Pedro M.

Rosario Barbosa
La Filosofa de Gottlob Frege
Introduccin
La filosofa de Gottlob Frege: Introduccin (v. 0.2)
2010, Pedro M. Rosario arbosa
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ii
ndice
Captulo 1: Biografa de Gottlob Frege.........................................................................5
Captulo 2: Argumentos de Frege contra el Psicologismo....................................=
>?u. es el Psicologis!o@...............................................................................................................................=
Re&utaci)n del Psicologis!o Mate!9tico en 1onceptogra&+a en 0os 4unda!entos de la
Arit!.tica........................................................................................................................................................A
0os Ata'ues de 4rege al Psicologis!o en la 0)gica................................................................................B
Captulo 3: Semntica de Gottlob Frege.......................................................................55
4unci)n, 1oncepto ;b#eto.......................................................................................................................55
%igno, %entido Re&erente..........................................................................................................................56
0os %entidos las Representaciones Psicol)gicas..................................................................................5B
!eferencias....................................................................................................................................20
4uentes Pri!arias.........................................................................................................................................20
4uentes %ecundarias.....................................................................................................................................20
Ap"ndice A: Creati#e Commons Attri bution$S%areAli&e 3' ( )nported
*icense..............................................................................................................................................22
Ap"ndice B: G+) Free ,ocumentation *icense 1' 3....................................................2C
Ap"ndice C: G+) General Public *icense 3..................................................................65
iii
!a+tulo 1
iografa de Gottlob Frege
4riedrich 0ud7ig 2ottlob 4rege naci) en Dis!ar, en 5E=E. *studi) en el gymnasium de
Dis!ar hasta 'ue se gradu) en 5ECF, aGo en 'ue ingres) a la Universidad de Hena, donde estudi)
&+sica !ate!9ticas. M9s tarde, en 5EB5, .l continu) sus estudios !ate!9ticas, especial!ente en
geo!etr+a anal+tica, an9lisis del 9lgebra, &+sica aplicada. <a!bi.n se &a!iliari/) con la &iloso&+a,
especial!ente la tradici)n neoIantiana, aun'ue tuvo relativa!ente no tuvo !ucho i!pacto en su
pensa!iento, sino s)lo al &inal de su vida. 1o!o estudiante, &ue disc+pulo de Rudol& Jer!ann
0ot/e, 'uien postul) una tesis 'ue !9s adelante se deno!inar+a ,logicis!o-, 'ue consiste en la
a&ir!aci)n de 'ue de algunas 9reas de las !ate!9ticas o todas las !ate!9ticas pueden ser
derivadas por a8io!as de la l)gica &or!al. *sta tesis tuvo un i!pacto signi&icativo en la !aor
parte de la vida &ilos)&ica de 4rege.
*n 5EB6, 4rege alcan/) su doctorado en !ate!9ticas en la Universidad de Hena con una
disertaci)n titulada$ Sobre la representacin geomtrica de la formas imaginarias en un plano.
M9s adelante .l hi/o su Habilitation en !ate!9ticas, en la Universidad de Hena. *n 5EB= se
convirti) en Privatdoent, para 5EBF lleg) a ser Professor !"traordinarius de dicha instituci)n#
2
%us aportaciones !9s i!portantes a la &iloso&+a
co!en/aron precisa!ente ese aGo con la publicaci)n de su
pri!era obra l)gica$ $onceptografa (%egriffssc&rift). *n
dicha obra, 4rege cre) una notaci)n l)gica para representar
la relaci)n l)gica entre conceptos, proposiciones, #uicios,
postul) una serie de a8io!as l)gicos cuo proceder s)lo
depende de una s)la regla de in&erencia$ 'odus Ponens.
*n esta obra, .l e8puso breve!ente su parecer en
torno al psicologis!o a la l)gica, por pri!era ve/
a&ir!) 'ue la l)gica no tiene nada 'ue ver con procesos
!entales. Al !is!o tie!po, .l de&ine de !anera i!precisa
lo 'ue son #uicios anal+ticos sint.ticos. M9s a"n, 4rege
postul) la necesidad de una conceptogra&+a, es decir, de una
si!bolog+a l)gica 'ue per!ita ver clara!ente las relaciones
l)gicas proposicionales para preservar la verdad entre las proposiciones. Kste ser+a el inicio de
una e!presa logicista &regeana para de!ostrar 'ue la arit!.tica puede derivarse de la l)gica
&or!al.
M9s adelante, a petici)n de 1arl %tu!p&, 4rege public) Los fundamentos de la aritmtica,
en el 'ue articul) por pri!era ve/ su &iloso&+a de las !ate!9ticas, su recha/o al psicologis!o, e
hi/o una distinci)n clara entre proposiciones anal+ticas sint.ticas basadas en el logicis!o. Ah+
propuso por pri!era ve/ una suerte de realis!o !ate!9tico, a saber, un platonis!o en el 'ue los
n"!eros son entidades abstractas independientes de todo proceso representaci)n psicol)gicos.
Ahora bien, 4rege supo 'ue no pod+a continuar en su traba#o logicista sin desarrollar una
doctrina se!9ntica. <eniendo en !ente dicho prop)sito escribi) una serie de ensaos en los 'ue
estableci) unas distinciones bien i!portantes 'ue servir+an de &unda!ento para el logicis!o
&regeano$
,4unci)n concepto- (5EF5)$ *n esta obra, .l estableci) clara!ente la distinci)n entre
&unci)n co!o entidad noLsaturada, ob#eto co!o entidad saturada. A la !is!a ve/
estableci) la distinci)n entre distintas clases de &unciones, tales co!o relaciones
conceptos.
6
,%obre sentido re&erente- (5EF2)$ *sta obra &unda!ental de la &iloso&+a de 4rege se
convirti) en un cl9sico de la &iloso&+a del lengua#e hasta ho d+a. A'u+ estableci)
clara!ente la distinci)n entre no!bres propios oraciones declarativas en calidad de
signos, su sentido, su re&erente.
,%obre concepto ob#eto- (5EF2)$ *n esta obra, 4rege pro&undi/) !9s en torno a las
nociones de concepto ob#eto, su relaci)n con las nociones de sentido re&erente.
Una ve/ establecidas las distinciones se!9nticas, haber desarrollado una doctrina del signi&icado
(o ,sentido- en t.r!inos &regeanos), .l procedi) a publicar su obra en la 'ue .l 'uiso probar su
tesis logicista.
*n 5EF6 public) el pri!er volu!en de Leyes fundamentales de
la aritmtica, en el 'ue co!en/) a de!ostrar 'ue la arit!.tica puede
derivarse de la l)gica. %in e!bargo, antes de 'ue se publicara su
segundo volu!en en 5F06, recibi) una carta de Bertrand Russell, en la
'ue seGal) 'ue su de!ostraci)n l)gica adolec+a de una &alla$ .sta
per!it+a una parado#a, ho conocida popular!ente co!o la ,paradoja
de Russell-
M
. Aun'ue 4rege intent) arreglar esta &alla a "lti!a hora
creando una especie de ,parcho- a su siste!a, .l gradual!ente &ue
abandonando su e!presa logicista. Aparente!ente, se dio cuenta de
'ue su soluci)n no era su&iciente para arreglar el proble!a, lo 'ue le
llev) a renunciar al logicis!o.
M9s tarde, 4rege continuar+a e8poniendo su pensar l)gico se!9ntico. Kl escribi) una
obra publicada p)stu!a!ente lla!ada Lgica, en la 'ue .l o&rece unos argu!entos
antipsicologistas de la l)gica. *n 5F5F publicar+a otro ensao &unda!ental para co!prender la
&iloso&+a &regeana titulado ,*l pensa!iento$ una investigaci)n l)gica-.
%in e!bargo, durante la "lti!a etapa de su vida, 4rege to!) un giro neoIantiano para
de!ostrar 'ue la arit!.tica es derivable de la geo!etr+a euclideana. Dicha obra 'ued) inconclusa
debido a su !uerte en 5F2A.
M A pesar de 'ue esta &a!osa parado#a se le atribue a Russell, &ue *rnst Ner!elo 'uien la descubri) pri!ero, le
escribi) una carta al !ate!9tico David Jilbert al &il)so&o *d!und Jusserl al respecto. Algunos autores han
propuesto 'ue esta parado#a se deber+a lla!ar ,Parado/a de 3er#elo%Russell-. *sta parado#a a&ir!a 'ue si se
tiene una clase de todas las clases 'ue no pertenecen a ellas !is!as, no se podr9 decidir si esa !is!a clase
pertenece a s+ !is!a o no.
%ertrand (ussell
)*+,-.*/,01
=
!a+tulo 2
$rgu#entos de Frege contra el Psicologis#o
45u6 es el Psicologis#o7
0a obra !aestra de Oant, La crtica de la ran pura (5BEB), in&lu) en el pensa!iento de
la &iloso&+a del siglo PQP, #usto en la .poca 'ue viv+a 2ottlob 4rege. Jubo dos tendencias
&ilos)&icas 'ue predo!inaron en el panora!a &ilos)&ico del !o!ento. 0a pri!era era una
tendencia 'ue elaboraba una !eta&+sica especulativa 'ue pretend+a superar la distinci)n Iantiana
entre &en)!eno n)!eno seg"n planteada por Oant. A esta corriente se le conoci) co!o
,idealis!o ale!9n-, cua &igura cu!bre &ue 2. D. 4. Jegel. 0a segunda, segu+a la parte !9s
cient+&ica de La crtica, en la 'ue se investigaban las &acultades !entales 'ue hac+an posible el
conoci!iento del !undo e8terno, ade!9s del conoci!iento l)gico !ate!9tico.
*sta segunda corriente consider) a La crtica co!o una respuesta a e!piristas ingleses.
Hohn 0ocIe, 2orge BerIele David Ju!e hicieron una investigaci)n psicol)gica del
conoci!iento hu!ano !u en l+nea con algo de esp+ritu cartesiano, pero contra los
plantea!ientos de Ren. Descartes. 0ocIe en particular, a&ir!) 'ue todo conocimiento del mundo
era fundamentalmente conocimiento de ideas (en el sentido psicol)gico) abstradas de la
e"periencia. 1on ese plantea!iento surge el ,psicologismo-. Por ,psicologis!o- se entiende
toda una variedad de doctrinas &ilos)&icas 'ue tienen en co!"n la reducci)n de varios ca!pos del
saber a operaciones psicol)gicas. Hohn %tuart Mill &ue el &il)so&o !9s destacado entre los
psicologistas por llevar su concepci)n de las !ate!9ticas la l)gica a un e8tre!o. Kl &ue uno de
los blancos atacados por 4rege en Los fundamentos de la aritmtica.
A'u+ distinguir. tres tipos de psicologis!os, dependiendo del ca!po al 'ue se reduce a la
psicolog+a$
1. Psicologis#o lgico$ *ste psicologis!o considera a la l)gica co!o lees del ,recto
pensar-. Por ende, la l)gica debe considerarse co!o una ra!a de la psicolog+a.
A
2. Psicologis#o #ate#8tico$ Kste considera a los n"!eros a otros ob#etos !ate!9ticos
co!o representaciones, constructos psicol)gicos o abstracciones de la e8periencia sensible.
). Psicologis#o 9+iste#olgico$ Kste considera el conoci!iento del !undo en "lti!a
instancia co!o conoci!iento de las ideas psicol)gicas 'ue son abstracciones de nuestra
e8periencia sensible.
4rege nunca estableci) estas distinciones, .l s)lo hablaba de el psicologis!o. %in e!bargo,
para ser !9s precisos ha 'ue seGalar 'ue en su obra, .l se concentr) en los psicologis!os l)gico
!ate!9tico, !ientras 'ue se desocup) de asuntos episte!ol)gicos.
Refutacin del Psicologismo Matemtico en !once+tografa y en Los
Funda#entos de la $rit#6tica
4rege no distingui) entre el psicologis!o !ate!9tico el l)gico dadas sus convicciones
logicistas. %in e!bargo, ha 'ue saber distinguirlos para co!prender la aportaci)n de 2ottlob
4rege a las &iloso&+as de las !ate!9ticas del lengua#e. Ja 'ue aclarar 'ue no .l no ataca s)lo al
psicologis!o !ate!9tico, sino ta!bi.n a otras !odalidades antirealistas de la &iloso&+a de las
!ate!9ticas. Je a'u+ algunos de ellos$
iologis#o$ Reduce las nociones !ate!9ticas a procesos biol)gicos del ser hu!ano.
$ntro+ologis#o$ *stablece 'ue las !ate!9ticas son constructos hu!anos 'ue surgen
por ra/ones culturales.
Ficcionis#o$ 1onsidera a los n"!eros a las entidades !ate!9ticas co!o &icciones
"tiles.
For#alis#o$ 1onsidera a los entes !ate!9ticos co!o !eros signos.
Ahora bien, una de las !odalidades de psicologis!o !ate!9tico atacadas por 4rege
considera a los n"!eros co!o abstracciones del !undo sensible. Dice 4rege, 'ue esta !anera de
conte!plar las !ate!9ticas i!pide ver las relaciones tan cercanas entre la l)gica las
!ate!9ticas. %i hubo algo 'ue la &iloso&+a Iantiana per#udic) a la &iloso&+a &ue el separar la l)gica
a las !ate!9ticas caracteri/ando a la pri!era co!o anal+tica a priori, !ientras 'ue a las "lti!as
las consider) sint.ticas a priori &undada en la intuici)n pura. Qnevitable!ente, esto condu#o a
una psicologi/aci)n de las !ate!9ticas, lo 'ue ha llevado a oscurecer la relaci)n cercana entre la
C
&iloso&+a las !ate!9ticas. Por un lado, los psicologistas intentan reducir los n"!eros a
representaciones, e incluso a &en)!enos !otores dependientes de las sensaciones !usculares. %in
e!bargo, 4rege argu!enta 'ue ning"n !ate!9tico reconocer+a a los n"!eros de esta !anera,
'ue tales hechos psicol)gicos o &isiol)gicos no contribuen para nada a aclarar cu9les son los
&unda!entos de las !ate!9ticas.
%i las !ate!9ticas son el resultado de abstracciones a partir del !undo sensible, habr+a
'ue dar cuenta de c)!o, a partir de dichos procesos psicol)gicos, llega!os a la e8actitud tanto de
la l)gica co!o de las !ate!9ticas. 4rege distingue entre los procesos psicol)gicos !is!os por un
lado, la validez ob#etiva e8acta de las !ate!9ticas. Kl a&ir!a lo siguiente al respecto en una
cr+tica a un psicologista pro!inente$
Hohn %tuart Mill, sin e!bargo, es de la opini)n opuesta . . . De buenas a pri!eras,
.l parece 'uerer &unda!entar la ciencia . . . en de&iniciones, a 'ue de&ine a los
n"!eros individuales . . .( pero esta chispa de cordura se e8tingue tan pronto se
enciende, gracias a su preconcepci)n de 'ue todo conoci!iento es e!p+rico. De
hecho, .l nos in&or!a 'ue estas de&iniciones no son de&iniciones en el sentido
l)gico( no s)lo ellas &i#an el signi&icado de un t.r!ino, sino 'ue ta!bi.n a&ir!a con
ellas un hecho observado. Pero >'u. en el !undo puede ser el hecho observado, o
el hecho &+sico (para usar otra e8presi)n de Mill), a&ir!ado en la de&inici)n del
n"!ero BBBEC=@ De toda la ri'ue/a de hechos &+sicos en su apocalipsis, Mill nos
!enciona uno solo, el 'ue sostiene en la de&inici)n del n"!ero 6. Kste consiste, de
acuerdo con .l, en esto, 'ue e8iste una colecci)n de ob#etos, 'ue !ientras
i!pri!en los sentidos as+,
o
o
o
, pueden separarse en dos partes, as+
oo o
. R?ue
&ortuna, pues, 'ue no todo en el !undo est. clavado en el suelo( si hubiera sido as+,
no hubi.ra!os podido llevar a cabo tal separaci)n, 2S5 no ser+a 6T R?ue l9sti!a
'ue Mill ta!poco ilustr) los hechos &+sicos subacentes en los n"!eros 0 5T
5
4rege argu!enta 'ue no es posible 'ue la valide/ de las &)r!ulas arit!.ticas dependan de la
!anera en 'ue ellas se han abstra+do de la e8periencia. Por e#e!plo, ser+a un !isterio 'ue
descubra!os 'ue 5,000,000 U FFF,FFFS5 si no he!os tenido e8periencia clara de ello.
B
1ontra el &or!alis!o, 4rege argu!enta 'ue no se pueden e8plicar las relaciones
!ate!9ticas entre n"!eros co!o un !ero #uego de s+!bolos, a 'ue habr+a 'ue e8plicar c)!o
nada racional puede venir de !eros s+!bolos.
*sta descripci)n de los n"!eros co!o abstracciones psicol)gicas a partir de la e8periencia
sensible es proble!9tica, por'ue abre las puertas a la posibilidad planteada por Mill de 'ue
proposiciones tales co!o ,5 U 5- puedan ser &alsas en la e8periencia, a 'ue una libra de peso no
es sie!pre co!pleta!ente igual a otra libra de peso. <a!bi.n con&unde el s+!bolo ,S- co!o lo
'ue representa o e8presa la relaci)n entre partes del cuerpo. *stas a&ir!aciones de Mill se deben a
la evidente con&usi)n entre la proposici)n e8presada !ate!9tica!ente su aplicaci)n a la
e8periencia.
2
4rege ta!bi.n critic) la episte!olog+a de las !ate!9ticas en Oant, la necesidad de la
intuici)n pura para poder validar aserciones tales co!o ,BSA U 52-, especial!ente con la auda de
los dedos o las piedras. Kl pregunta a si tal episte!olog+a podr+a establecer alguna base pr9ctica
para proceder de tal !anera 'ue se llegue a la proposic)n ,56ACC=S6BEC6 U 5B6A2B-.
4rege descarta 'ue los n"!eros sean !agnitud, propiedad de cosas e8ternas, ideas
sub#etivas, con#untos, diversidad, o abstracciones de la e8periencia. 0os n"!eros, sencilla!ente,
son entidades 'ue no pueden encontrarse en el !undo &+sico, ni pueden considerarse co!o ideas o
representaciones !etales. Los nmeros deben concebirse como entidades abstractas que
existen independientemente de la mente umana y del mundo f!sico.
Los "taques de #rege al Psicologismo en la Lgica
Por su tesis logicista, 4rege vincula lo 'ue he!os lla!ado ,psicologis!o l)gico- al
,psicologis!o !ate!9tico-. As+ 'ue .l ta!bi.n se ocupa del ,psicologis!o l)gico-, 'ue no
distingue del otro. *n su obra $onceptografa, .l dice 'ue ha 'ue establecer una di&erencia
&unda!ental entre dos ciencias distintas.
. . . dividi!os todas las verdades 'ue re'uieren #usti&icaci)n en dos clases, a'u.llas
cuas pruebas se pueden llevar a cabo pura!ente !ediante la l)gica a'u.llas 'ue
deben sostenerse por los hechos de la e8periencia. . . . Por lo tanto, no es la g.nesis
psicol)gica, sino el !e#or !.todo de prueba el 'ue se encuentra a la base de las
clasi&icaciones.
6
E
M9s adelante, en Los fundamentos de la aritmtica, 4rege elabora esta doctrina sobre la
divisi)n entre #uicios anal+ticos sint.ticos, a su ve/ su concepci)n de conoci!iento a priori a
posteriori$
%i al llevar a cabo un proceso, una verdad se alcan/a sola!ente utili/ando las de&iniciones
lees de la l)gica, entonces .sta es anal!tica$
%i el descubri!iento de la verdad re'uiere 'ue su prueba integre verdades a#enas a la
disciplina de la l)gica, entonces .sta es sint%tica.
%i el conoci!iento de la verdad 'ue conclui!os re'uiere asistencia de la e8periencia,
entonces .sta es a posteriori#
%i el conoci!iento no re'uiere la e8periencia para conocerce, sino 'ue puede derivarse
pura!ente de lees generales, entonces es a priori.
4rege a&ir!a 'ue en el caso de la arit!.tica se puede ver clara!ente 'ue sus #uicios son
anal+ticos a priori, al igual 'ue la l)gica. De esa !anera se puede establecer una vinculaci)n entre
las verdades de a!bas disciplinas. 0a geo!etr+a, sin e!bargo, re'uiere de construcciones de la
intuici)n, por lo 'ue es sint.tica a priori. A di&erencia de la arit!.tica la geo!etr+a, la
psicolog+a es una ciencia de hechos, una ciencia e!p+rica, por'ue es una disciplina sint.tica a
posteriori. %i .ste es el caso, la psicolog+a no puede ser &unda!ento de la l)gica la arit!.tica.
1iencias anal+ticas a priori no pueden ser &unda!entadas por ciencias sint.ticas a posteriori.
=
;tra cosa 'ue 4rege a&ir!a en $onceptografa al igual 'ue en sus de!9s obras, es 'ue el
prop)sito del desarrollo de una conceptogra&+a (una l)gica si!b)lica o !ate!9tica) es ver !9s
clara!ente las relaciones deducciones l)gicas, a la ve/ e8cluir los procesos psicol)gicos
sub#etivos.
A
*n Los fundamentos de la aritmtica, 4rege !enciona tres principios !edulares para
evitar la concepci)n psicologista de la l)gica$
5. %eparar lo psicol)gico de lo l)gico, lo sub#etivo de lo ob#etivo(
2. 3unca preguntar sobre el signi&icado de una palabra aislada, sino sola!ente en el conte8to
de una proposici)n(
6. 3unca perder de vista la distinci)n entre concepto ob#eto.
C
F
*n obras posteriores, .l parece haber descartado el principio 2, el lla!ado ,principio del
contexto-, por'ue en esta etapa .l no hab+a desarrollado a plenitud su distinci)n entre sentido
re&erente. *sta di&erencia entre a!bas nociones se!9nticas, hechas posterior!ente en las
publicaciones de 4rege, eran inconsistentes con dicho principio.
Ahora bien, concentr.!onos en el pri!er principio$ distinci)n entre psicolog+a l)gica.
4rege, en sus Leyes fundamentales de la aritmtica, le atribue al psicologis!o el prestarle
atenci)n s)lo a las representaciones sub#etivas, sin re&erirse a las cosas en s+. *sto pierde de
perspectiva esta distinci)n ob#etiva, hace 'ue otras distinciones l)gicas (o se!9nticas) no tengan
valor alguno. Kste es el resultado inevitable de la intrusi)n de la psicolog+a en la l)gica$ la
a!bigVedad en la l)gica en su relaci)n con la noci)n de ,verdad-.
A la l)gica le concierne s)lo el proble!a de la verdad, le concierne el ,ser verdadero- no
se ocupa de las ,creencias- psicol)gicas acerca de lo 'ue es verdadero. 0as creencias sub#etivas
sencilla!ente no #uegan papel alguno en la l)gica. *s per&ecta!ente concebible 'ue algo sea
verdadero, pero 'ue todo el !undo lo sostenga co!o &also, o 'ue todo el !undo sostenga algo 'ue
es &also como si fuera veradero. Por !ucho tie!po, la hu!anidad pensaba 'ue la tierra era el
centro del universo. Aun'ue esta creencia parec+a estar !u bien &unda!entada, .sta era, es,
seguir9 siendo &alsa. *l establecer una identidad entre ser verdadero el creer algo co!o
verdadero es clara!ente una con&usi)n entre lo 'ue es verdadero con lo 'ue se cree 'ue es
verdadero.
M9s all9 de este proble!a, 4rege establece una distinci)n entre las lees del pensar
psicol)gico, las lees de la l)gica, cua aspiraci)n es investigar el ser verdadero. Dice 4rege en
,*l pensa!iento-$
0a palabra ,verdadero- le seGala el ru!bo a la l)gica, tal co!o la palabra ,bello- se
lo indica a la est.tica la palabra ,bueno- a la .tica. . . . a la l)gica le corresponde
discernir las lees del ser verdadero. . . . &e las leyes del ser verdadero se
siguen normas para considerar algo como verdadero para pensar' juzgar'
inferir' y as! se abla tambi%n de leyes del pensar. Pero a'u+ se cierne el
peligro de con&undir cosas di&erentes. ?ui/9 se entienda la e8presi)n ,le del
pensar- co!o ,le natural-, designando con ella lo universal en el acontecer
ps+'uico del pensar. *n este sentido una le del pensar ser+a una le psicol)gica. W
50
as+ se puede llegar a la opini)n de 'ue a la l)gica le ataGe el proceso ps+'uico del
pensar lees psicol)gicas, con&or!e a las cuales .ste acontece. Pero esto ser+a
desconocer la tarea de la l)gica, pues a la verdad no se le asignar+a all+ el lugar 'ue
le corresponde. . . . A &in de e8cluir cual'uier !alentendido de evitar 'ue se
borre la &rontera entre la psicolog+a la l)gica, le asigno a la lgica la tarea de
encontrar las leyes del ser verdadero no las de esti!ar 'ue algo es verdadero
o las del pensar. *n las lees del ser verdadero se e8plica el signi&icado de la
palabra ,verdadero-.
B
*ste pasa#e des!iti&ica un alegato hecho de !anera !u descuidada por algunos eruditos de
4rege, 'uienes alegan 'ue .l conceb+a la l)gica co!o una disciplina nor!ativa (es decir, disciplina
'ue nos dice ,c)!o debemos pensar-). Al contrario, .l a&ir!a 'ue a la l)gica le ocupa las lees del
,ser verdadero-, es decir, lees a priori eterna!ente v9lidas 'ue son de por s+ independientes de
todo pensar psicol)gico. *n este sentido, la l)gica escapa el 9!bito de ,las nor!as del recto
pensar-, por'ue ninguna de sus lees se ocupa de los procesos !entales. Ahora bien, si se deseara
proceder correctamente en cuanto a su &or!a de pensar para descubrir una verdad, entonces se
establecer+an ,nor!as del recto pensar- basadas en las lees a priori de la l)gica (o lees del ser
verdadero). Un e#e!plo sencillo$ una !ente 'ue deseara ser consistente en cuanto a las verdades
'ue conoce deber!a descartar contradicciones (di!ensi)n nor!ativa). *sta nor!ativa psicol)gica
estar+a &unda!entada en un principio l)gico (una le del ser verdadero)$ el principio de noL
contradicci)n X no se deber+a sostener una proposici)n su negaci)n co!o verdaderas
si!ult9nea!ente en el !is!o sentido.
(otas #inales
5 4rege 5FA0, F.
2 4rege 5FA0, 52L5=.
6 4rege 5FCB, A.
= 4rege 5FCB, A( 4rege 5FA0, A.
A 4rege 5FCB, ALC.
C 4rege 5FA0, P.
B 4rege 5FB2, 50AL50C, !i .n&asis.
55
!a+tulo )
&e#8ntica de Gottlob Frege
#uncin' )oncepto y *bjeto
*l tercer principio !encionado por 4rege en Los fundamentos de la aritmtica es una de
las !edidas para evitar caer en el psicologis!o$ la distinci)n entre concepto ob#eto. %in
e!bargo, ta!bi.n 4rege 'uiere distinguir la idea o representaci)n sub#etiva, de las nociones de
concepto ob#eto. Kl no habla !ucho de esta distinci)n en Los fundamentos de la aritmtica,
pero s+ se dedica de lleno a este te!a en sus obras posteriores, especial!ente en su ensao
,4unci)n concepto-, su ensao sobre el sentido re&erente de las palabras de concepto
(2usf3&rungen 3ber Sinn und %edeutung), ,%obre concepto ob#eto-, en el pre&acio de sus
Leyes fundamentales de la aritmtica.
4rege parte de la noci)n de &unci)n !ate!9tica para relacionar la l)gica con las
!ate!9ticas de !anera siste!9tica. Para 4rege, una funcin es una entidad noLsaturada de uno
o !9s argu!entos. Un argumento es un n"!ero 'ue cae ba#o esa &unci)n. Por e#e!plo,
pode!os tener co!o &unci)n la siguiente ecuaci)n$
f x=2 x
3
x
Ksta ser+a una &unci)n de ", en la 'ue " representar+a cual'uier n"!ero, o un vac+o dentro de la
&unci)n 'ue debe saturarse con un n"!ero. 0a ecuaci)n puede representarse de la siguiente
!anera$
f ( ) U 2( )Y S ( )
*stos huecos vac+os se llenan con argumentos, en este caso sustitui!os la " por el n"!ero 2$
f (2) U (2)Y S (2)
%e pueden llenar estos huecos vac+os en la &unci)n con otros argu!entos$
52
f (5) U 2(5)Y S (5)
f (6) U 2(6)Y S (6)
f (=) U 2(=)Y S (=)
*n estos casos, los n"!eros 5, 6 = son los respectivos argu!entos de todas estas e8presiones.
Dice 4rege 'ue ocurre algo se!e#ante en la l)gica con las nociones de concepto ob#eto.
*n el caso de las oraciones asertivas o declarativas, .stas se pueden concebir co!o co!puestas de
dos partes en las 'ue una puede pensarse co!o ,co!pleta-, !ientras 'ue la otra ,re'uiere
co!pletud o saturaci)n-. 4rege nos da el siguiente e#e!plo$
,1.sar con'uist) las 2alias.-
%e puede desco!poner la oraci)n en ,1.sar- ,con'uist) las 2alias-. 0a segunda parte, el
predicado, lleva consigo un lugar vac+o co!o en el caso de las &unciones !ate!9ticas$
( ) con'uist) las 2alias.
Por otro lado, el no!bre ,1.sar- se re&iere a un ob#eto 'ue no re'uiere saturaci)n, por'ue a es
saturado. *l ob#eto denotado por el no!bre ,1.sar- ser+a el no!bre del argu!ento de la &unci)n
a la 'ue se re&iere ,con'uist) las 2alias-.
4rege de&ine concepto co!o una &unci)n de un argu!ento cuo valor es sie!pre un valor
de verdad.
M
*n este caso, ,1.sar con'uist) las 2alias- ser+a verdadero. %i sustitui!os ,1.sar- por
otro no!bre 'ue designe a un ob#eto distinto, podr+a ser &also. Kste ser+a el caso de ,2alileo
con'uist) las 2alias-.
Para 4rege, un objeto es una entidad saturada, lo 'ue lo distingue del concepto, 'ue es una
&unci)n necesitada de saturaci)n. A'uellos ob#etos 'ue caen ba#o el concepto se consideran la
extensin del concepto. *l ob#eto designado por el no!bre propio ,1.sar- es la e8tensi)n del
concepto designado por ,co'uist) las 2alias-. *l ob#eto designado por el no!bre ,2alileo- no
ser+a la e8tensi)n de dicho concepto.
M %i la &unci)n es de !9s de un argu!ento, a dicha &unci)n se le conoce co!o relacin, por e#e!plo$ ,1harlie es
padre de Pedro-, la relaci)n ser+a ," es padre de y-, o ,( ) es padre de ( )-.
56
+igno' +entido y Referente
<al ve/ una de las contribuciones !9s signi&icativas hecha por 2ottlob 4rege &ue la
distinci)n entre signo, sentido re&erente. *sta secci)n esclarece esta relaci)n entre estos tres
conceptos &regeanos.
>?u. es un signo lingV+stico@ *n el caso del habla, el signo lo constitue una corriente de
sonidos 'ue nosotros pode!os interpretar lingV+stica!ente. *n el caso de la escritura, es una
representaci)n visual gr9&ica la 'ue es portadora de un signi&icado. <o!e!os, por e#e!plo, el
caso de los no!bres propios. Para 4rege, un nombre propio es un signo 'ue designa a un ob#eto.
3o s)lo ,Ale#andro- o ,Hos.- son no!bres propios, sino ta!bi.n se inclue a lo 'ue Bertrand
Russell sol+a lla!ar ,&rases denotantes- o ,descripciones de&inidas-, es decir, &rases 'ue designan a
un ob#eto$ ,la estrella de la !aGana-, ,el vencido en Daterloo-, ,el presidente actual de los
*stados Unidos-. *l referente es a'uello designado por el signo. *l re&erente de un no!bre
propio es un ob#eto particular. >?u. es, pues, el sentido@ 4rege lla!a sentido al contenido l)gico
del signo, al signi&icado.
Para ilustrar esta distinci)n entre signo, sentido re&erente, use!os los siguientes
e#e!plos.
,jemplo -$
,0a estrella de la !aGana-
,0a estrella de la !aGana-
A!bos signos son el !is!o, por ende, es el !is!o no!bre propio. *s la !is!a
representaci)n visual gr9&ica 'ue contienen el !is!o !ensa#e, es decir, tienen el !is!o
sentido. *l re&erente, el ob#eto 'ue designan, es el !is!o$ el planeta :enus.
,jemplo .$
,0a estrella de la !aGana-
,<he !orning star-
*stos son no!bres propios distintos, , por ende, son signos di&erentes por'ue el arreglo
ortogr9&ico gra!atical, la co!binaci)n de las letras su pronunciaci)n di&ieren
5=
!arcada!ente. %in e!bargo, los dos no!bres propios significan lo mismo, por lo tanto
tienen el !is!o sentido, ta!bi.n tienen co!o re&erente al planeta :enus.
,jemplo /$
,0a estrella de la !aGana-
,0a estrella de la tarde-
*n este caso, no s)lo los dos no!bres propios di&ieren en signo, sino 'ue ta!bi.n di&ieren
en sentido. A!bos no!bres propios no signi&ican lo !is!o, a 'ue la in&or!aci)n 'ue
nos brindan es distinta. A"n as+, tienen al planeta :enus co!o re&erente.
,jemplo 0$
,0a estrella de la !aGana-
,*l derrotado en Daterloo-
*stos no!bres propios, no s)lo di&ieren en cuanto a signo, ni en cuanto a sentido, sino
ta!bi.n di&ieren en cuanto a re&erente. *n este e#e!plo, ,la estrella de la !aGana- tiene al
planeta :enus co!o re&erente, !ientras 'ue ,el derrotado en Daterloo- se refiere a
3apole)n Bonaparte.
Represente!os estos e#e!plos con la siguiente tabla$
:La 9strella de la Ma;ana<
,o#bres Pro+ios 9l Mis#o &igno 9l Mis#o &entido 9l Mis#o Referente
4La !strella de la 'a5ana6 & & &
47&e 'orning Star6 ,o & &
4La !strella de la 7arde6 ,o ,o &
4!l 8errotado en 9aterloo6 ,o ,o ,o
*n su ensao ,%obre sentido re&erente-, 4rege co!ien/a por una e8posici)n en torno a
las ecuaciones ,a : a- ,a U b-. De acuerdo con Oant, una &)r!ula ,a : a- ser+a un #uicio
anal+tico. %in e!bargo, si uno tuviera una ecuaci)n ,a : b-, la situaci)n ca!bia, por'ue en
principio, de acuerdo con Oant, se brinda un nuevo conoci!iento.
5A
Ahora bien, si .ste es el caso habr+a 'ue preguntarse si lo 'ue di&iere entre ,a- ,b- es s)lo
a nivel de signos. %i supone!os 'ue la ,a U b- es verdadera, esta ecuaci)n no &uera !9s 'ue de
!eros signos, entonces no brindar+a conoci!iento nuevo. %er+a co!o el e#e!plo de ,la estrella de
la !aGana U the !orning star-.
%i ,a- ,b- son s)lo &or!as de no!brar al !is!o ob#eto al 'ue se re&ieren, entonces la
proposici)n a U b- no di&erir+a de ,a U a-.
4rege propone 'ue para solucionar este proble!a, ha 'ue interpretar ,a- ,b- co!o dos
no!bres propios con sentidos distintos. *l signo de ,U- signi&ica 'ue tienen a un !is!o ob#eto
co!o re&erente. %in e!bargo, lo 'ue hace 'ue ,a U b- tenga valor cognitivo es 'ue los no!bres
propios contienen sentidos diferentes. 0a ecuaci)n
,0a estrella de la !aGana- U ,0a estrella de la !aGana-
no o&rece in&or!aci)n nueva en torno a :enus, no tiene valor cognitivo alguno. 0a situaci)n es
distinta con$
,0a estrella de la !aGana- U ,0a estrella de la tarde-
*sta ecuaci)n no es una !era tautolog+a s+ pode!os conocer algo nuevo sobre el planeta :enus.
Para 4rege, ha otros signos 'ue .l lla!a ,palabras conceptuales- 'ue ta!bi.n tienen
sentido re&erente. Para .l, las ,palabras conceptuales- son signos 'ue se re&ieren a un concepto.
1o!o a he!os dicho, el concepto es una &unci)n de un s)lo argu!ento cuo valor es un valor
veritativo. Ahora bien, para 4rege >los conceptos las &unciones en general son re&erentes reales
o son &icticios@ Para .l, las funciones y conceptos son entidades que existen con
independencia de la psicolog!a umana y del mundo f!sico. Por ende, 4rege ta!bi.n es
realista (espec+&ica!ente platonista) en lo 'ue respecta a las &unciones, incluendo a los conceptos.
Ahora bien, >'u. es el sentido de una palabra conceptual@ Desgraciada!ente, en sus obras, 4rege
no e8plica 'u. es el sentido de una palabra conceptual.
4inal!ente, 4rege ta!bi.n nos habla de otros tipos de signos$ las oraciones asertivas o
declarativas. *n cuanto a signos, ellas se co!ponen de no!bre propio palabra conceptual (e.g.
,1.sar con'uist) las 2alias-, la ,estrella de la !aGana es brillante-). Ahora bien, puede haber dos
oraciones declarativas 'ue tengan distinto sentido, pero un s)lo re&erente. Por e#e!plo$
5C
,0a estrella de la !aGana es un cuerpo ilu!inado por el sol.-
,0a estrella de la tarde es un cuerpo ilu!inado por el sol.-
*n a!bos casos, el sentido de estas oraciones asertivas ca!bian por'ue el sentido los no!bres
propios ca!bian. 4rege lla!a ,pensamiento- al sentido de una oraci)n asertiva o declarativa.
M

Para .l, el pensa!iento se co!pone del sentido del no!bre propio del sentido de la palabra
conceptual.
4inal!ente, utili/ando nuestro "lti!o e#e!plo, nota!os 'ue, a pesar de 'ue el
pensa!iento de las dos oraciones asertivas di&ieren entre s+, tienen un !is!o re&erente. >1u9l es
ese re&erente@ Un valor veritativo, en este caso la verdad. Para 4rege, tanto la verdad co!o la
&alsedad son ob;etos denotados por los pensa!ientos. Un pensa!iento verdadero denotar9 la
verdad, un pensa!iento &also denotar9 la &alsedad. >?u. hace 'ue un pensa!iento sea
verdadero@ %i el ob#eto denotado por el no!bre propio cae ba#o el concepto denotado por la
palabra conceptual, se puede decir 'ue la oraci)n tiene a la verdad co!o re&erente. %i no es as+,
entonces, ser9 un pensa!iento &also.
Ahora bien, puede haber no!bres propios 'ue pueden tener sentido, pero no tener
denotaci)n. *l no!bre propio ,el !aor n"!ero par- es un e#e!plo de ello. Qgual!ente, puede
haber pensa!ientos 'ue no denoten verdad &alsedad. Por e#e!plo, si deci!os
,;diseo parti) de Ztaca-
resulta 'ue ,;diseo- no tiene re&erente real alguno, no se puede decir 'ue el pensa!iento
e8presado en esta oraci)n sea verdadero o &also.
Je a'u+ una tabla 'ue resu!e la doctrina &regeana de sentido re&erente$
&igno <ombre Propio Palabra $onceptual =racin 8eclarativa
&entido
%entido de 3o!bre
Propio
%entido de Palabra
1onceptual
Pensa!iento
Referente ;b#eto 1oncepto :alor de :erdad
;b#eto 'ue 1ae ba#o
1oncepto
M 1uando 4rege habla de ,pensa!iento- (der Gedan>e), no est9 hablando de la actividad de pensar, sino !9s bien al
sentido de una oraci)n asertiva. Desgraciada!ente, esta ter!inolog+a &regeana se presta a !uchos
!alentendidos. Jo d+a se utili/a el t.r!ino ,proposici)n- para evitar la con&usi)n.
5B
3)tese 'ue los sentidos son e8)ticos$ no son !ani&estaciones &+sicas sesibles co!o los
signos, pero ta!poco son ob#etos &+sicos. 0os sentidos parecen ser entidades abstractas 'ue
,&lotan- entre el signo el ob#eto.
Los +entidos y las Representaciones Psicolgicas
Para evitar el psicologis!o, 4rege hace una distinci)n i!portant+si!a entre
representaciones !entales sentidos. Para .l, la naturale/a del sentido es distinta a la de
representaciones psicol)gicas, no son reducibles a la psicolog+a. 0a di&erencia entre la
representaci)n !ental el sentido consiste en 'ue la pri!era s)lo ocurre co!o una vivencia
sub#etiva 'ue no se puede co!partir con los de!9s. *n el caso del sentido, .ste es co!partido
aprehendido o captado por todos. 4rege utili/a la analog+a del telescopio para ilustrar esta
distinci)n$
*l re&erente [de un signo\ es el ob#eto !is!o 'ue designa!os con .l( la
representaci)n 'ue tene!os en este caso es total!ente sub#etiva( entre a!bos est9
el sentido 'ue a no es sub#etivo co!o la representaci)n, pero 'ue ta!poco es el
ob#eto !is!o. 0a siguiente co!paraci)n es tal ve/ apropiada para clari&icar estas
relaciones. Alguien observa la luna a trav.s de un telescopio. 1o!paro la luna
!is!a con el re&erente( ella es el ob#eto de la observaci)n 'ue es trans!itido por la
i!agen real proectada !ediante el lente en el interior del telescopio por la
i!agen en la retina del observador. A'u.lla la co!paro con el sentido, .sta con la
representaci)n o percepci)n directa. 0a i!agen en el telescopio es por cierto
unilateral, depende de la perspectiva de observaci)n, sin e!bargo es ob#etiva en
cuanto puede servir a varios observadores. *n todo caso se puede to!ar !edidas
para 'ue varios la utilicen si!ultanea!ente. 1ada uno poseer9 e!pero su propia
i!agen en la retina.
5
*l sentido, pues, ser+a la !anera abstracta ob#etiva !ediante la cual designa!os al re&erente,
puede ser co!partido entre varios entes, pero la representaci)n no. Por lo tanto, aun'ue los
sentidos no son ob#etos, su objetividad no depende de la psicolog!a umana, co!o ocurre en
el caso de las representaciones. Para aclarar la di&erencia entre sentido representaci)n, en ,*l
pensa!iento- 4rege nos o&rece varias caracter+sticas de las representaciones los sentidos$
5E
5. 0as representaciones, al igual 'ue los sentidos, no pueden ser vistas ni palpadas, no pueden
ser olidas, ni gustadas, ni o+das.
2. 0as representaciones se poseen. %e tienen sensaciones, senti!ientos, estados de 9ni!o,
tendencias, deseos. Una representaci)n 'ue alguien posee pertenece al contenido de
conciencia. 3o es as+ el caso de los sentidos.
6. 0as representaciones re'uieren un portador, los sentidos no.
=. 1ada representaci)n tiene un s)lo portador, dos ho!bres no tienen la !is!a
representaci)n. %in e!bargo, dos ho!bres pueden co!partir el !is!o sentido. 0a
representaci)n sub#etiva e i!aginativa del teore!a de Pit9goras 'ue se hace cada ser
hu!ano en su !ente es distinta, pero todos pueden captar o aprehender el !is!o sentido
con e8actitud.
Para resaltar la independencia 'ue go/an los sentidos aparte de la psicolog+a hu!ana, 4rege utili/a
el valor de verdad de los pensa!ientos$
%i es verdad 'ue esto escribiendo esto en !i rec9!ara el 56 de #ulio de 5EF6,
!ientras 'ue el viento a"lla &uerte!ente a&uera, entonces contin"a siendo
verdadero a"n si !9s tarde todos lo sostuvieran co!o &also.
2
Para 4rege, si un pensa!iento es verdadero, per!anece siendo verdadero eterna!ente, no
i!porta si todos a&ir!an lo contrario, a"n si no ha nadie 'ue los capte.
4inal!ente, 4rege a&ir!a 'ue ha 'ue reconocer tres 9!bitos distintos$
1. 9l Pri#er =#bito$ *s el 9!bito o reino del !undo &+sico.
2. 9l &egundo =#bito$ *l 9!bito de los procesos !entales las representaciones
psicol)gicas.
). 9l >ercer =#bito$ ,l mbito de entidades abstractas' pero objetivas y existetes ]
sentidos en general (los pensa!ientos), las &unciones (incluendo los conceptos), los
valores de verdad (verdad o &alsedad).
*ste ,tercer 9!bito- &regeano ha sido ob#eto de controversia en la &iloso&+a de las !ate!9ticas
del lengua#e debido a su realis!o platoni/ante. 0a di&icultad de este punto de vista es 'ue 4rege
5F
nunca e8plica c)!o conoce!os algunas de dichas entidades, e.g. los n"!eros, las nociones
geo!.tricas, los a8io!as l)gicos !ate!9ticos, entre otras.
(otas #inales1
5 4rege 5FB2, A2, !odi&icaciones !+as.
2 4rege 5FFB, 20B.
20
Referencias
Fuentes Pri#arias
4rege, 2ottlob. ,Begri&&sschri&t.- From Frege to G?del. ed. Hean van Jei#enoort. 1a!bridge$
Jarvard Universit Press, 5FCB.
. 7&e Foundations of 2rit&metic. 5FA0. <rad. H. 0. Austin. *vanston, Q0$
3orth7estern Universit Press, 5FFF.
. 7&e Frege (eader# *d. Michael Beane. ;8&ord, UO$ BlacI7ell
Publishers, 5FFB.
. Lgica y sem@ntica. <rad. Al&onso 2)!e/L0obo. 1hile$ Universidad
1at)lica de :alpara+so, 5FB2.
Fuentes &ecundarias
1o&&a, H. Alberto. 7&e Semantic 7radition from Aant to $arnap: to t&e Bienna Station. 5FF5. UO$
1a!bridge Universit Press, 5FFE.
Du!!ett, Michael. Frege: P&ilosop&y of Language. 0ondon$ DucI7orth, 5FE5.
. Frege: P&ilosop&y of 'at&ematics. 0ondon$ DucI7orth, 5FE5.
. =rigins of 2nalytic P&ilosop&y. 5FF6. U%$ Jarvard Universit Press,
5FFC.
Jill, 1laire ;rti/. 9ord and =b;ect in HusserlC Frege and (ussell. 5FF5. U%$ ;hio Universit
Press, 2005.
Jill, 1laire ;rti/ and 2uiller!o *. Rosado JaddocI. Husserl or FregeD: 'eaningC =b;ectivityC
and 'at&ematics. Q0$ ;pen 1ourt, 2000.
Oat/, Herrold. SenseC (eferenceC and P&ilosop&y. U%$ ;8&ord Universit Press, 200=.
25
Oline, Morris. 'atem@ticas: la prdida de la certidumbre. *spaGa$ %iglo PPQ *ditores, 5FEA.
Mendelsohn, Richard 0. 7&e P&ilosop&y of Gottlob Frege. UO$ 1a!bridge Universit Press, 200A.
Mohant, H. 3. Husserl and Frege. Bloo!ington, Q3$ Qndiana Universit Press, 5FE2.
. ,Jusserl and 4rege$ a 3e7 0ooI at their Relationship.- (esearc& in
P&enomenology. =. 5FB=$ A5LC2.
3otturno, MarI A!adeus. =b;ectivityC (ationality and t&e 7&ird (ealm: Eustification and t&e
Grounds of Psyc&ologism. Dordrecht$ Martinus 3i#ho&& Publishers, 5FEA.
ResniI, Michael. ,4rege^s 1onte8t Principle Revisited-. Studies on Frege. :ol. 6. Matthias %chirn
(ed.). :erlag, 5FBC.
RicIetts, <o! and Michael Potter (eds.). 7&e $ambridge $ompanion to Frege. UO$ 1a!bridge
Universit Press, 2050.
Rosado JaddocI, 2uiller!o *. 2 $ritical Introduction to t&e P&ilosop&y of Gottlob Frege. U%$
Ashgate, 200C.
. ,Dh and Jo7 Platonis!@- Logic Eournal of IGPL. 0. 200B$ C25LC6C.
doi$ 50.50F6_#igpal_#/!0=2.
%h7ader, David. ,;n the Deter!ination o& Re&erence b %ense.- Studies on Frege. :ol. 6.
Matthias %chirn (ed.) %tuttgartLBad 1annstatt$ 4ro!!annLJol/boog, 5FBC.
22
$+6ndice $
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26
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2=
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*RR;R%, DJ*<J*R ;R 3;< DQ%1;:*RAB0*. %;M* HURQ%DQ1<Q;3% D; 3;< A00;D <J* *P10U%Q;3 ;4 QMP0Q*D DARRA3<Q*%,
%; %U1J *P10U%Q;3 MAW 3;< APP0W <; W;U.
C. Li#itation on Liabilit.. *P1*P< <; <J* *P<*3< R*?UQR*D BW APP0Q1AB0* 0AD, Q3 3; *:*3< DQ00 0Q1*3%;R B* 0QAB0* <;
W;U ;3 A3W 0*2A0 <J*;RW 4;R A3W %P*1QA0, Q31QD*3<A0, 1;3%*?U*3<QA0, PU3Q<Q:* ;R *P*MP0ARW DAMA2*% ARQ%Q32
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DAMA2*%.
D. >er#ination
a. <his 0icense and the rights granted hereunder 7ill ter!inate auto!aticall upon an breach b Wou o& the ter!s o& this 0icense.
Qndividuals or entities 7ho have received Adaptations or 1ollections &ro! Wou under this 0icense, ho7ever, 7ill not have their licenses
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b. %ub#ect to the above ter!s and conditions, the license granted here is perpetual (&or the duration o& the applicable copright in the
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E. Miscellaneous
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b. *ach ti!e Wou Distribute or Publicl Per&or! an Adaptation, 0icensor o&&ers to the recipient a license to the original DorI on the sa!e
ter!s and conditions as the license granted to Wou under this 0icense.
2A
c. Q& an provision o& this 0icense is invalid or unen&orceable under applicable la7, it shall not a&&ect the validit or en&orceabilit o& the
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d. 3o ter! or provision o& this 0icense shall be dee!ed 7aived and no breach consented to unless such 7aiver or consent shall be in
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e. <his 0icense constitutes the entire agree!ent bet7een the parties 7ith respect to the DorI licensed here. <here are no understandings,
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0icensor and Wou.
&. <he rights granted under, and the sub#ect !atter re&erenced, in this 0icense 7ere dra&ted utili/ing the ter!inolog o& the Berne
1onvention &or the Protection o& 0iterar and Artistic DorIs (as a!ended on %epte!ber 2E, 5FBF), the Ro!e 1onvention o& 5FC5, the
DQP; 1opright <reat o& 5FFC, the DQP; Per&or!ances and Phonogra!s <reat o& 5FFC and the Universal 1opright 1onvention (as
revised on Hul 2=, 5FB5). <hese rights and sub#ect !atter taIe e&&ect in the relevant #urisdiction in 7hich the 0icense ter!s are sought to
be en&orced according to the corresponding provisions o& the i!ple!entation o& those treat provisions in the applicable national la7. Q&
the standard suite o& rights granted under applicable copright la7 includes additional rights not granted under this 0icense, such
additional rights are dee!ed to be included in the 0icense( this 0icense is not intended to restrict the license o& an rights under
applicable la7.
!reati"e !o##ons ,otice
1reative 1o!!ons is not a part to this 0icense, and !aIes no 7arrant 7hatsoever in connection 7ith the DorI. 1reative 1o!!ons 7ill not be
liable to Wou or an part on an legal theor &or an da!ages 7hatsoever, including 7ithout li!itation an general, special, incidental or
conse'uential da!ages arising in connection to this license. 3ot7ithstanding the &oregoing t7o (2) sentences, i& 1reative 1o!!ons has e8pressl
identi&ied itsel& as the 0icensor hereunder, it shall have all rights and obligations o& 0icensor.
*8cept &or the li!ited purpose o& indicating to the public that the DorI is licensed under the 11P0, 1reative 1o!!ons does not authori/e the use
b either part o& the trade!arI `1reative 1o!!ons` or an related trade!arI or logo o& 1reative 1o!!ons 7ithout the prior 7ritten consent o&
1reative 1o!!ons. An per!itted use 7ill be in co!pliance 7ith 1reative 1o!!ons^ thenLcurrent trade!arI usage guidelines, as !a be
published on its 7ebsite or other7ise !ade available upon re'uest &ro! ti!e to ti!e. 4or the avoidance o& doubt, this trade!arI restriction does
not &or! part o& the 0icense.
1reative 1o!!ons !a be contacted at http$__creativeco!!ons.org_.
2C
$+6ndice
G,* Free -ocu#entation License
:ersion 5.6, 6 3ove!ber 200E
1opright a 2000, 2005, 2002, 200B, 200E 4ree %o&t7are 4oundation, Qnc. bhttp$__&s&.org_c
*verone is per!itted to cop and distribute verbati! copies o& this license docu!ent, but changing it is not allo7ed.
0. PR9$ML9
<he purpose o& this 0icense is to !aIe a !anual, te8tbooI, or other &unctional and use&ul docu!ent `&ree` in the sense o& &reedo!$ to assure
everone the e&&ective &reedo! to cop and redistribute it, 7ith or 7ithout !odi&ing it, either co!!erciall or nonco!!erciall. %econdaril,
this 0icense preserves &or the author and publisher a 7a to get credit &or their 7orI, 7hile not being considered responsible &or !odi&ications
!ade b others.
<his 0icense is a Iind o& `cople&t`, 7hich !eans that derivative 7orIs o& the docu!ent !ust the!selves be &ree in the sa!e sense. Qt co!ple!ents
the 23U 2eneral Public 0icense, 7hich is a cople&t license designed &or &ree so&t7are.
De have designed this 0icense in order to use it &or !anuals &or &ree so&t7are, because &ree so&t7are needs &ree docu!entation$ a &ree progra!
should co!e 7ith !anuals providing the sa!e &reedo!s that the so&t7are does. But this 0icense is not li!ited to so&t7are !anuals( it can be used
&or an te8tual 7orI, regardless o& sub#ect !atter or 7hether it is published as a printed booI. De reco!!end this 0icense principall &or 7orIs
7hose purpose is instruction or re&erence.
1. $PPLI!$ILI>B $,- -9FI,I>I@,&
<his 0icense applies to an !anual or other 7orI, in an !ediu!, that contains a notice placed b the copright holder saing it can be
distributed under the ter!s o& this 0icense. %uch a notice grants a 7orldL7ide, roaltL&ree license, unli!ited in duration, to use that 7orI under
the conditions stated herein. <he `Docu!ent`, belo7, re&ers to an such !anual or 7orI. An !e!ber o& the public is a licensee, and is addressed
as `ou`. Wou accept the license i& ou cop, !odi& or distribute the 7orI in a 7a re'uiring per!ission under copright la7.
A `Modi&ied :ersion` o& the Docu!ent !eans an 7orI containing the Docu!ent or a portion o& it, either copied verbati!, or 7ith !odi&ications
and_or translated into another language.
A `%econdar %ection` is a na!ed appendi8 or a &rontL!atter section o& the Docu!ent that deals e8clusivel 7ith the relationship o& the publishers
or authors o& the Docu!ent to the Docu!ent^s overall sub#ect (or to related !atters) and contains nothing that could &all directl 7ithin that
overall sub#ect. (<hus, i& the Docu!ent is in part a te8tbooI o& !athe!atics, a %econdar %ection !a not e8plain an !athe!atics.) <he
relationship could be a !atter o& historical connection 7ith the sub#ect or 7ith related !atters, or o& legal, co!!ercial, philosophical, ethical or
political position regarding the!.
<he `Qnvariant %ections` are certain %econdar %ections 7hose titles are designated, as being those o& Qnvariant %ections, in the notice that sas
that the Docu!ent is released under this 0icense. Q& a section does not &it the above de&inition o& %econdar then it is not allo7ed to be designated
as Qnvariant. <he Docu!ent !a contain /ero Qnvariant %ections. Q& the Docu!ent does not identi& an Qnvariant %ections then there are none.
<he `1over <e8ts` are certain short passages o& te8t that are listed, as 4rontL1over <e8ts or BacIL1over <e8ts, in the notice that sas that the
Docu!ent is released under this 0icense. A 4rontL1over <e8t !a be at !ost A 7ords, and a BacIL1over <e8t !a be at !ost 2A 7ords.
A `<ransparent` cop o& the Docu!ent !eans a !achineLreadable cop, represented in a &or!at 7hose speci&ication is available to the general
public, that is suitable &or revising the docu!ent straight&or7ardl 7ith generic te8t editors or (&or i!ages co!posed o& pi8els) generic paint
progra!s or (&or dra7ings) so!e 7idel available dra7ing editor, and that is suitable &or input to te8t &or!atters or &or auto!atic translation to a
variet o& &or!ats suitable &or input to te8t &or!atters. A cop !ade in an other7ise <ransparent &ile &or!at 7hose !arIup, or absence o& !arIup,
2B
has been arranged to th7art or discourage subse'uent !odi&ication b readers is not <ransparent. An i!age &or!at is not <ransparent i& used &or
an substantial a!ount o& te8t. A cop that is not `<ransparent` is called `;pa'ue`.
*8a!ples o& suitable &or!ats &or <ransparent copies include plain A%1QQ 7ithout !arIup, <e8in&o input &or!at, 0a<eP input &or!at, %2M0 or
PM0 using a publicl available D<D, and standardLcon&or!ing si!ple J<M0, Post%cript or PD4 designed &or hu!an !odi&ication. *8a!ples o&
transparent i!age &or!ats include P32, P14 and HP2. ;pa'ue &or!ats include proprietar &or!ats that can be read and edited onl b
proprietar 7ord processors, %2M0 or PM0 &or 7hich the D<D and_or processing tools are not generall available, and the !achineLgenerated
J<M0, Post%cript or PD4 produced b so!e 7ord processors &or output purposes onl.
<he `<itle Page` !eans, &or a printed booI, the title page itsel&, plus such &ollo7ing pages as are needed to hold, legibl, the !aterial this 0icense
re'uires to appear in the title page. 4or 7orIs in &or!ats 7hich do not have an title page as such, `<itle Page` !eans the te8t near the !ost
pro!inent appearance o& the 7orI^s title, preceding the beginning o& the bod o& the te8t.
<he `publisher` !eans an person or entit that distributes copies o& the Docu!ent to the public.
A section `*ntitled PWN` !eans a na!ed subunit o& the Docu!ent 7hose title either is precisel PWN or contains PWN in parentheses &ollo7ing
te8t that translates PWN in another language. (Jere PWN stands &or a speci&ic section na!e !entioned belo7, such as `AcIno7ledge!ents`,
`Dedications`, `*ndorse!ents`, or `Jistor`.) <o `Preserve the <itle` o& such a section 7hen ou !odi& the Docu!ent !eans that it re!ains a
section `*ntitled PWN` according to this de&inition.
<he Docu!ent !a include Darrant Disclai!ers ne8t to the notice 7hich states that this 0icense applies to the Docu!ent. <hese Darrant
Disclai!ers are considered to be included b re&erence in this 0icense, but onl as regards disclai!ing 7arranties$ an other i!plication that these
Darrant Disclai!ers !a have is void and has no e&&ect on the !eaning o& this 0icense.
2. F9R$>IM !@PBI,G
Wou !a cop and distribute the Docu!ent in an !ediu!, either co!!erciall or nonco!!erciall, provided that this 0icense, the copright
notices, and the license notice saing this 0icense applies to the Docu!ent are reproduced in all copies, and that ou add no other conditions
7hatsoever to those o& this 0icense. Wou !a not use technical !easures to obstruct or control the reading or &urther coping o& the copies ou
!aIe or distribute. Jo7ever, ou !a accept co!pensation in e8change &or copies. Q& ou distribute a large enough nu!ber o& copies ou !ust
also &ollo7 the conditions in section 6.
Wou !a also lend copies, under the sa!e conditions stated above, and ou !a publicl displa copies.
). !@PBI,G I, 5*$,>I>B
Q& ou publish printed copies (or copies in !edia that co!!onl have printed covers) o& the Docu!ent, nu!bering !ore than 500, and the
Docu!ent^s license notice re'uires 1over <e8ts, ou !ust enclose the copies in covers that carr, clearl and legibl, all these 1over <e8ts$ 4rontL
1over <e8ts on the &ront cover, and BacIL1over <e8ts on the bacI cover. Both covers !ust also clearl and legibl identi& ou as the publisher o&
these copies. <he &ront cover !ust present the &ull title 7ith all 7ords o& the title e'uall pro!inent and visible. Wou !a add other !aterial on
the covers in addition. 1oping 7ith changes li!ited to the covers, as long as the preserve the title o& the Docu!ent and satis& these conditions,
can be treated as verbati! coping in other respects.
Q& the re'uired te8ts &or either cover are too volu!inous to &it legibl, ou should put the &irst ones listed (as !an as &it reasonabl) on the actual
cover, and continue the rest onto ad#acent pages.
Q& ou publish or distribute ;pa'ue copies o& the Docu!ent nu!bering !ore than 500, ou !ust either include a !achineLreadable <ransparent
cop along 7ith each ;pa'ue cop, or state in or 7ith each ;pa'ue cop a co!puterLnet7orI location &ro! 7hich the general net7orILusing
public has access to do7nload using publicLstandard net7orI protocols a co!plete <ransparent cop o& the Docu!ent, &ree o& added !aterial. Q&
ou use the latter option, ou !ust taIe reasonabl prudent steps, 7hen ou begin distribution o& ;pa'ue copies in 'uantit, to ensure that this
<ransparent cop 7ill re!ain thus accessible at the stated location until at least one ear a&ter the last ti!e ou distribute an ;pa'ue cop
(directl or through our agents or retailers) o& that edition to the public.
Qt is re'uested, but not re'uired, that ou contact the authors o& the Docu!ent 7ell be&ore redistributing an large nu!ber o& copies, to give the!
a chance to provide ou 7ith an updated version o& the Docu!ent.
G. M@-IFI!$>I@,&
Wou !a cop and distribute a Modi&ied :ersion o& the Docu!ent under the conditions o& sections 2 and 6 above, provided that ou release the
Modi&ied :ersion under precisel this 0icense, 7ith the Modi&ied :ersion &illing the role o& the Docu!ent, thus licensing distribution and
!odi&ication o& the Modi&ied :ersion to 7hoever possesses a cop o& it. Qn addition, ou !ust do these things in the Modi&ied :ersion$
A. Use in the <itle Page (and on the covers, i& an) a title distinct &ro! that o& the Docu!ent, and &ro! those o& previous versions (7hich should, i&
there 7ere an, be listed in the Jistor section o& the Docu!ent). Wou !a use the sa!e title as a previous version i& the original publisher o& that
version gives per!ission.
B. 0ist on the <itle Page, as authors, one or !ore persons or entities responsible &or authorship o& the !odi&ications in the Modi&ied :ersion,
together 7ith at least &ive o& the principal authors o& the Docu!ent (all o& its principal authors, i& it has &e7er than &ive), unless the release ou
&ro! this re'uire!ent.
1. %tate on the <itle page the na!e o& the publisher o& the Modi&ied :ersion, as the publisher.
D. Preserve all the copright notices o& the Docu!ent.
2E
*. Add an appropriate copright notice &or our !odi&ications ad#acent to the other copright notices.
4. Qnclude, i!!ediatel a&ter the copright notices, a license notice giving the public per!ission to use the Modi&ied :ersion under the ter!s o&
this 0icense, in the &or! sho7n in the Addendu! belo7.
2. Preserve in that license notice the &ull lists o& Qnvariant %ections and re'uired 1over <e8ts given in the Docu!ent^s license notice.
J. Qnclude an unaltered cop o& this 0icense.
Q. Preserve the section *ntitled `Jistor`, Preserve its <itle, and add to it an ite! stating at least the title, ear, ne7 authors, and publisher o& the
Modi&ied :ersion as given on the <itle Page. Q& there is no section *ntitled `Jistor` in the Docu!ent, create one stating the title, ear, authors,
and publisher o& the Docu!ent as given on its <itle Page, then add an ite! describing the Modi&ied :ersion as stated in the previous sentence.
H. Preserve the net7orI location, i& an, given in the Docu!ent &or public access to a <ransparent cop o& the Docu!ent, and liIe7ise the net7orI
locations given in the Docu!ent &or previous versions it 7as based on. <hese !a be placed in the `Jistor` section. Wou !a o!it a net7orI
location &or a 7orI that 7as published at least &our ears be&ore the Docu!ent itsel&, or i& the original publisher o& the version it re&ers to gives
per!ission.
O. 4or an section *ntitled `AcIno7ledge!ents` or `Dedications`, Preserve the <itle o& the section, and preserve in the section all the substance
and tone o& each o& the contributor acIno7ledge!ents and_or dedications given therein.
0. Preserve all the Qnvariant %ections o& the Docu!ent, unaltered in their te8t and in their titles. %ection nu!bers or the e'uivalent are not
considered part o& the section titles.
M. Delete an section *ntitled `*ndorse!ents`. %uch a section !a not be included in the Modi&ied :ersion.
3. Do not retitle an e8isting section to be *ntitled `*ndorse!ents` or to con&lict in title 7ith an Qnvariant %ection.
;. Preserve an Darrant Disclai!ers.
Q& the Modi&ied :ersion includes ne7 &rontL!atter sections or appendices that 'uali& as %econdar %ections and contain no !aterial copied &ro!
the Docu!ent, ou !a at our option designate so!e or all o& these sections as invariant. <o do this, add their titles to the list o& Qnvariant
%ections in the Modi&ied :ersion^s license notice. <hese titles !ust be distinct &ro! an other section titles.
Wou !a add a section *ntitled `*ndorse!ents`, provided it contains nothing but endorse!ents o& our Modi&ied :ersion b various parties]&or
e8a!ple, state!ents o& peer revie7 or that the te8t has been approved b an organi/ation as the authoritative de&inition o& a standard.
Wou !a add a passage o& up to &ive 7ords as a 4rontL1over <e8t, and a passage o& up to 2A 7ords as a BacIL1over <e8t, to the end o& the list o&
1over <e8ts in the Modi&ied :ersion. ;nl one passage o& 4rontL1over <e8t and one o& BacIL1over <e8t !a be added b (or through
arrange!ents !ade b) an one entit. Q& the Docu!ent alread includes a cover te8t &or the sa!e cover, previousl added b ou or b
arrange!ent !ade b the sa!e entit ou are acting on behal& o&, ou !a not add another( but ou !a replace the old one, on e8plicit
per!ission &ro! the previous publisher that added the old one.
<he author(s) and publisher(s) o& the Docu!ent do not b this 0icense give per!ission to use their na!es &or publicit &or or to assert or i!pl
endorse!ent o& an Modi&ied :ersion.
C. !@MI,I,G -@!*M9,>&
Wou !a co!bine the Docu!ent 7ith other docu!ents released under this 0icense, under the ter!s de&ined in section = above &or !odi&ied
versions, provided that ou include in the co!bination all o& the Qnvariant %ections o& all o& the original docu!ents, un!odi&ied, and list the! all
as Qnvariant %ections o& our co!bined 7orI in its license notice, and that ou preserve all their Darrant Disclai!ers.
<he co!bined 7orI need onl contain one cop o& this 0icense, and !ultiple identical Qnvariant %ections !a be replaced 7ith a single cop. Q&
there are !ultiple Qnvariant %ections 7ith the sa!e na!e but di&&erent contents, !aIe the title o& each such section uni'ue b adding at the end o&
it, in parentheses, the na!e o& the original author or publisher o& that section i& Ino7n, or else a uni'ue nu!ber. MaIe the sa!e ad#ust!ent to the
section titles in the list o& Qnvariant %ections in the license notice o& the co!bined 7orI.
Qn the co!bination, ou !ust co!bine an sections *ntitled `Jistor` in the various original docu!ents, &or!ing one section *ntitled `Jistor`(
liIe7ise co!bine an sections *ntitled `AcIno7ledge!ents`, and an sections *ntitled `Dedications`. Wou !ust delete all sections *ntitled
`*ndorse!ents`.
H. !@LL9!>I@,& @F -@!*M9,>&
Wou !a !aIe a collection consisting o& the Docu!ent and other docu!ents released under this 0icense, and replace the individual copies o& this
0icense in the various docu!ents 7ith a single cop that is included in the collection, provided that ou &ollo7 the rules o& this 0icense &or
verbati! coping o& each o& the docu!ents in all other respects.
Wou !a e8tract a single docu!ent &ro! such a collection, and distribute it individuall under this 0icense, provided ou insert a cop o& this
0icense into the e8tracted docu!ent, and &ollo7 this 0icense in all other respects regarding verbati! coping o& that docu!ent.
D. $GGR9G$>I@, AI>I I,-9P9,-9,> A@RJ&
A co!pilation o& the Docu!ent or its derivatives 7ith other separate and independent docu!ents or 7orIs, in or on a volu!e o& a storage or
distribution !ediu!, is called an `aggregate` i& the copright resulting &ro! the co!pilation is not used to li!it the legal rights o& the
2F
co!pilation^s users beond 7hat the individual 7orIs per!it. Dhen the Docu!ent is included in an aggregate, this 0icense does not appl to the
other 7orIs in the aggregate 7hich are not the!selves derivative 7orIs o& the Docu!ent.
Q& the 1over <e8t re'uire!ent o& section 6 is applicable to these copies o& the Docu!ent, then i& the Docu!ent is less than one hal& o& the entire
aggregate, the Docu!ent^s 1over <e8ts !a be placed on covers that bracIet the Docu!ent 7ithin the aggregate, or the electronic e'uivalent o&
covers i& the Docu!ent is in electronic &or!. ;ther7ise the !ust appear on printed covers that bracIet the 7hole aggregate.
E. >R$,&L$>I@,
<ranslation is considered a Iind o& !odi&ication, so ou !a distribute translations o& the Docu!ent under the ter!s o& section =. Replacing
Qnvariant %ections 7ith translations re'uires special per!ission &ro! their copright holders, but ou !a include translations o& so!e or all
Qnvariant %ections in addition to the original versions o& these Qnvariant %ections. Wou !a include a translation o& this 0icense, and all the license
notices in the Docu!ent, and an Darrant Disclai!ers, provided that ou also include the original *nglish version o& this 0icense and the
original versions o& those notices and disclai!ers. Qn case o& a disagree!ent bet7een the translation and the original version o& this 0icense or a
notice or disclai!er, the original version 7ill prevail.
Q& a section in the Docu!ent is *ntitled `AcIno7ledge!ents`, `Dedications`, or `Jistor`, the re'uire!ent (section =) to Preserve its <itle (section
5) 7ill tpicall re'uire changing the actual title.
K. >9RMI,$>I@,
Wou !a not cop, !odi&, sublicense, or distribute the Docu!ent e8cept as e8pressl provided under this 0icense. An atte!pt other7ise to
cop, !odi&, sublicense, or distribute it is void, and 7ill auto!aticall ter!inate our rights under this 0icense.
Jo7ever, i& ou cease all violation o& this 0icense, then our license &ro! a particular copright holder is reinstated (a) provisionall, unless and
until the copright holder e8plicitl and &inall ter!inates our license, and (b) per!anentl, i& the copright holder &ails to noti& ou o& the
violation b so!e reasonable !eans prior to C0 das a&ter the cessation.
Moreover, our license &ro! a particular copright holder is reinstated per!anentl i& the copright holder noti&ies ou o& the violation b so!e
reasonable !eans, this is the &irst ti!e ou have received notice o& violation o& this 0icense (&or an 7orI) &ro! that copright holder, and ou
cure the violation prior to 60 das a&ter our receipt o& the notice.
<er!ination o& our rights under this section does not ter!inate the licenses o& parties 7ho have received copies or rights &ro! ou under this
0icense. Q& our rights have been ter!inated and not per!anentl reinstated, receipt o& a cop o& so!e or all o& the sa!e !aterial does not give
ou an rights to use it.
10. F*>*R9 R9FI&I@,& @F >II& LI!9,&9
<he 4ree %o&t7are 4oundation !a publish ne7, revised versions o& the 23U 4ree Docu!entation 0icense &ro! ti!e to ti!e. %uch ne7 versions
7ill be si!ilar in spirit to the present version, but !a di&&er in detail to address ne7 proble!s or concerns. %ee http$__777.gnu.org_cople&t_.
*ach version o& the 0icense is given a distinguishing version nu!ber. Q& the Docu!ent speci&ies that a particular nu!bered version o& this 0icense
`or an later version` applies to it, ou have the option o& &ollo7ing the ter!s and conditions either o& that speci&ied version or o& an later version
that has been published (not as a dra&t) b the 4ree %o&t7are 4oundation. Q& the Docu!ent does not speci& a version nu!ber o& this 0icense, ou
!a choose an version ever published (not as a dra&t) b the 4ree %o&t7are 4oundation. Q& the Docu!ent speci&ies that a pro8 can decide 7hich
&uture versions o& this 0icense can be used, that pro8^s public state!ent o& acceptance o& a version per!anentl authori/es ou to choose that
version &or the Docu!ent.
11. R9LI!9,&I,G
`Massive Multiauthor 1ollaboration %ite` (or `MM1 %ite`) !eans an Dorld Dide Deb server that publishes coprightable 7orIs and also
provides pro!inent &acilities &or anbod to edit those 7orIs. A public 7iIi that anbod can edit is an e8a!ple o& such a server. A `Massive
Multiauthor 1ollaboration` (or `MM1`) contained in the site !eans an set o& coprightable 7orIs thus published on the MM1 site.
`11LBWL%A` !eans the 1reative 1o!!ons AttributionL%hare AliIe 6.0 license published b 1reative 1o!!ons 1orporation, a notL&orLpro&it
corporation 7ith a principal place o& business in %an 4rancisco, 1ali&ornia, as 7ell as &uture cople&t versions o& that license published b that
sa!e organi/ation.
`Qncorporate` !eans to publish or republish a Docu!ent, in 7hole or in part, as part o& another Docu!ent.
An MM1 is `eligible &or relicensing` i& it is licensed under this 0icense, and i& all 7orIs that 7ere &irst published under this 0icense so!e7here
other than this MM1, and subse'uentl incorporated in 7hole or in part into the MM1, (5) had no cover te8ts or invariant sections, and (2) 7ere
thus incorporated prior to 3ove!ber 5, 200E.
<he operator o& an MM1 %ite !a republish an MM1 contained in the site under 11LBWL%A on the sa!e site at an ti!e be&ore August 5, 200F,
provided the MM1 is eligible &or relicensing.
60
$--9,-*M0 Io2 to use t'is License for .our docu#ents
<o use this 0icense in a docu!ent ou have 7ritten, include a cop o& the 0icense in the docu!ent and put the &ollo7ing copright and license
notices #ust a&ter the title page$
$opyrig&t )$1 F!2( F=G( <2'!#
Permission is granted to copyC distribute andHor modify t&is document
under t&e terms of t&e G<G Free 8ocumentation LicenseC Bersion *#I
or any later version publis&ed by t&e Free SoftJare FoundationK
Jit& no Invariant SectionsC no Front.$over 7e"tsC and no %ac>.$over 7e"ts#
2 copy of t&e license is included in t&e section entitled LG<G
Free 8ocumentation LicenseL#
Q& ou have Qnvariant %ections, 4rontL1over <e8ts and BacIL1over <e8ts, replace the `7ith d <e8ts.` line 7ith this$
Jit& t&e Invariant Sections being LIS7 7H!I( 7I7L!SC Jit& t&e
Front.$over 7e"ts being LIS7C and Jit& t&e %ac>.$over 7e"ts being LIS7#
Q& ou have Qnvariant %ections 7ithout 1over <e8ts, or so!e other co!bination o& the three, !erge those t7o alternatives to suit the situation.
Q& our docu!ent contains nontrivial e8a!ples o& progra! code, 7e reco!!end releasing these e8a!ples in parallel under our choice o& &ree
so&t7are license, such as the 23U 2eneral Public 0icense, to per!it their use in &ree so&t7are.
65
$+6ndice !
G,* General Public License
:ersion 6, 2F Hune 200B
1opright a 200B 4ree %o&t7are 4oundation, Qnc. bhttp$__&s&.org_c
*verone is per!itted to cop and distribute verbati! copies o& this license docu!ent, but changing it is not allo7ed.
Preamble
<he 23U 2eneral Public 0icense is a &ree, cople&t license &or so&t7are and other Iinds o& 7orIs.
<he licenses &or !ost so&t7are and other practical 7orIs are designed to taIe a7a our &reedo! to share and change the 7orIs. B contrast, the
23U 2eneral Public 0icense is intended to guarantee our &reedo! to share and change all versions o& a progra!LLto !aIe sure it re!ains &ree
so&t7are &or all its users. De, the 4ree %o&t7are 4oundation, use the 23U 2eneral Public 0icense &or !ost o& our so&t7are( it applies also to an
other 7orI released this 7a b its authors. Wou can appl it to our progra!s, too.
Dhen 7e speaI o& &ree so&t7are, 7e are re&erring to &reedo!, not price. ;ur 2eneral Public 0icenses are designed to !aIe sure that ou have the
&reedo! to distribute copies o& &ree so&t7are (and charge &or the! i& ou 7ish), that ou receive source code or can get it i& ou 7ant it, that ou
can change the so&t7are or use pieces o& it in ne7 &ree progra!s, and that ou Ino7 ou can do these things.
<o protect our rights, 7e need to prevent others &ro! dening ou these rights or asIing ou to surrender the rights. <here&ore, ou have certain
responsibilities i& ou distribute copies o& the so&t7are, or i& ou !odi& it$ responsibilities to respect the &reedo! o& others.
4or e8a!ple, i& ou distribute copies o& such a progra!, 7hether gratis or &or a &ee, ou !ust pass on to the recipients the sa!e &reedo!s that ou
received. Wou !ust !aIe sure that the, too, receive or can get the source code. And ou !ust sho7 the! these ter!s so the Ino7 their rights.
Developers that use the 23U 2P0 protect our rights 7ith t7o steps$
(5) assert copright on the so&t7are, and (2) o&&er ou this 0icense giving ou legal per!ission to cop, distribute and_or !odi& it.
4or the developers^ and authors^ protection, the 2P0 clearl e8plains that there is no 7arrant &or this &ree so&t7are. 4or both users^ and authors^
saIe, the 2P0 re'uires that !odi&ied versions be !arIed as changed, so that their proble!s 7ill not be attributed erroneousl to authors o&
previous versions.
%o!e devices are designed to den users access to install or run !odi&ied versions o& the so&t7are inside the!, although the !anu&acturer can do
so. <his is &unda!entall inco!patible 7ith the ai! o& protecting users^ &reedo! to change the so&t7are. <he sste!atic pattern o& such abuse
occurs in the area o& products &or individuals to use, 7hich is precisel 7here it is !ost unacceptable. <here&ore, 7e have designed this version o&
the 2P0 to prohibit the practice &or those products. Q& such proble!s arise substantiall in other do!ains, 7e stand read to e8tend this provision
to those do!ains in &uture versions o& the 2P0, as needed to protect the &reedo! o& users.
4inall, ever progra! is threatened constantl b so&t7are patents. %tates should not allo7 patents to restrict develop!ent and use o& so&t7are on
generalLpurpose co!puters, but in those that do, 7e 7ish to avoid the special danger that patents applied to a &ree progra! could !aIe it
e&&ectivel proprietar. <o prevent this, the 2P0 assures that patents cannot be used to render the progra! nonL&ree.
<he precise ter!s and conditions &or coping, distribution and !odi&ication &ollo7.
62
>9RM& $,- !@,-I>I@,&
0. -efinitions.
`<his 0icense` re&ers to version 6 o& the 23U 2eneral Public 0icense.
`1opright` also !eans coprightLliIe la7s that appl to other Iinds o& 7orIs, such as se!iconductor !asIs.
`<he Progra!` re&ers to an coprightable 7orI licensed under this 0icense. *ach licensee is addressed as `ou`. `0icensees` and `recipients` !a
be individuals or organi/ations.
<o `!odi&` a 7orI !eans to cop &ro! or adapt all or part o& the 7orI in a &ashion re'uiring copright per!ission, other than the !aIing o& an
e8act cop. <he resulting 7orI is called a `!odi&ied version` o& the earlier 7orI or a 7orI `based on` the earlier 7orI.
A `covered 7orI` !eans either the un!odi&ied Progra! or a 7orI based on the Progra!.
<o `propagate` a 7orI !eans to do anthing 7ith it that, 7ithout per!ission, 7ould !aIe ou directl or secondaril liable &or in&ringe!ent
under applicable copright la7, e8cept e8ecuting it on a co!puter or !odi&ing a private cop. Propagation includes coping, distribution (7ith
or 7ithout !odi&ication), !aIing available to the public, and in so!e countries other activities as 7ell.
<o `conve` a 7orI !eans an Iind o& propagation that enables other parties to !aIe or receive copies. Mere interaction 7ith a user through a
co!puter net7orI, 7ith no trans&er o& a cop, is not conveing.
An interactive user inter&ace displas `Appropriate 0egal 3otices` to the e8tent that it includes a convenient and pro!inentl visible &eature that
(5) displas an appropriate copright notice, and (2) tells the user that there is no 7arrant &or the 7orI (e8cept to the e8tent that 7arranties are
provided), that licensees !a conve the 7orI under this 0icense, and ho7 to vie7 a cop o& this 0icense. Q& the inter&ace presents a list o& user
co!!ands or options, such as a !enu, a pro!inent ite! in the list !eets this criterion.
1. &ource !ode.
<he `source code` &or a 7orI !eans the pre&erred &or! o& the 7orI &or !aIing !odi&ications to it. `;b#ect code` !eans an nonLsource &or! o& a
7orI.
A `%tandard Qnter&ace` !eans an inter&ace that either is an o&&icial standard de&ined b a recogni/ed standards bod, or, in the case o& inter&aces
speci&ied &or a particular progra!!ing language, one that is 7idel used a!ong developers 7orIing in that language.
<he `%ste! 0ibraries` o& an e8ecutable 7orI include anthing, other than the 7orI as a 7hole, that (a) is included in the nor!al &or! o&
pacIaging a Ma#or 1o!ponent, but 7hich is not part o& that Ma#or 1o!ponent, and (b) serves onl to enable use o& the 7orI 7ith that Ma#or
1o!ponent, or to i!ple!ent a %tandard Qnter&ace &or 7hich an i!ple!entation is available to the public in source code &or!. A `Ma#or
1o!ponent`, in this conte8t, !eans a !a#or essential co!ponent (Iernel, 7indo7 sste!, and so on) o& the speci&ic operating sste! (i& an) on
7hich the e8ecutable 7orI runs, or a co!piler used to produce the 7orI, or an ob#ect code interpreter used to run it.
<he `1orresponding %ource` &or a 7orI in ob#ect code &or! !eans all the source code needed to generate, install, and (&or an e8ecutable 7orI)
run the ob#ect code and to !odi& the 7orI, including scripts to control those activities. Jo7ever, it does not include the 7orI^s %ste! 0ibraries,
or generalLpurpose tools or generall available &ree
progra!s 7hich are used un!odi&ied in per&or!ing those activities but 7hich are not part o& the 7orI. 4or e8a!ple, 1orresponding %ource
includes inter&ace de&inition &iles associated 7ith source &iles &or the 7orI, and the source code &or shared libraries and dna!icall linIed
subprogra!s that the 7orI is speci&icall designed to re'uire,
such as b inti!ate data co!!unication or control &lo7 bet7een those subprogra!s and other parts o& the 7orI.
<he 1orresponding %ource need not include anthing that users can regenerate auto!aticall &ro! other parts o& the 1orresponding %ource.
<he 1orresponding %ource &or a 7orI in source code &or! is that sa!e 7orI.
2. asic Per#issions.
All rights granted under this 0icense are granted &or the ter! o& copright on the Progra!, and are irrevocable provided the stated conditions are
!et. <his 0icense e8plicitl a&&ir!s our unli!ited per!ission to run the un!odi&ied Progra!. <he output &ro! running a covered 7orI is
covered b this 0icense onl i& the output, given its content, constitutes a covered 7orI. <his 0icense acIno7ledges our rights o& &air use or other
e'uivalent, as provided b copright la7.
Wou !a !aIe, run and propagate covered 7orIs that ou do not conve, 7ithout conditions so long as our license other7ise re!ains in &orce.
Wou !a conve covered 7orIs to others &or the sole purpose o& having the! !aIe !odi&ications e8clusivel &or ou, or provide ou 7ith
&acilities &or running those 7orIs, provided that ou co!pl 7ith the ter!s o& this 0icense in conveing all !aterial &or 7hich ou do not control
copright. <hose thus !aIing or running the covered 7orIs &or ou !ust do so e8clusivel on our behal&, under our direction and control, on
ter!s that prohibit the! &ro! !aIing an copies o& our coprighted !aterial outside their relationship 7ith ou.
1onveing under an other circu!stances is per!itted solel under the conditions stated belo7. %ublicensing is not allo7ed( section 50 !aIes it
unnecessar.
66
). Protecting *sersL Legal Rig'ts Fro# $nti%!ircu#"ention La2.
3o covered 7orI shall be dee!ed part o& an e&&ective technological !easure under an applicable la7 &ul&illing obligations under article 55 o& the
DQP; copright treat adopted on 20 Dece!ber 5FFC, or si!ilar la7s prohibiting or restricting circu!vention o& such !easures.
Dhen ou conve a covered 7orI, ou 7aive an legal po7er to &orbid circu!vention o& technological !easures to the e8tent such
circu!vention is e&&ected b e8ercising rights under this 0icense 7ith respect to the covered 7orI, and ou disclai! an intention to li!it
operation or !odi&ication o& the 7orI as a !eans o& en&orcing, against the 7orI^s users, our or third parties^ legal rights to &orbid circu!vention
o& technological !easures.
G. !on"e.ing Ferbati# !o+ies.
Wou !a conve verbati! copies o& the Progra!^s source code as ou receive it, in an !ediu!, provided that ou conspicuousl and
appropriatel publish on each cop an appropriate copright notice( Ieep intact all notices stating that this 0icense and an nonLper!issive ter!s
added in accord 7ith section B appl to the code( Ieep intact all notices o& the absence o& an 7arrant( and give all recipients a cop o& this
0icense along 7ith the Progra!.
Wou !a charge an price or no price &or each cop that ou conve, and ou !a o&&er support or 7arrant protection &or a &ee.
C. !on"e.ing Modified &ource Fersions.
Wou !a conve a 7orI based on the Progra!, or the !odi&ications to produce it &ro! the Progra!, in the &or! o& source code under the ter!s
o& section =, provided that ou also !eet all o& these conditions$
a) <he 7orI !ust carr pro!inent notices stating that ou !odi&ied it, and giving a relevant date.
b) <he 7orI !ust carr pro!inent notices stating that it is released under this 0icense and an conditions added under section B. <his
re'uire!ent !odi&ies the re'uire!ent in section = to `Ieep intact all notices`.
c) Wou !ust license the entire 7orI, as a 7hole, under this 0icense to anone 7ho co!es into possession o& a cop. <his 0icense 7ill
there&ore appl, along 7ith an applicable section B additional ter!s, to the 7hole o& the 7orI, and all its parts, regardless o& ho7
the are pacIaged. <his 0icense gives no per!ission to license the 7orI in an other 7a, but it does not invalidate such per!ission
i& ou have separatel received it.
Q& the 7orI has interactive user inter&aces, each !ust displa Appropriate 0egal 3otices( ho7ever, i& the Progra! has interactive
inter&aces that do not displa Appropriate 0egal 3otices, our 7orI need not !aIe the! do so.
A co!pilation o& a covered 7orI 7ith other separate and independent 7orIs, 7hich are not b their nature e8tensions o& the covered 7orI, and
7hich are not co!bined 7ith it such as to &or! a larger progra!, in or on a volu!e o& a storage or distribution !ediu!, is called an `aggregate` i&
the co!pilation and its resulting copright are not used to li!it the access or legal rights o& the co!pilation^s users beond 7hat the individual
7orIs per!it. Qnclusion o& a covered 7orI in an aggregate does not cause this 0icense to appl to the other parts o& the aggregate.
H. !on"e.ing ,on%&ource For#s.
Wou !a conve a covered 7orI in ob#ect code &or! under the ter!s o& sections = and A, provided that ou also conve the !achineLreadable
1orresponding %ource under the ter!s o& this 0icense, in one o& these 7as$
a) 1onve the ob#ect code in, or e!bodied in, a phsical product (including a phsical distribution !ediu!), acco!panied b the
1orresponding %ource &i8ed on a durable phsical !ediu! custo!aril used &or so&t7are interchange.
b) 1onve the ob#ect code in, or e!bodied in, a phsical product (including a phsical distribution !ediu!), acco!panied b a 7ritten
o&&er, valid &or at least three ears and valid &or as long as ou o&&er spare parts or custo!er support &or that product !odel, to give
anone 7ho possesses the ob#ect code either (5) a cop o& the 1orresponding %ource &or all the so&t7are in the product that is covered
b this 0icense, on a durable phsical !ediu! custo!aril used &or so&t7are interchange, &or a price no !ore than our reasonable cost
o& phsicall per&or!ing this conveing o& source, or (2) access to cop the 1orresponding %ource &ro! a net7orI server at no charge.
c) 1onve individual copies o& the ob#ect code 7ith a cop o& the 7ritten o&&er to provide the 1orresponding %ource. <his alternative is
allo7ed onl occasionall and nonco!!erciall, and onl i& ou received the ob#ect code 7ith such an o&&er, in accord 7ith subsection
Cb.
d) 1onve the ob#ect code b o&&ering access &ro! a designated place (gratis or &or a charge), and o&&er e'uivalent access to the
1orresponding %ource in the sa!e 7a through the sa!e place at no &urther charge. Wou need not re'uire recipients to cop the
1orresponding %ource along 7ith the ob#ect code. Q& the place to cop the ob#ect code is a net7orI server, the 1orresponding %ource
!a be on a di&&erent server (operated b ou or a third part) that supports e'uivalent coping &acilities, provided ou !aintain clear
directions ne8t to the ob#ect code saing 7here to &ind the 1orresponding %ource. Regardless o& 7hat server hosts the 1orresponding
%ource, ou re!ain obligated to ensure that it is available &or as long as needed to satis& these re'uire!ents.
e) 1onve the ob#ect code using peerLtoLpeer trans!ission, provided ou in&or! other peers 7here the ob#ect code and 1orresponding
%ource o& the 7orI are being o&&ered to the general public at no charge under subsection Cd.
A separable portion o& the ob#ect code, 7hose source code is e8cluded &ro! the 1orresponding %ource as a %ste! 0ibrar, need not be included
in conveing the ob#ect code 7orI.
6=
A `User Product` is either (5) a `consu!er product`, 7hich !eans an tangible personal propert 7hich is nor!all used &or personal, &a!il, or
household purposes, or (2) anthing designed or sold &or incorporation into a d7elling. Qn deter!ining 7hether a product is a consu!er product,
doubt&ul cases shall be resolved in &avor o& coverage. 4or a particular product received b a particular user, `nor!all used` re&ers to a tpical or
co!!on use o& that class o& product, regardless o& the status o& the particular user or o& the 7a in 7hich the particular user actuall uses, or
e8pects or is e8pected to use, the product. A product is a consu!er product regardless o& 7hether the product has substantial co!!ercial,
industrial or nonLconsu!er uses, unless such uses represent the onl signi&icant !ode o& use o& the product.
`Qnstallation Qn&or!ation` &or a User Product !eans an !ethods, procedures, authori/ation Ies, or other in&or!ation re'uired to install and
e8ecute !odi&ied versions o& a covered 7orI in that User Product &ro! a !odi&ied version o& its 1orresponding %ource. <he in&or!ation !ust
su&&ice to ensure that the continued &unctioning o& the !odi&ied ob#ect code is in no case prevented or inter&ered 7ith solel because !odi&ication
has been !ade.
Q& ou conve an ob#ect code 7orI under this section in, or 7ith, or speci&icall &or use in, a User Product, and the conveing occurs as part o& a
transaction in 7hich the right o& possession and use o& the User Product is trans&erred to the recipient in perpetuit or &or a &i8ed ter! (regardless
o& ho7 the transaction is characteri/ed), the
1orresponding %ource conveed under this section !ust be acco!panied b the Qnstallation Qn&or!ation. But this re'uire!ent does not appl i&
neither ou nor an third part retains the abilit to install !odi&ied ob#ect code on the User Product (&or e8a!ple, the 7orI has been installed in
R;M).
<he re'uire!ent to provide Qnstallation Qn&or!ation does not include a re'uire!ent to continue to provide support service, 7arrant, or updates
&or a 7orI that has been !odi&ied or installed b the recipient, or &or the User Product in 7hich it has been !odi&ied or installed. Access to a
net7orI !a be denied 7hen the !odi&ication itsel& !ateriall and adversel a&&ects the operation o& the net7orI or violates the rules and
protocols &or co!!unication across the net7orI.
1orresponding %ource conveed, and Qnstallation Qn&or!ation provided, in accord 7ith this section !ust be in a &or!at that is publicl
docu!ented (and 7ith an i!ple!entation available to the public in source code &or!), and !ust re'uire no special pass7ord or Ie &or unpacIing,
reading or coping.
D. $dditional >er#s.
`Additional per!issions` are ter!s that supple!ent the ter!s o& this 0icense b !aIing e8ceptions &ro! one or !ore o& its conditions. Additional
per!issions that are applicable to the entire Progra! shall be treated as though the 7ere included in this 0icense, to the e8tent that the are valid
under applicable la7. Q& additional per!issions appl onl to part o& the Progra!, that part !a be used separatel under those per!issions, but
the entire Progra! re!ains governed b this 0icense 7ithout regard to the additional per!issions.
Dhen ou conve a cop o& a covered 7orI, ou !a at our option re!ove an additional per!issions &ro! that cop, or &ro! an part o& it.
(Additional per!issions !a be 7ritten to re'uire their o7n re!oval in certain cases 7hen ou !odi& the 7orI.) Wou !a place additional
per!issions on !aterial, added b ou to a covered 7orI, &or 7hich ou have or can give appropriate copright per!ission.
3ot7ithstanding an other provision o& this 0icense, &or !aterial ou add to a covered 7orI, ou !a (i& authori/ed b the copright holders o&
that !aterial) supple!ent the ter!s o& this 0icense 7ith ter!s$
a) Disclai!ing 7arrant or li!iting liabilit di&&erentl &ro! the ter!s o& sections 5A and 5C o& this 0icense( or
b) Re'uiring preservation o& speci&ied reasonable legal notices or author attributions in that !aterial or in the Appropriate 0egal
3otices displaed b 7orIs containing it( or
c) Prohibiting !isrepresentation o& the origin o& that !aterial, or re'uiring that !odi&ied versions o& such !aterial be !arIed in
reasonable 7as as di&&erent &ro! the original version( or
d) 0i!iting the use &or publicit purposes o& na!es o& licensors or authors o& the !aterial( or
e) Declining to grant rights under trade!arI la7 &or use o& so!e trade na!es, trade!arIs, or service !arIs( or
&) Re'uiring inde!ni&ication o& licensors and authors o& that !aterial b anone 7ho conves the !aterial (or !odi&ied versions o& it)
7ith contractual assu!ptions o& liabilit to the recipient, &or an liabilit that these contractual assu!ptions directl i!pose on those
licensors and authors.
All other nonLper!issive additional ter!s are considered `&urther restrictions` 7ithin the !eaning o& section 50. Q& the Progra! as ou received
it, or an part o& it, contains a notice stating that it is governed b this 0icense along 7ith a ter! that is a &urther restriction, ou !a re!ove that
ter!. Q& a license docu!ent contains a &urther restriction but per!its relicensing or conveing under this 0icense, ou !a add to a covered 7orI
!aterial governed b the ter!s o& that license docu!ent, provided that the &urther restriction does not survive such relicensing or conveing.
Q& ou add ter!s to a covered 7orI in accord 7ith this section, ou !ust place, in the relevant source &iles, a state!ent o& the additional ter!s
that appl to those &iles, or a notice indicating 7here to &ind the applicable ter!s.
Additional ter!s, per!issive or nonLper!issive, !a be stated in the &or! o& a separatel 7ritten license, or stated as e8ceptions( the above
re'uire!ents appl either 7a.
E. >er#ination.
Wou !a not propagate or !odi& a covered 7orI e8cept as e8pressl provided under this 0icense. An atte!pt other7ise to propagate or
!odi& it is void, and 7ill auto!aticall ter!inate our rights under this 0icense (including an patent licenses granted under the third paragraph
o& section 55).
6A
Jo7ever, i& ou cease all violation o& this 0icense, then our license &ro! a particular copright holder is reinstated (a) provisionall, unless and
until the copright holder e8plicitl and &inall ter!inates our license, and (b) per!anentl, i& the copright holder &ails to noti& ou o& the
violation b so!e reasonable !eans prior to C0 das a&ter the cessation.
Moreover, our license &ro! a particular copright holder is reinstated per!anentl i& the copright holder noti&ies ou o& the violation b so!e
reasonable !eans, this is the &irst ti!e ou have received notice o& violation o& this 0icense (&or an 7orI) &ro! that copright holder, and ou
cure the violation prior to 60 das a&ter our receipt o& the notice.
<er!ination o& our rights under this section does not ter!inate the licenses o& parties 7ho have received copies or rights &ro! ou under this
0icense. Q& our rights have been ter!inated and not per!anentl reinstated, ou do not 'uali& to receive ne7 licenses &or the sa!e !aterial
under section 50.
K. $cce+tance ,ot ReMuired for Ia"ing !o+ies.
Wou are not re'uired to accept this 0icense in order to receive or run a cop o& the Progra!. Ancillar propagation o& a covered 7orI occurring
solel as a conse'uence o& using peerLtoLpeer trans!ission to receive a cop liIe7ise does not re'uire acceptance. Jo7ever, nothing other than
this 0icense grants ou per!ission to propagate or !odi& an covered 7orI. <hese actions in&ringe copright i& ou do not accept this 0icense.
<here&ore, b !odi&ing or propagating a covered 7orI, ou indicate our acceptance o& this 0icense to do so.
10. $uto#atic Licensing of -o2nstrea# Reci+ients.
*ach ti!e ou conve a covered 7orI, the recipient auto!aticall receives a license &ro! the original licensors, to run, !odi& and propagate that
7orI, sub#ect to this 0icense. Wou are not responsible &or en&orcing co!pliance b third parties 7ith this 0icense.
An `entit transaction` is a transaction trans&erring control o& an organi/ation, or substantiall all assets o& one, or subdividing an organi/ation,
or !erging organi/ations. Q& propagation o& a covered 7orI results &ro! an entit transaction, each part to that transaction 7ho receives a cop
o& the 7orI also receives 7hatever licenses to the 7orI the part^s predecessor in interest had or could give under the previous paragraph, plus a
right to possession o& the 1orresponding %ource o& the 7orI &ro! the predecessor in interest, i& the predecessor has it or can get it 7ith reasonable
e&&orts.
Wou !a not i!pose an &urther restrictions on the e8ercise o& the rights granted or a&&ir!ed under this 0icense. 4or e8a!ple, ou !a not
i!pose a license &ee, roalt, or other charge &or e8ercise o& rights granted under this 0icense, and ou !a not initiate litigation (including a
crossLclai! or counterclai! in a la7suit) alleging that an patent clai! is in&ringed b !aIing, using, selling, o&&ering &or sale, or i!porting the
Progra! or an portion o& it.
11. Patents.
A `contributor` is a copright holder 7ho authori/es use under this 0icense o& the Progra! or a 7orI on 7hich the Progra! is based. <he 7orI
thus licensed is called the contributor^s `contributor version`.
A contributor^s `essential patent clai!s` are all patent clai!s o7ned or controlled b the contributor, 7hether alread ac'uired or herea&ter
ac'uired, that 7ould be in&ringed b so!e !anner, per!itted b this 0icense, o& !aIing, using, or selling its contributor version, but do not
include clai!s that 7ould be in&ringed onl as a conse'uence o& &urther !odi&ication o& the contributor version. 4or purposes o& this de&inition,
`control` includes the right to grant patent sublicenses in a !anner consistent 7ith the re'uire!ents o& this 0icense.
*ach contributor grants ou a nonLe8clusive, 7orld7ide, roaltL&ree patent license under the contributor^s essential patent clai!s, to !aIe, use,
sell, o&&er &or sale, i!port and other7ise run, !odi& and propagate the contents o& its contributor version.
Qn the &ollo7ing three paragraphs, a `patent license` is an e8press agree!ent or co!!it!ent, ho7ever deno!inated, not to en&orce a patent
(such as an e8press per!ission to practice a patent or covenant not to sue &or patent in&ringe!ent). <o `grant` such a patent license to a part
!eans to !aIe such an agree!ent or co!!it!ent not to en&orce a patent against the part.
Q& ou conve a covered 7orI, Ino7ingl reling on a patent license, and the 1orresponding %ource o& the 7orI is not available &or anone to
cop, &ree o& charge and under the ter!s o& this 0icense, through a publicl available net7orI server or other readil accessible !eans, then ou
!ust either (5) cause the 1orresponding %ource to be so available, or (2) arrange to deprive oursel& o& the bene&it o& the patent license &or this
particular 7orI, or (6) arrange, in a !anner consistent 7ith the re'uire!ents o& this 0icense, to e8tend the patent license to do7nstrea! recipients.
`Ono7ingl reling` !eans ou have actual Ino7ledge that, but &or the patent license, our conveing the covered 7orI in a countr, or our
recipient^s use o& the covered 7orI in a countr, 7ould in&ringe one or !ore identi&iable patents in that countr that ou have reason to believe are
valid.
Q&, pursuant to or in connection 7ith a single transaction or arrange!ent, ou conve, or propagate b procuring conveance o&, a covered 7orI,
and grant a patent license to so!e o& the parties receiving the covered 7orI authori/ing the! to use, propagate, !odi& or conve a speci&ic cop
o& the covered 7orI, then the patent license ou grant is auto!aticall e8tended to all recipients o& the covered 7orI and 7orIs based on it.
A patent license is `discri!inator` i& it does not include 7ithin the scope o& its coverage, prohibits the e8ercise o&, or is conditioned on the nonL
e8ercise o& one or !ore o& the rights that are speci&icall granted under this 0icense. Wou !a not conve a covered 7orI i& ou are a part to an
arrange!ent 7ith a third part that is in the business o& distributing so&t7are, under 7hich ou !aIe pa!ent to the third part based on the
e8tent o& our activit o& conveing the 7orI, and under 7hich the third part grants, to an o& the parties 7ho 7ould receive the covered 7orI
&ro! ou, a discri!inator patent license (a) in connection 7ith copies o& the covered 7orI conveed b ou (or copies !ade &ro! those copies),
or (b) pri!aril &or and in connection 7ith speci&ic products or co!pilations that contain the covered 7orI, unless ou entered into that
arrange!ent, or that patent license 7as granted, prior to 2E March 200B.
6C
3othing in this 0icense shall be construed as e8cluding or li!iting an i!plied license or other de&enses to in&ringe!ent that !a other7ise be
available to ou under applicable patent la7.
12. ,o &urrender of @t'ersL Freedo#.
Q& conditions are i!posed on ou (7hether b court order, agree!ent or other7ise) that contradict the conditions o& this 0icense, the do not
e8cuse ou &ro! the conditions o& this 0icense. Q& ou cannot conve a covered 7orI so as to satis& si!ultaneousl our obligations under this
0icense and an other pertinent obligations, then as a conse'uence ou !a not conve it at all. 4or e8a!ple, i& ou agree to ter!s that obligate
ou to collect a roalt &or &urther conveing &ro! those to 7ho! ou conve the Progra!, the onl 7a ou could satis& both those ter!s and
this 0icense 7ould be to re&rain entirel &ro! conveing the Progra!.
1). *se 2it' t'e G,* $ffero General Public License.
3ot7ithstanding an other provision o& this 0icense, ou have per!ission to linI or co!bine an covered 7orI 7ith a 7orI licensed under
version 6 o& the 23U A&&ero 2eneral Public 0icense into a single co!bined 7orI, and to conve the resulting 7orI. <he ter!s o& this 0icense 7ill
continue to appl to the part 7hich is the covered 7orI, but the special re'uire!ents o& the 23U A&&ero 2eneral Public 0icense, section 56,
concerning interaction through a net7orI 7ill appl to the co!bination as such.
1G. Re"ised Fersions of t'is License.
<he 4ree %o&t7are 4oundation !a publish revised and_or ne7 versions o& the 23U 2eneral Public 0icense &ro! ti!e to ti!e. %uch ne7
versions 7ill be si!ilar in spirit to the present version, but !a di&&er in detail to address ne7 proble!s or concerns.
*ach version is given a distinguishing version nu!ber. Q& the Progra! speci&ies that a certain nu!bered version o& the 23U 2eneral Public
0icense `or an later version` applies to it, ou have the option o& &ollo7ing the ter!s and conditions either o& that nu!bered version or o& an
later version published b the 4ree %o&t7are 4oundation. Q& the Progra! does not speci& a version nu!ber o& the 23U 2eneral Public 0icense,
ou !a choose an version ever published b the 4ree %o&t7are 4oundation.
Q& the Progra! speci&ies that a pro8 can decide 7hich &uture versions o& the 23U 2eneral Public 0icense can be used, that pro8^s public
state!ent o& acceptance o& a version per!anentl authori/es ou to choose that version &or the Progra!.
0ater license versions !a give ou additional or di&&erent per!issions. Jo7ever, no additional obligations are i!posed on an author or
copright holder as a result o& our choosing to &ollo7 a later version.
1C. -isclai#er of Aarrant..
<J*R* Q% 3; DARRA3<W 4;R <J* PR;2RAM, <; <J* *P<*3< P*RMQ<<*D BW APP0Q1AB0* 0AD. *P1*P< DJ*3 ;<J*RDQ%*
%<A<*D Q3 DRQ<Q32 <J* 1;PWRQ2J< J;0D*R% A3D_;R ;<J*R PAR<Q*% PR;:QD* <J* PR;2RAM `A% Q%` DQ<J;U< DARRA3<W ;4
A3W OQ3D, *Q<J*R *PPR*%%*D ;R QMP0Q*D, Q310UDQ32, BU< 3;< 0QMQ<*D <;, <J* QMP0Q*D DARRA3<Q*% ;4 M*R1JA3<ABQ0Q<W
A3D 4Q<3*%% 4;R A PAR<Q1U0AR PURP;%*. <J* *3<QR* RQ%O A% <; <J* ?UA0Q<W A3D P*R4;RMA31* ;4 <J* PR;2RAM Q% DQ<J
W;U. %J;U0D <J* PR;2RAM PR;:* D*4*1<Q:*, W;U A%%UM* <J* 1;%< ;4 A00 3*1*%%ARW %*R:Q1Q32, R*PAQR ;R
1;RR*1<Q;3.
1H. Li#itation of Liabilit..
Q3 3; *:*3< U30*%% R*?UQR*D BW APP0Q1AB0* 0AD ;R A2R**D <; Q3 DRQ<Q32 DQ00 A3W 1;PWRQ2J< J;0D*R, ;R A3W
;<J*R PAR<W DJ; M;DQ4Q*% A3D_;R 1;3:*W% <J* PR;2RAM A% P*RMQ<<*D AB;:*, B* 0QAB0* <; W;U 4;R DAMA2*%,
Q310UDQ32 A3W 2*3*RA0, %P*1QA0, Q31QD*3<A0 ;R 1;3%*?U*3<QA0 DAMA2*% ARQ%Q32 ;U< ;4 <J* U%* ;R Q3ABQ0Q<W <; U%*
<J* PR;2RAM (Q310UDQ32 BU< 3;< 0QMQ<*D <; 0;%% ;4 DA<A ;R DA<A B*Q32 R*3D*R*D Q3A11URA<* ;R 0;%%*% %U%<AQ3*D
BW W;U ;R <JQRD PAR<Q*% ;R A 4AQ0UR* ;4 <J* PR;2RAM <; ;P*RA<* DQ<J A3W ;<J*R PR;2RAM%), *:*3 Q4 %U1J J;0D*R
;R ;<J*R PAR<W JA% B**3 AD:Q%*D ;4 <J* P;%%QBQ0Q<W ;4 %U1J DAMA2*%.
1D. Inter+retation of &ections 1C and 1H.
Q& the disclai!er o& 7arrant and li!itation o& liabilit provided above cannot be given local legal e&&ect according to their ter!s, revie7ing
courts shall appl local la7 that !ost closel appro8i!ates an absolute 7aiver o& all civil liabilit in connection 7ith the Progra!, unless a
7arrant or assu!ption o& liabilit acco!panies a cop o& the Progra! in return &or a &ee.
9,- @F >9RM& $,- !@,-I>I@,&
Io2 to $++l. >'ese >er#s to Bour ,e2 Progra#s
Q& ou develop a ne7 progra!, and ou 7ant it to be o& the greatest possible use to the public, the best 7a to achieve this is to !aIe it &ree
so&t7are 7hich everone can redistribute and change under these ter!s.
6B
<o do so, attach the &ollo7ing notices to the progra!. Qt is sa&est to attach the! to the start o& each source &ile to !ost e&&ectivel state the
e8clusion o& 7arrant( and each &ile should have at least the `copright` line and a pointer to 7here the &ull notice is &ound.
Mone line to give t&e programNs name and a brief idea of J&at it does#O
$opyrig&t )$1 MyearO Mname of aut&orO
7&is program is free softJare: you can redistribute it andHor modify it under t&e terms of t&e G<G General Public License as publis&ed
by t&e Free SoftJare FoundationC eit&er version I of t&e LicenseC or )at your option1 any later version#
7&is program is distributed in t&e &ope t&at it Jill be usefulC but 9I7H=G7 2<F 92((2<7FK Jit&out even t&e implied Jarranty of
'!($H2<72%ILI7F or FI7<!SS F=( 2 P2(7I$GL2( PG(P=S!# See t&e G<G General Public License for more details#
Fou s&ould &ave received a copy of t&e G<G General Public License along Jit& t&is program# If notC see M&ttp:HHJJJ#gnu#orgHlicensesHO#
Also add in&or!ation on ho7 to contact ou b electronic and paper !ail.
Q& the progra! does ter!inal interaction, !aIe it output a short notice liIe this 7hen it starts in an interactive !ode$
MprogramO $opyrig&t )$1 MyearO Mname of aut&orO
7&is program comes Jit& 2%S=LG7!LF <= 92((2<7FK for details type Ps&oJ JN#
7&is is free softJareC and you are Jelcome to redistribute it under certain conditionsK type Ps&oJ cN for details#
<he hpothetical co!!ands esho7 7^ and esho7 c^ should sho7 the appropriate parts o& the 2eneral Public 0icense. ;& course, our progra!^s
co!!ands !ight be di&&erent( &or a 2UQ inter&ace, ou 7ould use an `about bo8`.
Wou should also get our e!ploer (i& ou 7orI as a progra!!er) or school, i& an, to sign a `copright disclai!er` &or the progra!, i& necessar.
4or !ore in&or!ation on this, and ho7 to appl and &ollo7 the 23U 2P0, see bhttp$__777.gnu.org_licenses_c.
<he 23U 2eneral Public 0icense does not per!it incorporating our progra! into proprietar progra!s. Q& our progra! is a subroutine librar,
ou !a consider it !ore use&ul to per!it linIing proprietar applications 7ith the librar. Q& this is 7hat ou 7ant to do, use the 23U 0esser
2eneral Public 0icense instead o& this 0icense. But &irst, please read bhttp$__777.gnu.org_philosoph_7hLnotLlgpl.ht!lc.
*ste docu!ento se cre) usando e8clusiva!ente
programas libres, seg"n se de&ine por el Proecto
23U la 4ree %o&t7are 4oundation$
http$__777.gnu.org_philosoph_&reeLs7.es.ht!l
*l siste!a operativo 'ue sirvi) de plata&or!a para
este escrito es 23U_0inu8. 23U es desarrollado
por el Proecto 23U, !ientras 'ue 0inu8 es un
Iernel desarrollado por la 0inu8 4oundation$
http$__777.gnu.org
http$__777.Iernel.org
0a letra utili/ada para crear este docu!ento es
0inu8 0ibertine, un sustituto libre de la letra
propietaria de Microso&t, <i!es 3e7 Ro!an$
http$__linu8libertine.source&orge.net_
%e utili/) una !odi&icaci)n de ;pen;&&ice.org co!o
progra!a principal para crear el docu!ento. *ste
progra!a est9 disponible ba#o licencias libres$
http$__goLoo.org_
Q!agen del 23U a color por Hoseph D. Reiss, cuos derechos de autor trans&iri) a la 4ree %o&t7are
4oundation, est9 disponible ba#o la 4ree Art 0icense. 0a i!agen de <u8 (pingVino) creada por 0arr
*7ig (le7igfisc.ta!u,edu) .ste per!ite su uso libre.