of a copper alloy and should be considered to be a consumable that must be replaced once it is worn. Burn back occurs when the melt-off rate is greater than the wire feed speed. The arc burns back to the copper contact tip and melts the end of the contact tip. § ‘ The filler metal should slide through the contact tip easily, but without being loose. Contact tips should be changed when they are worn or when the electrode hangs up and no longer slides freely. Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 74Nomenclature ot i Contact Tube Setback a __ Stickout~ Electrode — 1 — Extension Standoff T ~~ Distance Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tabs © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 75| GMAW produces a small quantity of smoke or fumes for | the weld deposited when compared to processes such as SMAW. The arc is very bright and ' produces intense white light, ultraviolet and infrared radiation. The welder is exposed to increased amount of non-ionizing radiation due to the absence of smoke and fumes. Tab5 Fundamentals of Welding Technology Welding Processes - 76 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006GMAW welding does not use flux to produce a shielding gas or to form : a Slag blanket over the weld. The elements silicon, manganese, zirconium, etc., are added to the electrode to act as a deoxidizer. Islands of silicon oxide form and float | to the surface of the weld when the silicon combines with the free oxygen. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Welding Processes - 77e@ Flux Cored Arc Welding Flux cored arc welding is similar to GMAW, but it uses a tubular electrode. The equipment used for FCAW is the same as that used | for GMAW. Power Supply Work Lead. Electrode Positive - Reverse Polarity Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 78Electrodes The flux cored electrodes are tubular, i.e., hollow. The fluxing components are placed inside the tubular electrode. The flux provides deoxidizers and gas shielding. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 79Electrode Specification | FCAW electrode specifications include filler metals for the carbon steel, stainless steel, and other base metals (not included are refractory or | reactive base metals). i A5.20 Carbon Steel Electrodes | A5.29 Low Alloy Steel Electrodes ' 5.22 Stainless Steel Electrodes AS.34 Nickel Based Electrodes SFA specifications are those AWS filler metal specifications that have been adopted by ASME Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 80Electrode Designation + : | The FCAW electrode classification designation is as follows: | E7OT-4 Electrode =| L Chemistry Deoxidizers Recommended Shielding Gas 70ksi Tensile Strength oe Tubular Wire Position Characteristics e CO; s primary gas, additional argon will improve operating characteristics with increased Mn and Si in weld deposit. Similar to EXXT-1 with increased Mn and Si Self shielded, single pass, thin base metal (<3/16) Self shielded, globular, flat and horizontal, multipass SG-A ot SG-CA-X, improved notch toughness, globutar Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tabs © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 81Transfer Mode She | Unlike GMAW, the transfer mode of FCAW is primarily a function of | the flux. The shielding gas, if used, plays a secondary roll in * determining the transfer mode. Amperage and voltage play a lesser | roll in determining the mode of transfer. | CO, is the primary shielding gas used with FCAW. CO, typically | promotes globular transfer with rutile type fluxes. The introduction of argon in mixed gases will promote spray transfer and will reduce spatter. Spatter can be a problem when high amperages are used. Lower amperages, pulsing, and the introduction of argon will reduce the amount of spatter produced. Increased inductance may also reduce spatter by reducing the rate of pinch effect. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 82Parameters \ Both GMAW and FCAW require close'control over the welding parameters. The parameters to list on the WPS include the following: + Arc Voltage | * Wire Feed Speed i + Electrode Extension (electrical stick-out or contact to work distance) Wire feed speed determines the amperage provided the other variables are held constant. Pulsing parameters must be addressed if a pulsing power supply is used for either GMAW or FCAW processes. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 83e _FCAW Pros / Cons | Advantages: i « No external gas shielding necessary i = improved deoxidation « higher deposition rates i = small diameter electrodes are able to weld out of position «= wide selection of electrode diameters (0.030 through 5/32) can be automated Disadvantages: = can generate large amounts of smoke and particulate = may require external shielding gas. «= sensitive to variations in wire feed speeds and arc voltage Tab 5 Fundamentals of Welding Technology Welding Processes - 84 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006_ Fumes e Both self-shielded and gas shielded flux cored electrodes produce great quantities of smoke and fumes. Self-shielded electrodes, i.e., no external shielding gas required, produce the greatest quantities of fumes. Still, the quantity of fumes produced is still less then those produced by SMAW when based on the deposition rate. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 85 ee Stud Welding Stud welding is a system used to weld attachments such as a threaded fastener, hook, nail pins for securing insulation to pressure vessels, or head shear connectors to beams and plate. | The system uses a power supply with a timer mechanism connected to a “stud gun” which hold the stud. The stud is positioned against the surface to which it is being welded. The operator pulls a trigger on the gun which activates the welding cycle. An arc is initiated between the end of the stud and the “plate”. After a short period of time both the end of the stud and the base metal is melted. The timer terminates the flow of current and the stud is thrust into the molten pool of metal and held until it freezes. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 86Components - Stud Welding | There are several variations of the stud welding system. Primarily i the variations have to do with the power supply. Small systems use i a capacitor storage system to “store” the power until it’s needed, | larger units used in the field employ very large diesel driven | generators. Regardless of the power supply, the remaining components are necessary. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 87Stud Types There are numerous stud types used by industry. Some are threaded fasteners, hooks, nail, eye, headed shear connectors, etc. There is one application where the stud is made of an abrasion resistant steel and is used as a means of applying a wear surface to large excavation buckets and dragline buckets. In general, they all work the same. An arc is established between the end of the stud and the workpiece. Both the end of the stud and the area immediately beneath the stud is melted. The stud is then thrust into the molten pool and held momentarily until the molten poo! is solidified. A ceramic ferrule is placed around the base of the stud to preventing the molten metal from being expelled when the stud is thrust into the molten pool. Fundamentals of Welding Technology f Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 88Brazing & Soldering | Brazing and soldering are joining processes in which the base metal is heated to a temperature below its melting point and the filler metal | is heated above its melting point. The molten filler metal is “pulled” into the joint by capillary action. Brazing is performed at temperatures above 840°F (450°C), but below the melting temperature of the base metals. Soldering is performed at temperatures below 840°F. Both processes typically use “lap” type joints. The scarf joint can be used, but to a limited extent. Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Welding Processes - 89Lap Joint (Socket Joint) eee eee : | The socket joint, Xx used to join two ee | lengths of tubing, is ~ ‘really a lap joint. | The length of the y lap increases the | Wetted surface area to produce a joint that is as strong as the tubular structure. Clearance Voids within the joint are normal, but must be controlled. 20% is usually the max. allowed. Fundamentals of Welding Technology H Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 90Capillary Action Capillary action draws the molten filler metal into the joint. In order for soldering or brazing to be successful the joint must be able to wet the surfaces to be joined. They must be clean and free of oxides, oils, etc, the clearance between the faying surfaces must be controlled and on the order of 0.001 to 0.005 inches. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 91Cleaning Proper and through cleaning A is essential to the success of ing process. This is especially true when soldering or brazing. Alll surface dirt, grease, oils, oxides, etc. must be removed before applying the flux to the joint. Flux will prevent surface oxidation during heating, but will not remove oxides or dirt. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 92Flux | The purpose of applying a flux to the joint is to prevent the oxidation of the base metals as they are heated to the brazing temperature. It | can not be over emphasized that flux does not clean the joint. Different base metal/filler metals combinations require different | fluxes. A key factor is the melting temperature of the flux. The melting | temperature must be lower then that of the filler metal, but not too low ' that it burns. Examples of Different Fluxes AWS Classifications Classification Filler Metal Temperature Range (°F) e FB3-A Paste BAg & BCuP 1050-1600 FB3-C Paste BAg & BCuP 1050-1700 FB3-F Powder BAg & BCuP 1200-1600 FB3-K Liquid Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 BAg & RBCuZn 1400-2000 Tab § Welding Processes - 93_ Heating Both brazing and soldering require the application of heat to the parts being joined, The proper amount of heat is | determined by the size of the parts and the melting temperature of the filler metal. Flux, when required, must match the melting temperature of the filler metal being used. Fundamentals of Welding Technology f Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 94Sources of Heat | There are several sources of heating available for heating the base . metal, flux, and filler metal to the proper brazing temperature, The | source of heating is part of the brazing nomenclature. i + TB —torch brazing : + FB — furnace brazing + IB —induction brazing + RB — resistance brazing + DB —dip brazing + IRB — infrared brazing Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tabs © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Welding Processes - 95_ Application of Heat The parts being joined must be heated above the melting point temperature of the filler metal. The filler | metal is melted by the heat of the joint, i.e., the flame is not played on the filler metal, and is drawn into the joint by capillary action. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 96_ Face Feed In the case of manual brazing and soldering, the face feed method is typically used. The filler metal is rubbed against the heated joint and is melted by the heat of the joint, not the torch flame. Capillary action will draw the molten filler metal into the joint regardless of the position of the joint. The brazing operation should be completed as rapidly as practical to minimize the formation of “skull”. The high and low melting point constituents of the filler metal can separate if they are held at temperature for a long period of time. Tab 5 Fundamentals of Welding Technology Welding Processes - 97 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006@ Filler Metal | The selection of filler metal can be very involved. The filler metal , Must be compatible with the base metal, i.e., it must not form _ intermetallic compounds and it must be compatible with the environmental conditions, i.e., temperature, corrosion, toxicity, etc. | The filler metal can be a rod that is face fed into the joint, it can be a ! foil that is preplaced in the joint, it can be a ring that is preplaced on or in the joint, or it can be a paste applied to the joint. Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 98Thermal Cutting p | AWS recognizes a number of thermal cutting processes. The more common cutting processes include: + Oxy-fuel cutting * Air carbon arc cutting i « Plasma arc cutting + Laser cutting Less common cutting processes include: * Shielded metal arc cutting + Oxygen arc cutting + Gas metal arc cutting Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J, Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 99@ _Oxy-Fuel Cutting * Oxy-fuel cutting uses a cutting ' torch to sever metals, primarily carbon steels and HSLA steels. The fuel gas may be acetylene, MAPP, natural gas, propane, even | gasoline. The metal is heated to its kindling temperature (cherry ted), then a jet of pure oxygen is. directed toward the metal to facilitate the cut. The cutting action is the result of an exothermic reaction between the carbon steel and the oxygen. Useful information can be found in AWS C4.2 Operator's Manual for Oxyfuel Gas Cutting. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Operator’s Manual tor Oxytuel Gas Cutting Tab 5 Welding Processes - 100Air Carbon Arc Cutting | CAC-A, often referred to as carbon arc gouging, is very versatile. It can be used to cut both ferrous and nonferrous metals. It most frequent use is for the removal of weld deposit and preparing grooves and backgouging. The CAC-A process uses a consumable carbon electrode as a source of heat to melt the metal to be removed. A jet of compressed air is then used to blast the molten metal from the end of the carbon electrode. AWS C5.3 Recommended Practice for Air Carbon Are Gouging and Cutting can be helpful if you don't have experience with CAC-A. ey Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Welding Processes - 101Equipment | | The basic CAC-A torch has | an adapter to connect to the | welding lead and a connector | to hook in to a compressed j air line. i | The torch polarity is dependent on the materials being cut. « Steel-DCEP Amperage is dependent on electrode . Cast lron— DCEN diameter. . Nickel - eon b 5/32 @ 90 — 150 amps 'e air pressure should be UD 200 — 400 amps between 80 — 100 psi. 318 @ 350 — 600 amps Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 102CAC-A in Action “The CAC-A torch will remove metal at a rapid rate. The removal rate is dependent on the electrode diameter, amperage used, and the volume of compressed air available. Keep in mind that the molten metal can be thrown a considerable distance and present a fire hazard. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 103,Round, copper flashed, carbon Fiat, copper flashed, carbon electrode. Most popular for general _ electrode. Used for removing large purpose gouging. amounts of metal. Useful for preparing U-grooves and back gouges. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 104i Abbreviations Shielded Metal Arc Welding “[smaw SAW Submerged Arc Welding GTAW Gas Tungsten Arc Welding FCAW Flux Cored Are Welding GMAW-P Gas Metal Arc Welding - Pulsed GMAW-S: Gas Metal Arc Welding - Short Circuiting ESw Electrosiag Welding EBW Electron Beam Welding LBW Laser Beam Welding PAW Plasma Arc Welding OAC CAC-A Oxy-Acetylene Cutting Air Carbon Are Cut Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab 5 Welding Processes - 105° IBEC Intemational Business & mmm mmm Engineering Consulting, S.A. Common Construction Codes | Presented By: Albert J. Moore Jr. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 20068 Codes - 4Common Codes “ There are two organizations that are responsible for the majority of the welding codes that are predominant in today’s construction industry. » AWS - welded structures * Buildings * Bridges + Machinery = ASME - fabricated vessels and piping * Boilers * Pressure Vessels * Associated Piping « API — oil storage tanks, pipeline, in-service inspection and maintenance Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 2; Code Philosophy There are major differences in the philosophy between _ the AWS and ASME. = AWS - “how to” philosophy + includes basic instructions or rules to follow that will produce predictable results. + includes very few mathematical calculations. « ASME - “end product” philosophy + includes numerous calculations to determine the safe working stresses. + no instructions on “how to” fabricate, i.e., “don't care how you get there as long as you get there’. = API-—follows the “how to” philosophy Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Codes - 3The AWS welding codes follow a philosophy of providing the design engineer, fabricator, inspector, and erector with the ' information and the “how to” instructions necessary to provide a welded structure that will perform in a predicable manner. “Recommended Practices” are “best industry practices” and are a useful tool when setting up new processes. All AWS publications, codes, standards, recommended practices, etc., are developed by committees that consist of unpaid volunteers. These volunteers travel to attend committee meetings aaaattezere dging, and meals. The committees ,ership to have equal representation fmm; -anufacturers, testing laboratories, ee Recommended Practices for Gas Shielded Arc Welding of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy a - Pipe Recommended Practices for ‘Welding Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Stainless Stee! Piping and Tubing Reet) Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 4Prequalification Several AWS welding codes utilize the concept of prequalified base metals, welding processes, joint details, etc. which is based on the premise that industry has had a long successful history of using those materials, processes, etc. There is no need to reinvent the “wheel” when certain conditions are met. {801.101 snh2002 ‘An American Natal Sana REESE Structural Welding Code Steel ("tion ay, — Rey @&® Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 5Conditions of Prequalification “The concept of prequalification is valid only if the fabricator (manufacturer, erector, installer, etc.) incorporates all the “good” | practices included in the applicable AWS welding code. = Those concepts include: 7 + use of low carbon, high strength low alloy, and stainless steels for which there is a history of successful use. + use of approved welding processes, such as: SMAW, FCAW, SMAW, GMAW + use of matching filler metals and when necessary, sufficient preheat to prevent cracking Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 6Conditions of Prequal. cont. + use of prequalified weld joint details, For example, AWS D1.1 | Structural Welding Code/Steel includes approximately 120 joint designs. use of prequalified welding techniques, ie, use of backing, extension tabs, backgouge, etc. ‘+ meeting certain workmanship standards. + Perform a specified minimum level of inspection (examination) to provide assurance the requirements of the applicable code are met. + writing and following written welding procedure specifications that provides the welder with sufficient information to meet. the requirements of the applicable welding code. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes -7AWS Welding Codes The AWS has a number of welding codes that include the minimum _ requirements that must be met when fabricating welded structures. | These codes only address welding requirements. Few design calculations, if any, are addressed. = AWS D1.1 Structural Welding Code/Steel (prequalified WPS) = AWS D1.2 Structural Welding Code/Aluminum « AWS D1.3 Structural Welding Code/Sheet Steel = AWS D1.4 Structural Welding Code/Reinforcing Steel = AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code (limited prequalified WPS) = AWS D1.6 Structural Welding Code/Stainless Steel (prequalified WPS) = AWS D9.1 Sheet Metal Welding Code Not all AWS Codes include prequalified procedures @ cundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 8ASME The ASME is very careful not to tell the manufacturer “how to” or “what to” build. Their position is the! result of a lawsuit initiated against the ASME when the “Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code” was. first published. A disgruntled manufacturer initiated an Antitrust Action based on his objection to the ASME “telling” him how to build a boiler. The suit was based on the premise that the ASME Committee was setting itself up to monopolize the boiler industry. All ASME codes are developed by committees comprised of ™ prs, manufacturers, academics, Jake holders. Teena case Pe vant me 4 Halil aU ett a AN AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 9Using ASME Products fabricated in accordance with the requirements of the ASME Codes are complex in their nature and design. They include design issues, materials selection, manufacturing issues. These complexities have resulted in code requirements that can not be condensed into a single unified code. When the vessel is not covered by a federal, state, or local statue, the owner, engineer, or manufacturer is forced to investigate the requirements of several code sections and select the one code section that is most suitable for their application. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 10Code Sections ASME Code Sections include : «= 1-Power Boilers = Il- Materials + Part A - Ferrous Materials + Part B - Nonferrous Materials + Part C - Welding Consumables + Part D - Properties Ml - Nuclear IV- Heating Boilers V - Nondestructive Testing VI - Care of Heating Boilers Vil - Care of Power Boilers VIII - Unfired Pressure Vessels IX - Welding and Brazing Qualification B31.1 - Power Piping B31.3 - Process Piping Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 11ASME Code Sections No ASME Code Section is a stand-alone document. Several code sections have to be reviewed to determine all the code requirements. For instance, assuming you are working on power boilers, you would have to reference the following: = Section! = Section Il, parts A, B, C, and D * Section V Section IX B31.1 for extemal piping connections of various boiler components. Section VIII if an unfired pressure vessel is involved, Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Codes - 12Referenced Standards " In addition to the code sections already listed, there are numerous standards that are incorporated into the ASME Code Sections by reference. These include documents published by other organizations such as: = ASNT - Qualification of NDT personnel (SNT-TC-1A and CP-189) « ASTM - various testing methods and material specifications = AWS - Standard Terms and Definitions = not included - SAE - Bolting - materials, etc. = ASME/ASTM Bolting materials and requirements are invoked. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 e © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 13When is the Code Required? The ASME codes, like all codes developed in the United States, are voluntary. That is, they are adopted by cites, states, or by the federal government only if those governing bodies feel the code is appropriate for their use. Once the code is adopted by a governing body, it is incorporated into the applicable statute such as a building code. Only then does _ the code enjoy legal status. In other instances, the buyer may determine that a product that is code compliant provides them with a certain level of comfort or confidence. The buyer then stipulates, in the purchasing requirements, the appropriate code section that must be met when constructing the vessel or system. Code compliance is then a contractual obligation. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 14Addenda Addenda, or revisions, to the code are now issued once a year instead of every six months. The revision, or addenda, are in the form of complete pages that include the newly revised paragraph(s). The old page is removed and the addenda page inserted in its place. The revised pages are color coded to aid the reader and to alert them to the fact that the page includes a change or addenda. A few code committees have elected to issue a completely revised code annually instead of issuing individual replacement pages. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 15New Addenda i New addenda may be used as of the date on the addenda. However, for new construction, their use is mandatory six months after the addenda Is issued. A vessel that is already under contract is constructed to the addenda in force at the time the contract was signed. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 16Old Pages Some companies leave the old pages in the manual, i.e., simply insert the pages of the new addenda behind or in front of the original pages. Some companies place the old pages in the back of the code. This way they are readily available, but don't confuse the reader. NEVER THROW THE ORIGINAL PAGES OUT. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 e © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Codes - 17Deciphering the Code The ASME B&PV code is unlike many reference books used by engineers. It is not a “how to” book. Instead it is a description of what conditions must be met by the design engineer. The code assumes the user is knowledgeable in the matters of “how to “ design and fabricate the vessel or system in question. Many paragraphs contained in various code sections are only applicable if referenced by another section of the code. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Codes - 18E Paragraph Numbering "The code is divided into paragraphs for easy reference. Easy to use, if you understand the system. QWw-120 QW-120.1.. QW-120.2 QW-121.1 QW-121.1.1 QW-121.1.2 QW-121.2 ..... Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Codes - 19Subordinate Paragraphs ’ The mistake made by novice users is QW-120 how to “read” the paragraphs. From the QW-120.4 .... preceding page, if the referencing avis paragraph leads the reader to QW-120, Poa all of QW-120, including the subordinate (a). paragraphs are relevant. (B) os However, if the referencing paragraph lists only paragraph QW-121.1 ...... , only that paragraph, because there are no Qwi24.4 subordinate paragraphs, is read. Everything included in the referenced paragraph(s) must be addressed. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 20Cut & Paste The ASME code(s) bounce the user from one code section to another. | call it “follow the bouncing ball”. This causes many first time users to become frustrated. It is not uncommon to hear “By the time | looked up the requirements, | forgot what | was looking for.” Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab6 © Albert J, Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 21Terminology ! There are certain words that are used by the ASME Codes that need to be defined. Each code section typically includes a glossary — of terms. The code also refers the user to AWS A3.0 Standard Welding Terms and Defini is. As such, the use of the terminology contained in AWS A3.0 is mandatory. Standard Welding Terms. ey Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 22API The American Petroleum Institute is different from AWS and ASME. API membership is limited to companies that are oil producers or refiners located in North America. The documents published by API are standards that are not subject to the same rules as ANSI standards or codes. The committees that develop API standards are not balanced to assure equal fepresentation of owners, manufacturers, academics, and other interested parties. As stated previously, API addresses the production of raw petroleum crude and the refining and distribution of petroleum products. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 23API Standards API publishes several standards that address welding issues. They | include: © API 1104 - Welding of Pipelines and Related Facilities i o API Standard 620 - Design and Construction of Large, Welded, | Low-Pressure Storage Tanks | o API Standard 650 - Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage © API Standard 653 — Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruction o API Recommended Practice 582 - Welding Guidelines for Chemical, Oil, and Gas Industries Others that do not necessarily address welding issues such as: © API Specification 5L — Specification for Line Pipe Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 24Conclusion Which approach is better, AWS with their “how to” approach or | ASME’s “hands-off philosophy? When is API standards and specifications used? This is a subject that is open to discussion. Each has its detractors and each has its supporters. In the end, manufacturers have to abide by the customer's requirements and owners have to abide by applicable laws that reference AWS, ASME, or API requirements. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 25° IBEC { International Susiness 2 — sESESrEersses | mmm Engineering Consulting, S.A. | Procedure & / Performance Qualification Presented By: Albert J. Moore Jr. | | | | ¢ | Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 7 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 1Weld Quality | : Factors that Influence Making a Good Weld Is the construction code selected for the work appropriate? | Who is responsible for selecting the appropriate construction code and acceptance criteria? Is there an established welding procedure? Does the welder have the skills required? Does the welder know what is required? Who is responsible to determine if the weld is good? How many times have you asked the question, “Is the weld good?” Compared to what? There is no such thing as the perfect weld. Someone has to define what a “good weld” is. The better question is; “is the weld suitable for its intended service?” Who determines if the weld will perform in a satisfactory manner for a given operating environment? In most cases, a construction code or welding standard is selected as a basis of judging if the weld is “good” or “good enough’ to meet the performance requirements. Fundamentals of Welding Technology ee © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 2Welding Procedure Specification How does the welder know how to make the weld? The welder has to follow a recipe, the WPS, that tells the welder / how to make the weld. : The recipe should tell the welder everything he needs to know to make a good weld. The WPS is the recipe the welder follows to make a weld that meets the applicable service requirements. The service requirements of a weld varies from one code to another, or from one project to another, as such, the WPS may have to change as well. In one instance the weld may have to be post weld heat treated. In the next, no post weld heat treatment is required. Therefore, the WPSs are going to be different. The applicable acceptance criteria will also change. The construction code may include different acceptance criteria for different categories or classes of welds. Consider the ASME 831.3 Process Piping Code; it has several piping categories, each with different visual acceptance criteria and welding requirements, i.e., how the weld is made. Category “Normal” allows the use of backing rings, category “High Pressure" does not permit the use of permanent backing rings. Fundamentals of Welding Technology ey abet Moe Performance & Procedure Qualification - 3Procedure Qualification E reereeeeee eee How do we know if the recipe or welding procedure specification will | produce welds with the properties required? | | We make a sample weld and test it. Does the weld have the mechanical and physical properties we need? * strength + ductility + toughness + corrosion resistance + abrasion resistance + hardness Each welding standard has slightly different requirements for qualifying the welding procedure specification. The engineer must be aware of these differences. AWS D1.1 allows for the use of prequalified welding procedures. That means the manufacturer or contractor does not actually have to test a weld sample provided all the applicable restrictions are observed. The contractor does have to write the WPS. For the most part, ASME and API requires the contractor to demonstrate the proposed welding procedure specification does produce welds that meet the minimum mechanical properties required. Be aware that simply meeting the requirements of ASME Section IX does not mean the requirements of the construction code, i.e., Section |, Section VIll, B31.3, etc., are met. Construction codes have a nasty habit of adding to or modifying the requirements of ASME Section IX. e Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab7 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 4Skills a Even if the welding procedure is capable of producing acceptable welds, we have to determine if the welder has the skills needed to make a weld that will meet the acceptance criteria of the contract. Different construction codes have different acceptance criteria for visual examination and other NDT requirements. Again, the user is cautioned to make sure the proper acceptance criteria is being applied. Different skill sets are required for different applications. Pipe welding skills are different from those needed for structural applications. For example, pipe welders use lower amperage when compared to structural welders. Welders working to AWS and ASME requirements usually use veitical upward progression. API cross country pipe welders weld with higher amperage and travel speeds and use downward vertical progression. Fundamentals of Welding Technology ac © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Parfarmanre & Prarediire Onialificatinn . 5Welder Qualification Welder skills evaluation is different from that of qualifying the welding procedure specification. Welder performance qualification is used to determine if the welder has the minimum skills necessary to produce a weld that will meet the acceptance criteria specified. The inference is that the welder can pass the test each and every time if the minimum skills are possessed. ‘The acceptance criteria used to access the welder qual dependent on the applicable welding code or standard. ication test coupon is The visual acceptance criteria for an API cross country pipeline welder is different than that of an AWS D1.1 structural welder. For instance; crater cracks 5/32 inch or less in length are acceptable per API 44104. No cracks of any kind are acceptable per AWS D1.1. i The engineer must be cognizant of the differences if he/she is considering accepting the qualifications of a welder qualified under the auspices of a different construction code. ! Personal Opinion: | use the visual acceptance criteria of the applicable construction code, i.e., Section I, Section VIll, B31.3 High Pressure, etc. when qualifying the welder. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab7 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 6ASME B&PV Code Section IX Qualification Standard for Welding and Brazing Procedures, Welders, Brazers, and Welding and Brazing Operators Four Articles that address welding | Four Articles that address brazing Appendices - 3 cee ba eaie 3g PRESSURE VESSEL CODE Cen pa Ou Make sure you are using the correct edition and addenda of the applicable code section. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab7 e pe een oe Meare Dre eeus Performance & Procedure Qualification - 7« General Welding Requirements + Paragraphs: QW-1XX | Article I | « Welding Procedure Qualification * Paragraphs: QW-2XX Articte It = Welder Performance Qualification + Paragraphs: QW-3XX Article IV = Welding Data + Paragraphs: QW-4XX Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab7 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 8Using ASME No section of the ASME B&PV Code is a stand alone document. Each section references other sections of the Code. + Section | - Power Boilers + Section Il - Materials * Section Ill - Nuc. Components + Section IV - Heating Boilers + Section V- NDT + Section VI - Care of H. Boilers + Section VII - Care of P. Boilers + Section VIll - Unfired Pressure Vessels + Section IX - Welding / Brazing Qual. + Section X - FRP Pressure Vessels + B31.1 - Power Boilers + B31.3 - Chemical and Refinery Piping Remember that the construction code can modify the requirements of Section IX. A welding procedure qualified to meet Section IX alone my not meet the requirements of the applicable construction code. For example: Charpy impact testing requirements are listed in the construction code, not Section IX. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 oe Performance & Procedure Qualification - 9Construction Codes ' TI Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Sections and the Pressure Piping Code Sections may modify or add requirements to those listed in the B&PV Code, Section IX. Always refer the the construction codes when qualifying welding , procedures or welders. The cut and paste technique will provide a level of assurance that all the significant requirements have been noted and addressed. Fundamentals of Welding Technology 7 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 ie Performance & Procedure Qualification - 10Variables Essential Variable - any parameter that will have a profound affect on the welding operation. A change to an essential variable will require the qualification of a new WPS. Anything that can affect the mechanical or metallurgical properties of the weld are usually considered to be an essential variable. Nonessential_variables - any parameter that does not have a profound affect on the welding operation. A change of a nonessential variable does not require the qualification of a new WPS, but will require a revision of the original WPS. {Supplementary essential variable only come into play when impact testing is required by the construction code. | Essential and nonessential variable are dependent on the applicable welding code or standard. Opinion: Record both essential and nonessential variable when witnessing the welding of a test coupon. The information will be useful when developing a WPS for production. Welding parameters such as voltage, amperage, travel speed, etc., are typically considered to be nonessential variables. However, it is useful information to have when you are writing the production WPS and have to enter “real” numbers for those variable. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 ei Performance & Procedure Qualification - 14Essential vs Nonessential Section IX, Article 2 defines which variables are essential and those _ that are nonessential for the qualification of a welding procedure specification. = Essential variables must be recorded in the Procedure Qualification Record (PQR). «_ Supplementary variables must be addressed if impact toughness is a requirement. « Both essential and nonessential variables must be addressed in the Welding Procedure Specification (WPS). Section IX, Article 3 defines both essential variables for the qualification of welders. It is too easy to write a WPS that meets “code” but is useless to the welder. The values listed in the WPS for base metals, filler metals, voltage, amperage, wire feed speed, etc. should be information that the welder can use. Consider the following examples seen on WPS submitted for review: Base Metal: AIlP8 —_does your welder know what a P8 base metal is? Is the raw material marked as P8 or is it marked with the ASTM material specification and alloy or grade? Which would be more useful to the welder? Filler Metal: EXXX-16 does this information tell the welder which electrode to use with which base metal? Do you really want your welder to weld type 304 stainless steel with an E308-16, 310-16, or E321-16?7 Voltage: 0-82 Zero volts would indicate a dead short, 82 volts indicates there is no arc present. The real arc voltage range should have been recorded when the PQR was welded. Fundamentals of Welding Technology ee eee Performance & Procedure Qualification - 12welding Varia Procedure Specification (WPS; a Gas Metal ACA and ECAY: Paragraph tetatverabes | essertal | WPREMEE | voneasenta [wae ces x ow.so2 [Cay -Backing x ‘oats, ao -atoneny x tts sane x = [e cran nba x STs x + itinis > oe X anes Pepa t gue stones t ir ints Stet Creutagy TX 11 | @ P-No. quallied x iether sent x + Te FRonber oC [3 | OA-Number x = otensee z fro aS ceo x anos [Sete nana [ ier dew [Ze] = oro Suppeet % ar Lemmyeeiens x Sofot it 32 [iam Sa cieaing—f— 3 [ons aootenion x ae hatan x eas Ea reer z 3 ORY Verical weKdng x + [Batease = Tr z gus | piseien iamemTe x e Shc S00 x Ta Pier x ewer Late rear x a % Os Tar compost x ese meee Le ‘aw-408 Flow rate, e See Estero beeing tae —[ % +-{ acing 6 sreoanton |X iv Benoa rie te guess [boat naar x * le Setanta ear x x Characteristics ~"s-T ota € range x + eset ene i 310 Oifes, cap. or gz a x owe 5 eid oT base ge x ‘Technique 7 _| @ Oscillation x 6 | tube fo work distance x Fe Paayiioe CHAIN ip Re TORE Article I! contains a table such as this for each of the common welding processes. The table summarizes the essential, supplementary essential and nonessential variables for each process. The user has to read the referenced paragraph to understand what is necessary to meet the requirement. e Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 aests Performance & Procedure Qualification - 13Qw-402 Bo aw-t86 “ ‘cedure Speciation (WPS) Broa) Paraaraph Supplemanteay [Rams | | ew-4oz [a deine [40 x x x QW-402.1 A change in the type of groove (Vee-groove, U-groove, single bevel groove, etc.) QW-402.4 The deletion of the backing in a single-welded groove weld. Double-welded grooves are considered welding with backing. QW-402.10 A change in the specified root spacing. QW-402.11 The addition or deletion of nonmetallic retainers or nonfusing metal retainers. *material, metallic or nonmetallic, consumable or nonconsumable, which is used to contain or shape molten weld metal. QW-402.1 is listed as a nonessential variable. Therefore, the WPS can be revised to include a groove other than the groove detail used to qualify the procedure and recorded ‘on the PQR. QW-402.4 is also listed as a nonessential variable. Likewise, QW-402.10 is a nonessential variable. Based on those paragraphs, | can weld a V-groove with an open root joint that is % inch wide using GMAW spray transfer. Trust me, it will not work. My point being, you can write a WPS that meets ASME, but is useless to the welder.. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab 7 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 14QW-403 cont. ow.255 les Procevere Specitieation (WPS) ‘Aro Welding (GMAW & FCAW ee WeNENSenuat Supplementary Non~ Paragraph # Group No. x 13° gPone. 50 QW-403.9 For single-pass or multipass welding in which any pass is greater than 1/2 inch (13 mm) thick, an increase in base metal thickness beyond 1.1 times that of the qualification test coupon. QW-403.10 For short circuiting transfer mode of GMAW, when qualification ‘test coupon thickness is less than 1/2 inch (13 mm) thick, an increase in base metal thickness beyond 1.1 times that of the qualification test coupon. For thicknesses of 1/2 inch or greater, use QW-451.1 or QW451.2, as applicable. QW-403.9 restricts the thickness of the single pass weld to % inch or less. Very large weld beads would have slow cooling, coarse grains, and possibly low ductility and low toughness. They would also be prone to hot cracking during solidification. ASME doesn't say you can't make single pass welds thicker than % inch, they simply place restrictions on the range of qualification. QW-403.10 restricts the thickness qualified when using GMAW short circuiting transfer. GMAW(SC) is a low heat input process that is prone to fusion type discontinuities. The thickness restrictions make the short circuiting transfer mode less appealing to manufacturers. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 ee Performance & Procedure Qualification - 15QW-404 cont. aW.255 Welding Variebies Procedure Specification (WPS) ‘Gat metstare Welling (GMAW & FAW), | Brier ot Essential Supplementary | 29 gFeter etal x Breguet reves se x Supplemental Fan 27g Alloy x Elements 3 x 32 tint (8.0K, x 39 AWS Clas, x QW-404.23 A change from one of the following filler metal product forms to another: = (@) flux cored = (b) bare (solid) or metal cored = (©) powder QW-404.24 The addition, deletion, or change of more than 10% in the volume of supplemental filler metal. As explained in the section that covered welding processes, the essential variables for ‘GMAW are nearly identical as those for FAW. Table QW-255 places both processes together for convenience. The two processes are differentiated by paragraph QW- 404.23 that lists the filler metal product form as an essential variable. Therefore a change from solid electrode to a tubular electrode requires the procedure to be requalified. Fundamentals of Welding Technology ae ei Alber J- Moor J; 2008 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 16P, S, F, and A Numbers P and S numbers - base metals = P1 - carbon steels for pressure boundary by the B&PV Code = S1 - carbon steel that are not approved for pressure boundaries by the B&PV Code, but are approved for use by the Pressure Piping Code. F numbers - filler metals = F1—Carbon Steel Covered Electrode - E7024 = F4—-Carbon Steel Covered Electrode - E7018 = F5— Austenitic Stainless Steel Covered Electrode - E308-16 « F6 — Bare Electrode, Flux Cored Electrode - ER70S-3, E71T-1 A numbers - weld deposit chemistry = carbon, low alloy, and alloy steels P numbers are groupings of base metals, approved for pressure boundaries per Section Vill, that have similar weldability. A change in P number requires the procedure to be requalified. ‘S numbered base metals that are not approved for pressure boundaries are assigned S numbers. Think of P numbers as materials that can be used for pressure containing welds, and S numbers as materials that can by used for ‘structural, non pressure boundary welds. Any change from a P number to a like S number does not require requalification, but a change from a procedure qualified using an S numbered base metal to a P numbered base metal required requalification. F numbers are groupings of filler metals. A change from one F number to another requires the procedure to be requalified. ‘A numbers are groupings of ferrous filler metals. Any change in the A number grouping requires the procedure to be requalified. With a few exceptions, A number is determined by the chemical analysts of the filler metal deposit. The deposit chemistry can be altered by the welding process and shielding gas used. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab7 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 17Test Positions Procedure Qualification - position is not usual an essential variable | except for those instances where notch toughness is a concern. | e | | | i Welder Qualification - position is always an essential variable 1F/1G - Flat Fillet (F), Flat Groove (G) 2F /2G - Horizontal 3F/ 3G - Vertical (plate only) 4F /4G - Overhead (plate only) 5G - pipe - axis horizontal, fixed 6G - pipe - axis at 45°, fixed eco 000 owasts se scent want Z =eis Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab7 @ Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 18Overhead : This welder is taking a qualification test in the overhead position using | SMAW. Note the strong backs used to minimize angular distortion. Do you see any safety issues in the photograph? Fundamentals of Welding Technology cari fe -Albert J: Moore deiaaee Performance & Procedure Qualification - 19® | 6G - Pipe | ieee This welder is qualifying both as a welder, ie., performance, and a procedure imultaneously. | The material is a nickel alloy, C-276. The position is 6G meaning the axis of the pipe is inclined at a 45° angle. Welding is done in the overhead, vertical, and horizontal positions. Note the purge gas hose used to purge the ID of the pipe. The welder has the torch held over the termination point of the weld to keep the weld crater flooded with inert shielding gas until it cools to prevent oxidation. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab7 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 20Testing “Procedure Qualification Visual Bend Tensile Charpy Hardness Chemical Macroetch Performance Qualification Visual Bend Fillet Break (racture; Radiography Macroetch physical properties. “The testing regiment for procedure qualification and performance qualification are different. The tests required for the qualification of a welding procedure are more involved. NDT is required by some welding standards prior to mechanical testing. Procedure qualification verifies the weld meets code imposed mechanical and Performance qualification simply verifies the welder can deposit a sound weld when a qualified welding procedure specification is followed. Its good to remember that the code specifies the minimum requirements that must be met. The manufacture may be well advised to go beyond what the code mandates to make sure the weld will function as intended or that the welder can produce production welds that meet company imposed criteria. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab7 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 21Thickness Ranges Qualified er ~ 1 The thickness ranges qualified by procedure qualification is usually | anges are. based on the thickness of the test coupon. ASME Section IX is typical, it has a table (QW-451.1) that tells you what the qualified thickness | The range of thickness qualified is easily determined when one process and one filler metal is used to qualify the WPS. The question becomes more complex when more than one process is used or if more than one type of filler metal is used. eee We Oem a Tm Aaa S rear Ten Caton Tsoasect se es Sot Tiare Tiemsot Tsnee tv caTentcoten motte at "ep at lesinan 16 teat 2 [rememee seen ‘6030 wiper Ba veren vate ct moot on ARE EQIIETS "Deon at essen 18 Tear x ‘6038 wept sme wewm 8 aaiost 12 Miew2T wheat areteneae [Ta 22061001 Viento secs artmtad | at epeabien en at) feast Roel Feb Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab7 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 22Tensile Strength “’ x material subjected to a tensile load will stretch. The resistance | to stretching is called tensile strength. The attractive forces between the atoms in the metal or any material is what gives the material its tensile strength. Tensile strength is derived by loading a test sample until it breaks or ruptures. We then divide the total load by the original cross sectional area and the resultant is called the ultimate tensile strength. 7 Loadiotat UTS Area original Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 hates Performance & Procedure Qualification - 23RST Test ‘Reduced section tensile test specimens may have round, square, or rectangular cross sections. The objective is to have a cross section | that has parallel sides, is uniform, free of nicks or scratches, and has | an area that is easily calculated. |The applicable code will specify what the required dimensions are | and which cross section is to be used. Ret an. J, Sesion ile Le Z SES Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Tab7 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 240.505 Round Specimens ree ‘samples shown in the photograph are of base metals only. | Each is of a different base metal, each exhibits ductile failure modes. All three samples were originally machined to the same diameter and same length. The top sample exhibits the greatest ductility due to the amount of elongation it sustained before breaking. Fundamentals of Welding Technology ae Geen 4 Moore tat |Performance & Procedure Qualification - 25Stress - Strain “The RSTT specimen is subjected to increasing loads until it fractures. The stress-strain curve for a ductile material, such as plain carbon steels, look similar to the sketch below. /Ueper Yield Point (vy op te @ Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 eas Performance & Procedure Qualification - 26Hard/Brittle Hardened or brittle materials do not exhibit a distinct yield point. | Their yield point is an arbitrary value typically set at 0.002 strain. | | The brittle materials do not neck down appreciably prior to failure, i.e., there is little reduction in area at the location of fracture. LJ ies r fi | ; ale | oe ‘oa Fundamentals of Welding Technology teb7 eve eo taco Performance & Procedure Qualification - 27e RS Tensile Tests The photograph shows two different reduced section tensile test specimens taken from a welded test plate. _ The lower sample was machined per AWS and the upper sample per ASME requirements. Both samples show the necking that occurs with ductile materials. e Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab 7 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 28Yield Strength Goictaciaa fe saleaccs Long before the metal breaks, the test sample begins to stretch as the load is slowly increased. If the load is removed, the sample returns to its original length. The amount of stretch, or strain, is proportional to the load. At some load, (Ly), the elastic limit is exceeded and permanent deformation occurs. The load, Ly, divided by the original cross sectional area is the yield strength of the material. Fundamentals of Welding Technology rie Abt Medio artecen Performance & Procedure Qualification - 29Toughness (tea~ded ) Toughness is the ability to absorb energy without failure. The RS tensile test provides information on toughness as well as tensile | strength, yield point, and ductility. The area under the stress-strain curve is the static toughness of the material being tested. Load @ Failure e sen (mt Strain (stretch under toad) Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 aed Performance & Procedure Qualification - 30Ductility (vedi dad | Ductility is the ability of a material to deform without failure. The tensile test can be used to determine the ductility of a material. | Elongation is used as a measure of ductility. The reduced section | | tensile test specimen is marked with two gage marks set two inches , apart before the load is applied. The distance between the two marks, | is again measured after the specimen has been loaded to failure. The calculation is as follows: Elongation = “Fo «100% Lo Elongatio: 100% = 37.5% Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab? se Albert decors drei eeee Performance & Procedure Qualification - 31e Necking (Elongess) “TAs the tensile specimen is loaded past the yield point, the center portion begins to neck down or lose cross section. The Reduction in | Area is also a measure of ductility. The calculation is as follows: | | Ao-Ar %RA = Ao ©100% -505-.338 505 u RA ©100% = 33% Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 ae Performance & Procedure Qualification - 32@ Directional Properties (fape les oe) Hot rolled structural shapes are formed from blooms, billets and | slabs. The primary billet is forced between forming rolls at very high | temperatures. The grain structure is elongated in the direction of | rolling imparting superior mechanical properties along the axis of | rolling. Refined Grain coarse Grain. Ingot in pirection of Rolling — pe Fundamentals of Welding Technology te © Albert J. Moore dr. - 2006 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 33Test Results - | Longitudinal Tensile Test - The specimen is cut such that the grains | are along the axis of the specimen. Provides the highest tensile | test results. This is the reported value on the CMTR. | Transverse Tensile Test - The specimen is cut transverse to the direction of rolling. The tensile test results show a marked decrease in tensile strength. Through Thickness Tensile Test - As the name implies, the tensile test specimen is cut such that the through thickness tensile strength is determined. The tensile strength can be reduced by 50% or more from that reported as the longitudinal tensile strength. Bb e 75 Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab7 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 34Ductile vs Brittle (ouch kded v» ralla ) Most normalized steels exhibit ductile failure at temperatures above 50°F. However, these same steels can exhibit brittle failure at temperatures below 35°F. It is preferable that materials used to sustain loads show signs of distress prior to failure, i.e,, that is they experience ductile failure. The Charpy Impact test is used to determine the temperature at which a material experiences the ductile to brittle transition. Tab7 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 35 Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008e : Fracture Toughness todo por jepacto "The Charpy Impact test subjects a standardized test sample to impact loads “at various temperatures. At higher temperatures the sample will fail in a ‘ductile fashion by absorbing the energy of the impact. When the temperature is lowered, a transition to brittle failure is reached and less | energy is absorbed. | Other tests are used for similar purposes. The Izod Keyhole and the Drop Weight Nil-Ductiity tests are used to determine the fracture toughness and the temperature at which the transition between ductile and brittle failure occur. e Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab7 eet moore ste nooe Performance & Procedure Qualification - 36Izod vs Charpy a AA Charpy ‘The Charpy V-notch test specimen is the type usually required by ASME. Fundamentals of Welding Technology ania @ Coed Mere eee Performance & Procedure Qualffication - 37e Charpy Testing ‘The applicable construction code will specify when Charpy Impact testing is required for the base metal or welding procedure. Temperature F I L e141 2 3 4 5 8 a Thickness (inches) Examples: Curve A: SA-53, SA-106 Curve B: SA-414 Gr A, SA-515 Gr 60 Curve C: SA-516 Gr 55 and 60 Curve D: SA-203, SA-516 if normalized Conditions that place the plot point above the applicable curve means impact testing is not required. Plot points below the curve require impact testing. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab7 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 38Charpy Impact t | Standard Charpy test specimen, in millimeters. Ductile Falure ‘Transtion Temperature. Brite Failure Absorbed Energy Temperature Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab7 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 39Impact Loading ° | | ‘T Notch toughness is an important consideration when selecting steels ; for bridges, ships, and machines that are subjected to impact | | loading. Carbon steels are more susceptible to notch sensitivity at low temperatures. Rolling practices and chemical composition strongly influences notch toughness. Elements such as sulfur and phosphorus are detrimental to notch toughness. Welding procedures can also influence notch toughness. High heat input and coarse grain structures lower notch toughness. Coarse grain structure, excessive heat input, and slow cooling rates as well as excessive sulfur and phosphorus move the transition temperature to the right. The base metal exhibits notch sensitivity as the transition temperature increases. | @ Fundamentals of Welding Technology 7 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 a Performance & Procedure Qualification - 40Charpy Test Results The photograph shows three sets Charpy impact test specimens tested at different temperatures. The left sample displays the greatest ability to absorb energy and was tested at a higher temperature than the others in the | photograph. While the set to the right absorbed the least amount of energy | | and was tested at a low temperature (about -20°F). Both the sets to the left of | the photo can be classified as ductile failure modes. The sample set to the right is a brittle failure. Fundamentals of Welding Technology aa Cinhet | Meme ita Performance & Procedure Qualification - 41Bend Testing | faubas & poble ) Guided bend tests are typically required by most construction codes. ' The guided bend test stretches the sample placing the outer surface : in tension. Internal defects will usually cause the bent sample to | “crack”. Most carbon steel and. low alloy steels are bent to produce about 20% elongation at the outer surface of the bend. Other base metals having less ductility than steel must be bent using dies that result in less elongation. There are two types of bending machines, the plunger and die type and the wrap-around type. @ Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 7 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 42The Heart Breaker "The ‘Heart Breaker’ is an example of a plunger and die type guided bend testing machine. The nickname “Heart Breaker” was given to the bender by @ group of welders working for one of my a clients. The lower die is pushed upward by the hydraulic jack. The bend sample is then pushed into the cavity by the plunger. The bend diameter is dependent on the base metal being tested and the thickness of the test piece. ‘Sample to be bent Fundamentals of Welding Technology ae Cibo) Mee eee Performance & Procedure Qualification - 43e Wrap Around Bending Machine The wrap around.type bending machine is useful for samples that are comprised of dissimilar base metals. Welds between dissimilar | Metals tend to shift left or right in a plunger and die type bending machine while being bent. The resulting bend may not include the weld and heat affected zones to either side, thus the bend is not acceptable. The wrap around firmly clamps one end of the test sample so that it can not slip and produce unacceptable bends. Another advantage of the wrap around bending machine is that it is easier to change the diameter of the bending mandrels to accommodate different thickness and different base metals. e Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab7 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 44Guided Bends | Samples that are bent around a mandrel of a given size are called guided bend tests. This test is used to evaluate raw material as well ‘as welds made during either welder performance or welding | procedure qualification. 7 | There are several guided bend tests. The tests used for evaluating welds include: + Transverse = face + Longitudinal = face «= root Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab? e Cet eee ee Performance & Procedure Qualification - 45Transverse Bends rse bends are made with the axis of the bend parallel to the axis of the weld. The face, root, or side indicate which weld surface is placed in | tension by the bending operation. ‘Side bends are used when the material is thicker than 3/8 inch. Fundamentals of Welding Technology 7 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Any Performance & Procedure Qualification - 46Longitudinal Bends ae Longitudinal bends are made with the axis of the weld perpendicular to the axis of the bend. They are used when two dissimilar metals that have dissimilar strengths or ductility are welded together. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab7 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 47Longitudinal Bends ‘The longitudinal guided bend tests shown where taken from a welded test plate. The base metals are copper-nickel welded to austenitic stainless steel. © cuncamentas of Welding Technology ee Galton: Moore 2008 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 48Side Bends There are number of guided bend tests that can be performed. Side bends are used for base metals that are thicker than 3/8 inch. The samples depicted were cut from a groove that was about 3% inches thick, The set shown was one of several sets tested. The top, mid layer, and root is included in this set of three samples. Fundamentals of Welding Technology ane oe Performance & Procedure Qualification - 49The Look of Success ‘ew welders are tested on a regular basis. There are always moments of anxiety as the samples are being bent. On occasion the “Heart Breaker” doesn't live up to its name. The samples | bend without cracks and the welder is “Qualified.” A happy moment indeed. ‘It is common for the welders to ask if they can keep the test samples. One can | only guess at the bragging that takes place at the next coffee break. Fundamentals of Welding Technology et © Alvert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 ated Performance & Procedure Qualification - 50Nick-Break 1 The nick-break test is used when qualifying welding procedures or qualifying ' welders for API-1104. The weld coupon is cut into straps as for any bend test, However, the weld is then scored with a hacksaw on three or four sides. | Then the sample is broken using a tensile testing machine or securing the sample in a vise and breaking it with a hammer or long pipe. The fracture surface is examined for internal defects. Notch Both sides and face of weld e Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 a Performance & Procedure Qualification - 51e i Nick-Break Test Results The fractured surface of the nick-break test shows evidence of incomplete fusion between weld layers. |The welding process was GMAW (SC) using downhill progression on | schedule 40 SA53 carbon steel pipe. Incomplete fusion between weld passes e Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab 7 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 52Fillet Break The fillet break test is used when qualifying welders to weld fillet welds only. The test is fast, cost effective and can be easily performed in the field. A single fillet weld is deposited in the normal manner on a T-joint. The ends are cut off for examination and the remainder is fractured to reveal any incomplete fusion, root penetration, porosity, etc. Once the sample is welded, it is load so that the root is in tension and the e weld fails through the throat. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 7 fe bert Moor Het eee Performance & Procedure Qualification - 53T-Fillet “This photograph shows a welder breaking a T-fillet test sample. The test piece is broken by repeated blows with a sledge hammer. Once it has failed, the fractured surface is examined for incomplete fusion, porosity, slag inclusions, etc. | Itis good to have the welder present when the sample is broken. The | welder can learn from any mistakes revealed by the destructive tests. Better yet, let the welder break the sample. A good weld, one that has fusion to the root, is very difficult to break. A test coupon that does not have fusion to the root is very easy to break and sounds “dead” when struck with the sledge hammer. The welder can see the defects present in the weld and make corrections in his/her technique on the next attempt to weld an acceptable test plate. e Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr, - 2006 aed Performance & Procedure Qualification - 54Practical Procedure Qualification “The test plate shown was prepared to test a welding procedure used to repair a 35,000 ton forging press. The base metal was cast steel. The procedure qualification validated the welding procedure proposed for the repair of a casting that was 18 feet X 12 feet X 8 feet in size. The | thickness of the casting where the crack was located was about 8 to 12 inches thick. Fundamentals of Welding Technology ae Sibert bore Ie aoe Performance & Procedure Qualification - 55e — | Completed Test Weld "The completed weld took about 10 hours to finish. Welding parameters were monitored and preheat and interpass temperature were controlled to reflect the worst case scenario expected during the actual repairs. | The piece of casting used for the qualification test was removed from the | forging press during some modifications being made. e Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab 7 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 56Side Bends ‘Several sets of side bend were taken. A complete set tested the top, tnid-section, and root of the groove weld. ‘Each sample was. numbered so their location could be mapped. Pieces 1 and 2 were tensile test specimens and are not shown. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 eee Performance & Procedure Qualification - 57Metallographic ‘Samples of base metal, welds, etc. can be examined with the aid of low power magnification - macroscopic examination or with high power magnification - microscopic examination. The tests are classified as metallographic examination. The test pieces are polished and etched with acids or other reagents to define the grain _ structure. The metallurgist can then examine the test sample using the appropriate magnification to determine what, if any, defects are present and/or what microstructures are present. This photomicrograph is taken from the HAZ of a welding procedure used to repair a 35,000 ton forging press. The base metal was a cast steel. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab7 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 58Macroetch / ‘The macroetch is a sample that is polished and etched with acid to reveal the macrostructure of the weld, heat affected zone, and base metal. | The etching process reveals weld discontinuities such as cracks, inclusions, porosity, etc. Each weld pass can be seen as well as the heat affected zone. Fundamentals of Welding Technology ee e © Albert J. Moore Jr, - 2006 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 59List of Welding Documents "Preliminary Welding Procedure Specification: The engineers “best guess” of what will work. The PWPS is an unqualified WPS that provides direction to the welder that is tasked with welding the test | coupon. | Procedure Qualification Record: A verification and record of what | was actually done to qualify the welding procedure. It is a record of the welding process, material,-welding variables used and the test results. Welding Procedure Specification: The recipe that tells the welder how to make the weld. The WPS list both the essential and nonessential variables and must address any modifications or additional information required by the construction code. Welder Performance Test Record: A record of the test(s) passed by a welder indicating the welding process, base metal, filler metal, position(s), etc. Often referred to as the “welder’s certification’. Fundamentals of Welding Technology el Ciera Mooi 12008. Performance & Procedure Qualification - 60Document Review The review of welding documentation is necessary when vendors submit their PQRs, WPS’, and welder certifications for approval. The PQR is the basis of the WPS. The welder is qualified using the qualified WPS. If the PQR or the WPS are incorrect, the welder and any welding performed to that point is not per code and is rejectable. Remember to verify the welding documents have been signed and dated by the appropriate company representative. You may find it helpful to use a table listing all the variables to compare the data recorded in the PQR to the ranges listed in the WPS and PQTR. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 aa Performance & Procedure Qualification - 61Marion Testing & Inspection Welder Qualification Test Record WOTR No.:_VF7432-SMA1F4B16-3G84G Welder’s Name: Victor Fettig SSN. WPS Used SMA-1F4BI6 Date Tested: 22-Apr-98 u al/. Sem Manual ‘Base Metal Carbon Steet Garb, Stl and SLA Specitication: 5 A368 PISM Numbers 1 Thickness. ‘inch Unlimited bia pps tea NAL But Grooves and Fillets, with Backing With Backing All Positions “= Groove 36.846 All Positions, ASA AILAS.A and AS.S Classification” E7018 © ENumber 4 ‘AML through F4 Diameter 418 inch Technique Pro Vertical Upward Vertical Upward Single ‘We, the undersigned, certify that the statements contained in this record are correct, and that the test welds were prepared, welded, and tested in accordance with the requirements of AWS D1.1-96 Structyral Welding teal. as, CWI Test Witness: ‘Manufacturer: Date: 25-Apr-98 Date: orwel noua worRWETES? nO Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab7 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 62Federated Fabrication Preliminary Welding Procedure Specification PWPS: | GTA-8F684 Date: | 23-Oct-99 PQR: | Unsupported Prepared By: | Albert J. Moore Jr. Process: | Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Type: | Manual ‘Walder’s Name: SSN: ‘Specification: | SA 312 Type 304 Joint Type: | Butt Thickness: | 0.260in. Groove: | Single Groove Joined To. Groove Angle: | 75° ‘Specification: | SA 312 Type 304 Root Face: | 0.039 in Thickness: | 0.250 in, Root Opening: [0 in. PNo.toP No.7] 8to8 Backing: | Gas Heat Number: | NA pecification: Classification: Tradename: Manufacturer: HeatiLot Number: Shielding Gas: Position: | 6G Percent Mix: T Progression: | Upward - Forehand Flow Rate! ‘Travel Speed: [3 — 5 im Root Shielding: ‘Number of Electrodes: | Single Electrode Flow Rate: | Either Preheat | 4 to #8, interpass Temp.; Peering: | None Cleaning: | Grind & Alcohol Wipe Backgouging: | None Required Tungsten: [EWM | Dia: [176 ewe? Max Manufacturer: Model: Current: Serial Number: Polarity: Torch Manufacturer: Voltage Model: “Amperage: WateriGas Cooled: Pulsing: ‘Amperage Control: Frequency: Peak Voltage: Peak Amperage: Duration: Fundamentals of Welding Technology oe ep ceeinee a CeeeeeeC te Performance & Procedure Qualification - 63Federated Welding & Fabrication Procedure Qualification Record CTAB Ti-Nov-os GTA-BF6B2508 i Albert J Moore Je ‘Gas Tungsten Arc Warding Salvatore Cavaliere qi [—____ Base Metal doint betas ‘Specification: | SA 240 Type 316L Butt Thickness: [0.25 in Single V Groove Joined to o ~ ‘SA 240 Type STL 0.033 in. Shielding Gas: Position: | 1G - Flat Percent Mix: Fiow Rate: Root Shielding: Progression: | Forehand TOF 1 OTF None, NA NA Tungsten: | EWM | ia Electrical Characteristics Manufacturer: [ Miler ‘Model: | Syncrowave 250 ‘Serial Number: | KJ265631 ‘Torch Manufacturer: | WNI ‘Model: | 20 Pulsing: Water / Gas Cooled: | Water Frequency: ‘Amperage Control: | Fool Control Peak Voltage Peak Amperage: Duration: Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab7 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 64Federated Welding & Fabrication Procedure Qualification Record POR: GTA-6F6B250B, Visual Examination (ASME B31.3 Normal) Undercut Porosity Face Reinforcement | Root Reinforcement ‘Accept Accept ‘Accept ‘Accept Fusion Overlap. Bum-thru Melt-thru ‘Accept ‘Accept ‘Accept Accept Conducted By: _-| Aire Mave Nondestructive Testing Penetrant NA Magnetic Particle NA Ultrasonic NA Radiography ‘Accept Conducted By: [ Radar Pinoche tev. 11 Px 27778 Guided Bend Tests Sample / Type Thickness Bend Diameter Results Facet 0.22 0.8 ‘Accept Root-1 0.23 08. Accept Face-2 0.22 0.8 Accept Root-2 0.23 : 08 Accept Conducted By: Mc&ride Minimum Required UTS: 75 000 psi Sample Width | Thickness | Area Load uts Tocation of Failure TS 0756 0235__|_o.1777_| 14390 | ei 000 | Weld TS2 0.757 0.245 | 0.1855 | 14740 | 79500 | Weld Tests were conducted under the direction of M781 Conducted 6 exocks Willan Test Report: | ExUOTT7-1012 We, the undersigned, certify the test samples were prepared, welded, and tested in accordance with requirements of ASME Section IX. Name: bert J. Mleore fr. Date: 1-Feb-00 Name: rita Legg Date: 3-Feb-00 Fundamentals of Welding Technology Hace © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 65Federated Welding & Fabrication Canton, CT 06019-0925 Welding Procedure Specification WPS CTAB T_fev.__T x Siippoting POR: | GTA-BFEB33A, GTA-FOB3I6, and GTA-GFOB4 Process: [Gas Tungsten Arc Welding [7 Manual ‘Scope: This WPS is to be used for joining austenitic siainiess stoe! to austenitic stainless stee! are welding process when post weld heal treatment is not using the manuat gas tungsten specified. This WPS conforms to the requirements of ASME 631.1 Power Piping Code. Prepared By. | Albert J. Moore sr. Date! [5-Sep-00 Approved By | Aaa Upp Dato: | 6 Sapo Co Base Metal Gass elal___[Austonie Saiess Steet | PNombex To ‘Group Number [+ ‘Thickness Range Quid ‘Grooves (CIP ot weld deposit” | 0033 10 0.420 Fillets All thicknesses Eee Pee Filler Metal Hl 7 Spetiicaton SASS. Classification: ‘See Hatching Filer Metal F Number, 6 ‘ANumber | 8 Ciameter: 0 Oe in— | Consumabie i None Matching Filler Metal (not specified on the drawing) Base Metal 304 304L 36 316. Bai 304 ERIE ERGO8 ERS ERST6L ERIG8 le ER3OBL -ER308, R308 30a ERIOBt ERS 60 ERSIGL RIB ERS08L ER3OBL R347 316 t RSIS ERGIBL ERSIC a EROI6, R308 HEL ERGIGL ERSIGL R306. 3a ERSAT R321 ‘The filer metals isted above may not provide maiching Corrosion resistance oF allowable stress at elevated temperatures for the base metat combinations listed, The design engineer must consider corrosion and allowable stresses at the anticipated service temperature. ‘+ Verity he appropriate filer metal (classification) is being used. Check the fier metal lassification by the attached flag lags or impression stamping, Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jt. - 2006 10f10 ‘Ailfiler metals should be wiped with a sutable solvent (opropy alcohol) before use. ‘Only one fiter meta (classification) should be in the welding booth at any time Unused filer metals should be returned tothe storage cabinet. Damaged or soled filer metals should be discarded. Tab7 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 66WPS: GTABIB/6 Rev. A Electrical Parameters ‘Curent reat Polly | Cleciode Negative Voltage: 9-14 Current Range. | =1 amp [0.001 inch of Root Face. Pulsing None Recommended Amperage for Tungsten Electrodes “Tungsten Diameter Tungsten (SFA 5.12) ‘0.040, 0.060. EWTh-t 15 = 80 70 50 Shielding Gases ‘Shielding Gas: ‘Argon Percent Mix 100%. Flow Rate: 1826 ch ‘Cup Size 1478. Root Shielding/Purge | 6 cfh, may be adjusted to accommodate various pipe/tube diameters. Refer to Purge Table + Purge gas leakage shall be minimized by taping all joints unti they are to be welded. + Assingle hole at the high point of the system and branches shall be provided to alow the ‘escape of atmospheric gases and excess purge gas. The hole diameters need not be larger than 1146 inch, ‘©The volume of purge gas required to attain a sufficientiy low oxygen level is approximately five times the volume of the system. Root shielding/purge shail be such that the oxygen content is maintained at 0.5% or less while tacking or welding. Nitrogen shall not be used a8 a purge gas. ‘* The flow of purge gas shall be maintained unl the weld joint has cooled to a temperature below 350°F. Preheat / Interpass Temperature Preheal; [60°F Linterpass Temperature: _[ 350° Pos hfiigve eer ceeeeeeeeer on 3 Vertical upward. all ohers - forehand ‘No. of Electrodes: Single ‘Single of Mullipas: ether Slringer or Weave: Either, weaves 16 be limited to, inch in Cleaning: . Al joints to be free of oils, greases, paints, other organic ‘materials and soils within four inches of the weld groove or joint, ‘All oxides or discoloration to be removed by chemical or abrasive means within one inch of the weld groove or joint. Al joints to be cleaned with an alcohol soaked wipe and ‘allowed to air dry just prior to fiting, tacking, and welding. Interpass cleaning/grinding shail remove surface oxides and Unacceptable weld contours or defects before depositing the next weld pass. Do not use! sulfonated cleaners or sulfur containing rials oF chlorinated oF fluorinated water to clean or flush Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 2 of 10 pages Tab7 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 67WPS: GTA.8/8/6 Rev. A the system ‘+ Do not use carbon steel brushes or grinding disks thal have been used on carbon steels to clean stainless steels. [Been [No péehing is permitted | Backgousing Backgouging by grinding or by the use of @ rotary fie is peralied Provided tha width of the Backgouged area is twice the excavated depth and al interior corners are radiused equal tothe depth, Post Weld Heat None Treatment This WPS can be used groove welds and fillet welds. The groove welds may be either single sided or double sided. The root side of double sided groove welds shall be backgouged to sound metal before welding the second (foot) side. Fillet weld sizes (leg dimension) shall be as specified on the drawing. When the fillet size is not specified on the drawing, the minimum size shall be equal to the thickness of the thinner part being joined if the thinner partis % inch or less, or the fillet weld size (Jeg) shall be 1/16 inch less than the thickness of thinner part being joined if the thinner part is greater than % inch in thickness. Double fillets e shall be used when possible aie ne ag oot Ope i rock opaiog ester nan 88, Meimum fase 30 brettateg sceshatbenerentnd | s {fate 9 town on be ‘noroprion ote ance epenng semi, The maximum root opening between parts to be fillet welded is 27, but not to exceed 3/16 inch without correction. Root openings in excess of the lesser of 3/16 inch oF 2T shall be corrected before being joined by fillet welds. 3 of 10 pages ® Fundamentals of Welding Technology : © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab7 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 68WPS: GTA-8/8/6 Rev. A Standard Groove Details The following sketches depict standard joint details used by FW&F. y ceswots fas Ore robe 06 < sone 020.00, Sg Suse Groove Ocal Bacing Won Specod or wih Ergnedng Appva! ve awoe He prowons v ed. ac 1 @ owom t 7 4 on a a Single Squae Greene Sagle Groot Branch Connections: Integrally reinforced branch fitting end haif couplings are to be hand-fitted and ground to shape if necessary to provide uniform groove angles, root face, and root opening around the entice fitting to run pipe interface. The groove weld is to be a complete joint penetration weld, filed flush with the surface of the branch fitting and with an added reinforcing filet. The minimum throat dimension of the reinforcing fillet, as described by the inscribed triangle, shall be 3/16 inch. The hole for the branch can be made before welding the connection or it can be bored after the branch is welded. 4 of 10 pages Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab7 Aber Moore ar toe Performance & Procedure Qualification - 69WPS: GTA-8I8/6 Rev. A Socket-Welded Fittings: Sockel-welded fittings, ie., half-couplings, integrally reinforced branch connections, slip-on flanges, or couplings, shall have the pipe inserted until it is seated at the bottom of the socket. Then the pipe is to be marked and withdrawn 0,06 to 0.09 inches to provide a gap between the end of the pipe and the socket seal. ‘The maximum clearance between the pipe OD and the 1D of the socket shall be 0.04 inch, The minimum fillet weld size shall be 1.09 times the pipe wal thickness. When Specified, Seal Welds .04 max. clearance — =i | Must Completely Cover Threads. u Fillet Size - 1.09 X, Mat Si - 1.09 Toy ' Socket-Welded or Threaded Half-Coupling (oF integrally Reinforced Branch Connection Fitting Complete Joint — Root Opening -0 to 0.08 max. Penetration Groove Weld w/ Reinforcing Filet Weld ~e4~ Root Face - 0.01 to 0.03 Other weld joint details may be used provide they are completely described by the drawings or other work instructions. 5 of 10 pages Fundamentals of Welding Technology ae Ce eiber doors enue Performance & Procedure Qualification - 70WPS: GTA-8/6/6 Rev. A inet nm we 69 Puneet > Filet Weld Size = 1.09 Type = mL 4 0.04 in. Clear. Max. Fliet Weld Size = 14 of Ta The size of the fillet weld joining the socket type and slip-on flange to the pipe shall be no less than the smaller of the flange hub or 1.09 times the thickness of the pipe wall. The fillet weld on the inside diameter of the slip-on flange shail be no less than the smaller of % inch or the thickness of the pipe wall. Pull-Back (Socketed Slip-on): The pipe shall be inserted until fully seated in the flange. The pipe shall be scribed and withdrawn 0.06 inch as depicted above before welding, 6 of 10 pages Fundamentals of Welding Technology ie feet cere at anne Performance & Procedure Qualification - 74WPS: GTA-SIBI6 Rev. A “The following sketches depict fit-up conditions and limits of acceptable weld geometry. The letter “T" denotes the thickness of the parts or pipe/tube wall | thickness. wo 01 12m ecnes06 ampons, : paseane 5 “Tckn0ss and Root Opening Range Tact wend 006 Marirom Msaignment e Acceptance Criteria The following visual acceptance criteria shall apply to al! welded components: 1. Incomplete fusion andior incomplete penetration None 2. Cracks, undercut, porosity, inclusions None 3. Underti, spatter, None 4. Reinforcement, both extemal (face) and internal (root) Toe 5. Root concavily, provided the final weld size is equal 10 Twat S Toasl2 6 Bum thu None 7. There shall be no oxidation or heat tint on pipe/tude ID or the root surface of gas backed welds, 8, ‘Tack welds shall be incorporated into the final weld or they shall be removed and faired into the surrounding base metal surface. 8. Weld craters are to be filed to their full cross section. 10. Misalignment shall not exceed the lesser of Twa/2 of 1/16 inch e 7 of 10 pages Fundamentals of Welding Technology ao © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 72WPS: GTA-8/8/6 Rev. A “Approved Base Metals for Power ing Systems (831.1) Product Form ASTM Alloy UNS Alloy UTS (ksi) Specification Designation (welded) May nol be suitable {et BAPV Section ‘vik Pressure | ae ‘Boundaries. | aes Forgings A182 304 530400 7 304H_ 830409. 75 304 $30403 70 316 $31600 78 316H $31609 75 | 316L. $31603 70 321 $3210 75 He 321H $32109 75 Seamless Pipe A213 304 $30400 78 and Tube: 304H $30409 75 _3041, $30403 70 316 $31600 75 316H 831609 % @ 316L_| _$31603 70 324 $32100 | 75 freee fp | 2TH | E2109 | 7 Piaie, Sheet, A2éo 304 30400 76 ] Strip $30403__| 70 $31600 75 $31603 70, i $32100 75 | Welded Pipe Aza9 '$30400 75 30409 75 | $30403___| 70 $31600 75 | $31609 75 _$31603 7O $32100 75 | $32109 | Seamless and ABi2 $30400 75 | Welded Pipe 30409 75 | and Tube $30403 moet 8 of 10 pages Tab7 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 73 Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006WPS: GTA-B/8/6 Rev. A q ‘Approved Base Metals for Power Piping Systems (B31.1)___ | | ProductForm | ASTM ‘Alloy | _ UNS Alloy UTS (ksi) | Specification Designation (welded) \ May not be suitable { for BAPV Section ‘vl Pressure | }_. Boundaries i ABI2 346 $31600 % | 316H 31609 76 | | |_346L. . $31603 TOW 321 '$32100 75 | Be 321H. $32109 5 i Welded Pipe R358 304 $30400 75 304L $30403 70. 316 331600 75 316L. $31603, 70, 324 $3210, 75. | Seamiless Pipe AaTe 304 $30400 75 i and Tube | 304H $30409 75, | | | 316 $31600 75 | e 3164 $31609 75 j 324 $32100 75 ee | 324H $32109 75 Fittings Ra0s 304 '$30400 7 Seamless and 304H $30409 5 Welded 304L. $30403, 70 316 $31600 5 | 316H $31609 75 3161. $31603 65 321 $3210 75 321H 832109 15 Austenitic stainless steel base metals meeting other material specification may be used provided they are approved by Engineering. Other austenitic stainless steels alloys may be used provided they are approved by engineering. The engineer is cautioned that not all the material specifications listed have been approved for pressure boundary parts per ASME B&PV Code Section Vill e 9of 10 pages Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab7 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 74WPS: GTASBE | Rev. A. Purging All pipe spools or segments of pipe systems to be welded shall be purged prior to welding open root groove welds or where the wall thickness is less than 3/16 inch, Purge time shall be sufficient to provide at least five (5) changes in volume. All branches and openings shall be sealed during the purge period, The end most distant from the gas inlet shall be sealed and provided with sufficient ‘openings near the upper most portion of the seal to allow the air and excess gas to escape without any increase in internal pressure. Excess intemal pressure within the pipe will result in root concavity. The chart below indicates the minimum time required to adequately purge the length of pipe to be welded. Purge Time for Argon in Minutes / Foot of Pipe Pipe Flow Rate (cfh) i Diameter e 40 50 1 1 1 1 1 15 25 3.5 5 Example: 10 in. @ pipe, spool fength-18 ft ‘Argon flow rate of 30 cfh From chart: 5.5 min/ft of pipe length. Minimum purge time required: 5.5 min/ft. X 18 ft. = 99 min or 1.7 hours. 10 of 10 pages e Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab7 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Performance & Procedure Qualification - 75