)FK JAI @A +KHI - A A J I @A 2HE AH= 8AHIE 

CA>H=

2H BAI H 2=> ,=HJ A )KNE E=H =H = 1I=>A + HJ I

+=F JK

- A A J I @A 6A H = @A /HKF I
  ,A
,A
7

E?E

AI > IE?=I

E?E E@A AI K = AIJHK?JKH= = CA>H=E?= ?

FAH=?E

(M, ) J= GKA

 AI =I ?E=JEL=

JEA A AKJH

1M

,A

E?E
K = FAH=?E

/HKF AI K = AIJHK?JKH= ?
 AI =I ?E=JEL= A G

(G, ) J= GKA

JEA A AKJH

1G

! J @ A A A J x G JEA A E LAHI x1 G

-A F
,A E?E

(Z, +) AI CHKF

7 CHKF IA @E?A )>A E=

IE = FAH=?E

AI ? !

KJ=JEL=

"

+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

-A F
5A= Bn = {1..n} O Sn = FAH KJ=?E AI ? n AJH=I =>A E= IE n 2 5E n 3 =I FAH KJ=?E  n2 = n = 1 Sn = S1 = {id{1} } > n = 2 Sn = S2 = {1 , 2 } >LE= A JA ({id{1} }, ) AI =>A E= AI IA = J= ?
n

= { : Bn Bn / AI >EOA??E } Sn AI A
? K J @A (Sn , ) AI CHKF ? = ? F IE?E @A BK ?E AI -I AI =>A E= = 1 2 ... n (1) (2) . . . (n) Sn

1 =

1 2 1 2

= id{1,2}

2 =

1 2 2 1

id id id id

AI =>A E=
 n 3 D=O n! A A A J I FAH KJ=?E = n = 3 AI

1 2 3 2 3 1

1 2 3 2 1 3

1 2 3 3 2 1

1 2 3 1 3 2

= S3
> n 3

AI =>A E=

1 2 3 4 ... n 2 3 1 4 ... n

1 2 3 4 ... n 2 1 3 4 ... n

= Sn

AI =>A E=


,A

*KA =I .K ?E
E?E

AI A JHA /HKF I
H I

H I
 A JHA A

I
I AI K = BK ?E

5A= (G ), (H, H ) @ I CHKF I 7 H I K D f : G H J= GKA (x, y G) f (x y ) = f (x) H f (y ) 7 H I ? AIJA IA IKA A @A >HAI AIFA?E= AI

J=H F H f : (G, ) (H, H )

!

5 *7H I H I H I H I H I

5 57*+ E OA?JEL

7 6 5 ,- 7 IA @E?A IA @E?A AFE

/472  57*/472 5

7 7 7 7 7 EI

HBEI HBEI

I >HAOA?JEL >EOA?JEL

IA @E?A EI

HBEI

@A CHKF (G, ) A IE @A (G, ) A IE EI

EI
=KJ

A @ HBEI

HBEI

>IAHL=?E
7 H I H I @A CHKF I HA= A J ?AI

A JA AL= K = AIJHK?JKH= = = JH= 5E f : (G, ) (H, H ) AI

f (1G ) = 1H (x G) f (x1 ) = f (x)1

- AH?E?E 

!

,A E?E

I *KA

I 5K>?

K J I @A K /HKF  5K>CHKF I
IE

5A= (G, ) K CHKF 7 IK>?  AI ?AHH=@ A H

K J H G IA @E?A IK>CHKF IE I

-I @A?EH (x, y H, x y H)

(H, |H ) AI J= >E K CHKF

>IAHL=?E
5E H AI K IK>CHKF @A (G, ) A AKJH @A A H AI A EI GKA A AKJH @A A G (x H) A E LAHI @A x F=H= A H AI A EI GKA JA = A G - AH?E?E  O

- AH?E?E
H IK>CHKF @A (G, ) IIE AI ?AHH=@= A H 1G (x H) x1 H

+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

2H F
+=H=?JAHE =?E  H= @A 5K>CHKF I H G AI IK>CHKF @A CHKF (G, ) IIE

(x, y H) x y 1 H
A AH?E?E 

- AH?E?E
5A= (G, ) (L, ) @ I CHKF I O f : G L K H I - J ?AI

 5E H G AI IK>CHKF f (H) L AI IK>CHKF 5E K L AI IK>CHKF A J ?AI f 1 (K) G AI IK>CHKF

,A

E?E
H I @A CHKF I 5A @A A I IECKEA JAI ? K J I

5A= f : (G, ) (L, ) K 

? A @A f 1 =CA @A f

AHf = f 1 {1} = {x G/f (x) = 1} G 1 f = f (G) L AHf A 1 f I IK>CHKF I @A G O L HAIFA?JEL= A JA

-I B ?E FH >=H GKA

>LE= A JA f I >HAOA?JEL= Imf = L

2H F
f
H I E OA?JEL Kerf = {1}

,A
) A AH?E?E  )
5E x, y G I f (x y 1 ) = 1 J= AI GKA f (x) = f (y ) f (x) f (y )1 = 1 f (x) f (y 1 ) = 1

E A x y 1 Kerf = {1} x = y

"

*7-

5 +7 +1- 6-5 -

/472 5

 "
*KA
,A E?E

I +K ?EA JAI A /HKF I

5A= (G, ) K CHKF 7 = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= A G IA @E?A ? (x, x , y, y G) x x y y x y x y

F=JE> A ?

IIE

>IAHL=?E
,=@= K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= A G ? F=JE> A ? A JHA ? =IAI ([x], [y ] G/ ) [x] [y ] = [x y ]

GKA@= >EA @A

E@= = FAH=?E

(G/ , ) AI K CHKF ?
)@A I = 5 >HAOA??E H I

AKJH [1] O ([x] G/ ) [x]1 = [x1 ] += E?= : G G/ x [x] H I ?= E?  A ABA?J

AI K AFE

@A CHKF I - AFE F=JE> A ?

J=H GKA IE AI ?

A G A J

?AI [1] G AI K IK>CHKF

1 [1] 5E x, y [1] (x 1 y 1) x y 1 x y [1] 5E x [1] : x 1 x1 x1 FKAI AI HA A = 1 x1 x1 [1]

)@A I AIJA IK>CHKF H = [1]JEA A =IECKEA JAFH FEA@=@

(x G)(y H) x y x1 H E A (x G) x H x1 H - ABA?J (y 1) (x x) (x1 x1 ) x y x1 x 1 x1 = 1

O? ? KE I GKA (x G) x H x1 = H

FKAI x1 H x H H x H x1

,A

E?E
O a G - )KJ

5A= (G, ) K CHKF

H I

1 JAHE H @A E@ F H a AI

Ia : G G x Ia (x) = a x a1

&

+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

- AH?E?E
Ia AI K =KJ Ia Ib = Iab I1 = idG Ia1 = (Ia )1
= ? =IA @A 1 A K = HA =?E ? F=JE> A ? F=H= J @ I I =KJ H I I E JAHE HAI H I

AI J= GKA (x G) Ix (H) = H ?AHH=@

,A

E?E H = IIE (x G) x H x1 = H

5A= (G, ) K CHKF 7 IK>CHKF H G IA @E?A ?AHH=@ F=H= I =KJ H I I E JAHE HAI

J=?E
H G H AI IK>CHKF

H = @A G

- AH?E?E
5A= (G, ) (H, ) @ I CHKF I O f : G L K H A @A G H I 2H >=H GKA Kerf AI K IK>CHKF

,A

E?E
= I = IECKEA JA HA =?E A G

5A= H G K IK>CHKF O @A

x H y x1 y H

- AH?E?E
 H AI @A AGKEL= A ?E=

H AI ?
! [1] = H

F=JE> A ?

H G

"

*7-

5 +7 +1- 6-5 -

/472 5

'

>IAHL=?E
x H y x 1 y H y x H xF HH
?

x H = {x h/h H} JH=I =?E

E GKEAH@= @A

G H = {[x]/x G} = {x H/x G} [x] = x H IA IKA A = =H

? =IA E GKEAH@= @A x @A E@= F H H x H y y x1 J= >E @A E@= F H H
AI @A AGKEL= A ?E= A G ?

[x] = H x
? =IA @AHA?D= @A x

- CA AH= x H O H x JEA A F H GKA ? E ?E@EH @A DA?D H G (x G) x H = H x  H AI = EI = GKA H IIE H G).

G/ H AI I

K ?

K J

)@GKEAHA AIJHK?JKH= =JKH= @A CHKF IIE H G ?AI Kerf

5E f : G L AI K ? A @A K H I

H I @A CHKF I A J - ABA?J

G ) = E LAHI= J @ H

G AI

6 = @ = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= H B H = I A CHKF ?K ?EA JA L = G/ H O A AFE H I ?= E? : G L J= GKA (x) = [x] 5A JEA A A J ?AI AH = {x G/ (x) = [1] = H } = H

-A F
- JAH I @K

m m 1 en N
H = AI @A (Z +) H =

+K ?EA JAI @A (Z, +) IK>CHKF I 5E (G, ) AI CHKF =>A E=

H G H AI IK>CHKF O x Z x + H + (x) = H  ,A =GK IA @A@K?A J @ H IK>CHKF @A G AI

2H F
I IK>CHKF I @A (Z, +) I J @ I @A = B H = {mk/k Z } = mZ m N

,A
) -I ? =H GKA I
5K>CHKF I

) 5A= H Z K IK>CHKF 5E H = {0} H = 0Z 5E H = {0} 5A= m H A I FAGKA @A I A A A J I =O HAI GKA 0 A H 6 A I h H K A A A J ?K= GKEAH= 2 H A JA HA = @A = @ELEIE h = mq + r 0 r < m

@A A JAH I



+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

r = h mq H FKAI h, mq H r=0 F H J= J H = mZ
= HA =?E OA J = FAH=?

H =I ?E=@= = H = mZ AI x H y x + y = mk, k Z x m y
@K

?AI HAIK J= GKA Z/ H = Zm A JAH I A Zm AI IK = @K

m

(m 2)

Zm = {[0], [1], ..., [m 1]}

J=?E
5E (G, ) AI CHKF @K H
OH

A ?K ?EA JA G/ H IA =

J= IE F A A JA G/H

O IA AA
G

 "  6A HA = @A .=?J H
5A= (G, ) (L, ) CHKF I f : (G, ) (L, )
f

H I

OH G ?

H Kerf

G/H

- J

?AI !

H I

f : (G/H) (L, ) J= GKA f = f E A A @E=CH= = ?

KJ=

,A
= A?K=?E 2H >A

f = f IEC E ?= f ([x]) = f (x)

E A [x] = [x ] f (x) = f (x )

I GKA AIJ= B H K = JEA A IA JE@

[x] = [x ] x H x x1 x H h H tq x1 x = h f (x1 x ) = f (h) = 1 (h Kerf ) f (x)1 f (x ) = 1 f (x) = f (x )

F H J= J = BK ?E

f : G/H L GKA@= >EA @A [x] f (x)

H I E@= F H f = f A J ?AI f AI E?

E@=

-I B ?E LAH GKA AI +

f ([x] [y ]) = f ([x y ]) = f (x y ) = f (x) f (y ) = f ([x]) f ([y ]) f ([x[) AIJ FHA@A

"

*7-

5 +7 +1- 6-5 -

/472 5



>IAHL=?E
5A @E?A GKA
B=?J HE = I A H I

f : G L = JH=L I @A G/H ?

AHf

J=
1 f =1 f
F H J= J

f AFE

H I

f AFE

H I

AHf = {[x] G/H : f ([x]) = 1} = {[x] G/H : f (x) = 1} = {[x] G/H : x AHf } = + =IA @A I A A A J I @A AHf 8A= I GKA IE x AHf A J ?AI [x] AHf y [x] x1 y H y xH ? AHf AI IK>CHKF O H AHf xH F H J= J = ? =IA @A x IE x AHf IECKA A AHf ,A =GK IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH AHf = AHf /H O =I f E OA?JEL= H = AHf

AHf

+ H =HE
5E f : G L AI K AFE H I A J H I A J ?AI 1 f = G/ AHf ?AI G/ AHf = L O A CA AH= IE f : G L AI

"
< A >=

/A AH=@ HAI @A 5K>CHKF I

A?

5A= (G, ) K CHKF O A G - IK>CHKF CA AH=@ F H A IA @A

H
AHsubgrupo de G

- AH?E?E
= E JAHIA??E @A K = ?= JE@=@ ?K= GKEAH= K IK>CHKF @A G EJ= E EJ= @A IK>CHKF I @A G AI = IK LA

3K AI < A >
 -I IK>CHKF

< A > A
! -I A IK>CHKF @A G H A H < A > I FAGKA GKA ? JEA A = A E A IE H G AI IK>CHKF O

+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

2H F
 5E A B G A J ?AI < A >< B >

A AI IK>CHKF @A G A =< A >

! << A >>=< A >

,A

E?E
O a G F=H= n Z @A AKJH A G  E I an ?

5E (G, ) AI CHKF

a0 = 1 ?

1A

an+1 = an a n N an = (an )1 IE n < 0

2H F
(n, m Z)(a G) an+m = an am (an )m = anm

2H F
5E A G A = A J
mn 1 ?AI < A >= {am 1 ... an /n N, m1 ...mn Z, a1 ...an A}

,A

E?E
,EHA I GKA G AI ? ? E? IIE ( a G) J= GKA G = {an /n Z }

5A= (G, ) K CHKF

-A F I
(Z, +) AI ? ? E? Z =< {1} > Zm =< {[1]} >
I E? I CHKF I ? ? E? I GKA D=O -I @A?EH IE G AI ? ? E? >EA

(m 1) (Zm , +) AI ? ? E?
5= L EI H I I AIJ I I A J ?AI G = (Zm , +) IE G AI EJ ? G EJ = (Z, +) IE G AI E

m =| G |

"

*7-

5 +7 +1- 6-5 -

/472 5

!

,A
5E G AI ? ? E?

G = {an /n Z }
H I EJ

5A= f : Z G n f (n) = an A JHA (Z, +) O (G, ) A JA K EI H I 2=H= AIJ FH >A I = E OA?JE

-I ? =H GKA f AI K AFE 8A= I GKA IE G AI E LE@=@

=BEH =?E

f AI HA=

AHf = {n Z/f (n) = an = 1} D=O E C AHf A J A AIJA ?=I

n=0A
H I

AHf 

D=O E C

n>0A

AHf  EJ O F H A

5E n > 0 AIJ A F H J= J

?AI G = {ak /k Z } = {1, a, .., an1 } G AI

f AI EI

- CA AH= A ? A @A f IAH K IK>CHKF @A Z JA HA = @A B=?J H

mZ

F=H= = C

m N

Z G
f

Z/mZ

G = Z/mZ = Zm

m =| G | F=H= | G |<

,A

E?E
OAG - 5K>CHKF

5A= (G, ) K CHKF

H = CA AH=@ F H A AI

< A >N =
AH G

- AH?E?E
7 = E JAHIA??E ?K= GKEAH= @A IK>CHKF I =JKH= A JA ? H = AI @A G AI K IK>CHKF A IK>CHKF H = H = @A G GKA

>IAHL=?E
< A >N IA ?=H=?JAHE = ? JEA A = A
=I FAGKA

+ =H= A JA < A >< A >N

"

+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

2H F
mn 1 < A >N = {Ix1 (am 1 ) Ixn (an )/n N, m1 . . . mn Z, a1 . . . an A, x1 . . . xn G}

= @A

IJH=?E

GKA@= @A A AH?E?E

+ ,A

KJ=@ HAI O )>A E= E =?E E?E

IA= x, y G

@A K CHKF

5A= (G, ) K CHKF

= =

I?

KJ=@ H @A x A y = [x, y ] = xy x1 y 1

-I ? =H GKA x y = y x [x, y ] = 1

>IHL=?E
5E z G, Iz ([x, y ]) = [Iz (x), Iz (y )]  A H = IE f : G L AI H I @A CHKF I O x, y G f ([x, y ]) = [f (x), f (y )]  F H J= J IE A = {[x, y ]/x, y G} A J ?AI < A >=< A >N = [G, G] IK>CHKF ? KJ=@ H @A G J=H GKA [G, G] = {[x1 , y1 ] ... [xn , yn ]/n N, x1 ...xn , y1 ...yn G}

,A

E?E
@A G AI Ab(G) = G/[G, G]

= =>A E= E =?E

2H F
Ab(G) AI K CHKF =>A E=
A H=

(H G) G/H AI =>A E=

H [G, G]

,A
) 2=H= H G ? H [G, G], ?= ?K A
I I? KJ=@ HAI @A G/H FAH 5A= [x], [y ] G/H [[x], [y ]] = [ (x), (y )] = [x, y ] = [[x, y ]] = H FKAI [x, y ] H H = [1] [[x], [y ]] = [1] [x] [y ] = [y ] [x]

) @EHA?J @A

= JAHE H

,A

E?E
FKAIJ  @A H O K AI

5E G AI K CHKF O H K I IK>CHKF I @A G A J ?AI A

? H K =< H K > IK>CHKF I FAGKA GKA ? JEA A = H O K 

-LE@A JA A JA H K = {h1 k1 hn kn /n N, h1 . . . hn H, k1 . . . kn K}

"

*7-

5 +7 +1- 6-5 -

/472 5

#

2H F
 5E H G O K G A J ?AI H K G

HK = KH
! 5E H G , H K = {h k/h H, k K}

,A

 @A !  I IECKEA JA

1 @K??E

h1 , h 2 H k1 , k 2 K
1 h1 k1 h2 k2 = h1 k1 h2 k1 k1 k2 1 k1 h2 k1 = h H h1 h = h H k1 k2 = k K

F AJ=H = @A

IJH=?E

JH - A F
JA

@A +K ?EA JAI
K J A J ?AI (Biy (X ), ) AI K CHKF ? @ @A K J @A

I GKA IE X AI K ?

Biy (X ) = {f : X X/f AI >EOA??E

5E X = G CHKF JA A =KJ H I I @A G

} Aut(G) A ?

I A IK>CHKF Aut(G) Biy (G) I =KJ H I I E JAHE HAI ?

2 @A I EH=H C >= A JA I : G Aut(G) a I (a) = Ia GKA AI K H I

FH LA EA JAI @A = BK ?E

@A (G, ) A (Aut(G), ) = E =CA @A AIJA H I AI A ? K J @A =KJ H I I E JAHE HAI

I (G) = {Ia /a G} @A G

- AH?E?E
AHI

I (G) Aut(G) 

J=H GKA f Ia f 1 = If (a) 

a AHI Ia = idG (x G) axa1 = x (x G) ax = xa (x G) a ? KJ= ? x

,A

E?E
)I

- ?A JH @A K CHKF (G, ) AI Z (G) = {a G/x G ax = xa} ,EHA?J= A JA @A JA HA = @A B=?J H G/Z (G) = I (G) - EI H I LEA A @=@ F H = =F E?=?E

Z (G) =
H I

AHI

@A JA HA = @A B=?J H = AFE

$

+)2 67
I

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

I(G)

G/Z(G)

J=?E
= FAH=?E F HaA G

x axa1 IA IKA A = =H
?

KC=?E

@A x F H a
=I

Ia AI = ?

KC=?E

 " ! 6A HA = @A + HHAIF
2H F
5E f : G L AI K ( AHf )H H I

@A ?E=

@A CHKF I

O H G AI K IK>CHKF

IA JEA A f 1 (f (H)) =

,A
x f 1 (f (H)) f (x) f (H) (h H) f (x) = f (h) (h H) f (xh1 ) = 1 (h H) xh1 AHf
5A= f : G L K AFE H I @A CHKF I I=>A H I HAIFA?JEL= A JA IE H I @A JA HA = @A B=?J H GKA

f : G/ AHf L AI EI [x] f (x)

1

)I H L IK>CHKF f (H ) G/ AHf AI IK>CHKF 1 HAIFA?JEL= A JA f (H ) G/ AHf 

(H ) = {[x] G/ AHf /f (x) H } = {x AHf /x f 1 (H )} = f 1 (H )/ AHf

= >IAHL=?E @A GKA (x f 1 (H )) [x] = x AHf f 1 (H ) AHf = f 1 (H ) I A A A J I [x] G/ AHf , ? x f 1 (H ) I A A A J I @A f 1 (H )/ AHf

KAC

"

*7-

5 +7 +1- 6-5 -

/472 5
f

%

G/Ker f

2H F
0=O K = ? HHAIF @A L @A ?E= K =K A JHA IK>CHKF I @A G GKA ? AHf 5K>CHKF @A L JEA A = AHf O IK>CHKF I

5K>CHKF I @A G GKA ?

JEA A =

f 1 (H ) H H f (H)
I =K 5K>CHKF I AIJ E @K?A K = ? HHAIF H = AI @A G GKA ? @A ?E= K =K H = AI @A L JEA A = AHf IK>CHKF I

f 1 (H ) G H L H G f (H) L

,A
f (f 1 (H )) = H F H GKA f AI I >HAOA?JEL= f 1 (f (H)) =
? 5EJK=?E KIK= AHf H = H H = AI H = AI @A G/H F AJ=H F=HJA @A IK>CHKF I

H G : G G/H

IK>CHKF I @A G  H = AI IK>CHKF I  GKA ? JEA A = H

 " " 6A HA =I @A 1I
2HE AH JA HA = @A EI
5A= f : G L K AFE f E @K?A K EI H I H I

H I
I

H I

@A CHKF I O IA= H G ?

AHf

- J

?AI = BK ?E

f : G/H L/f (H) [x] [f (x)]

&

+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

,A
2 H JA HA = @A ? HHAIF 5A= f = f GKA AI AFE @A ?E= f (H) L H I FKAI f O I H I

f : G L : L L/f (H)
- JA HA = @A B=?J H @E?A GKA IA E @K?A K EI

f : G/ AHf L/f (H) [x]

FAH
A AHf

f (x) = [f (x)]f (H)

AH( f ) = f 1 ( 1 (1)) = f 1 ( AH ) = f 1 (f (H)) = H AHf = H

AHf =

+ H =HE
5E f : G L AI AFE H I @A CHKF I O H

L f E @K?A K EI

H I

f : G/f 1 (H ) L/H [x]f 1 (H ) [f (x)]H

,A
6 =H H = f 1 (H ) A A JA HA = = JAHE H O KI=H ? HHAIF @A ?E=

+ H =HE
 GKA KIK= A JA IA = = FHE AH JA HA = @A EI K H - J ?AI (G/K)/(H/K) = G/H [[x]K ]H/K [x]H H I I 5A= G CHKF H, K G ?

,A
J=H GKA H/K G/K )F E?= I A FHE AH JA HA = @A EI A IK>CHKF H = H G GKA ? JEA A = AH = K H I I = : G G/K ?

: G/H (G/K)/ (H)

?

(H) = H/K

5ACK @ JA HA = @A EI
5A= G CHKF

H I

I
H G
- J ?AI

H, K IK>CHKF I @A G ?

H K G, H HK O K/H K = H K/H [x]HK [x]H

#

)++1

-5 ,- /472 5 5 *4- +

7 6 5

'

,A
+ IE@AH=H i K H K H K/H x x [x]H H I O ?= ?K =H IK ?A

8AH GKA i AI AFE

,A

E?E
K J G AI EJ 5A = =

7 CHKF (G, ) IA @E?A EJ IE A ? AH @A A A A J I | G |

H@A @A CHKF = IK

2H F IE?E
5E (G, ) AI CHKF @ELEI H @A | G |  EJ O H AI K IK>CHKF @A G A J ?AI | H | / | G |  E A | H | AI K

,A
: K E G= | G |= | G |= (
@EI K J= ? HAIFA?J = = HA =?E

[x]clase de eq. de H [x] xH es clase

| xH | FAH | xH |=| H |

AH @A ? =IAI) H

,A

E?E
AH @A ? =IAI @A H IA = = @E?A @A H A G O IA = J=

- ?=H@E = @A G/H E A A [G : H] =| G/H |

. H K = | G |= [G : H] | H | - A F IE | G | AI FHE I

E? I IK>CHKF I @A G I

{1} O G

 # )??E
,A E?E

AI ,A /HKF I 5 >HA +
K J 7 = =??E

K J I
E GKEAH@= @A G A X AI K = BK ?E

5A= (G, ) K CHKF O X = K ? : G X X (g, x) (g, x)

  ? J=?E

+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

(g, x) = gx 

=I IECKEA JAI FH FEA@=@AI  (x X ) 1x = x

(g, h G)(x X ) g (hx) = (g h)x

>IAHL=?E
7 = =??E


@AHA?D= @A G I >HA X AI K = BK ?E

: X G X ? (x, g ) xg = (x, g )

=I

IECKEA JAI FH FEA@=@AI  (x X ) x1 = x

(g, h G)(x X ) (xg )h = x(g h)

2=HA?A K =
J =@KH= @A FA
FAH IE = F=HJEH @A IA @A A : G X X ? gx = (g, x) = (x, g ) = xg IA JEA A F H = FH FEA@=@ =F E?=@= = GKA h(gx) = (g h)x GKA IEA FHA AI ECK= = = FH FEA@=@ @A =I =??E AI E GKEAH@=I 5E A >=HC IECKEA JA D=O K = = AH= @A HA =?E =H =??E AI E GKEAH@=I ? @AHA?D=I A@E= JA

5E AI K = =??E =??E E GKEAH@=

@AHA?D= @A G A X

@=@= F H (g, x) = gx = xg 1 = (x, g 1 ) AI K =

,A

E?E
@A AI K = =??E @A G A X IA IKA A = =H G AIF=?E E GKEAH@ 

7 = JAH = (G, X, ) @

>IAHL=?E
,=@= K = =??E

@A G I >HA X

F @A

I @A

EH F=H= ?=@= g G = BK ?E

g : X X
 1 = idX

A@E= JA g (x) = gx = (g, x)

5A JEA A

gh = g h
,A =GK g AI E LAHJE> A ? ,A AIJA @ GKA@= @A

(g )1 = g1 : G Biy (X ) g g
@E?A GKA : (G, ) (Biy (X ), ) AI K

E@= = BK ?E

4A? H@= @ GKA (Biy (X ), ) AI K H I

CHKF

4A?EFH ?= A JA @=@ K H I : (G, ) (Biy (X ), ) IA FKA@A @A EH (g, x) = g (x) ? g = (g ) HAIK J= IAH K = =??E @A G A X J= GKA
IK AI 

#

)++1

-5 ,- /472 5 5 *4- +

7 6 5

>IAHL=?E

!
H I E A= @A

5E X AI K AIF=?E LA?J HE= I >HA K ?KAHF K O (g G) g AI K EI X A J ?AI IA D=> = @A 4AFHAIA J=?E AI @A G A X

-A F

 )??E

@A G I >HA IE

EI

A@E= JA ?

KC=?E

AI

X = G (g, x) = gxg 1 = Ig (x)

5=>A I GKA I : (G, ) (Aut(G), ) AI K H I O (Aut(G), ) AI K IK>CHKF @A g Ig (Biy (X ), ) F H J= J JA A I K = =??E @A G I >HA G

-A F

)??E

@A G I >HA IE
A = JH=I =?E

EI

A@E= JA JH=I =?E

AI E G

,=@ g G IA @A

E GKEAH@= F H g ?

Tg: G G x Tg (x) = gx
@A G I >HA IE EI O A

-LE@A JA A JA (g, x) = gx FH @K?J A G  AI K = =??E H I =I ?E=@ AI T : (G, ) (Biy (G), ) g Tg -I B ?E LAH GKA AIJA H I

T AI E OA?JEL

AHT = {g G/Tg = idg } = {g G/(x G) gx = x} = {1} )I

G IA FKA@A E@A JE ?=H ?

A IK>CHKF T (G)  =I JH=I =?E

AI A Biy (X )

,A =GK I= A K ?

?E@ JA HA =

6A HA =
6 @ IK>CHKF @A n I > I EJ @A H@A n AI EI HB = K IK>CHKF @A CHKF @A FAH KJ=?E AI Sn

-A F
(Z3 , +) AI EI
HB = K IK>CHKF @A S3

+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

f g h

{f, g, h} S3 AI A IK>CHKF EI

HB = (Z3 , +)

-A F
5A= =D H= G K CHKF O H G K IK>CHKF  A?AI=HE= A JA H = 

X = G/H = {[x]/x G} = {xH/x G} G =?J = F H JH=I =?E

AI I >HA G/H A@E= JA g (xH) = (gx)H

,A

E?E

5A= (G, X, ) O (G, Y, ) @ I GAIF=?E I 7 = BK ?E f : X Y IA @E?A G AGKEL= HE= JA ? HAIFA?J = =I =??E AI O  GKA f AI K H I @A I G AIF=?E I (G, X, ) O (G, Y, ) IIE

(g G)(x X ) f (gx) = gf (x) E A f ((g, x)) = (g, f (x))

7 EI H I @A G AIF=?E I AI K H I I AFE H I I A @ H I >EOA?JEL 5A @A A @A = AH= =JKH= H I I O =KJ H I I @A G AIF=?E I I

,A

E?E

5A= K = =??E @A G I >HA X = =??E IA @E?A JH= IEJEL= IIE (x, y X )( g G) J= GKA y = gx (G, X, ) IA @E?A G AIF=?E D CA A

-A F
G =?J = JH= IEJEL= A JA I >HA ?K= GKEAH ?K ?EA JA G/H F H JH=I =?E

#

)++1

-5 ,- /472 5 5 *4- +

7 6 5

,A

E?E
O xo X = = I AIJ=>E E =@ H @A xo  CHKF @A EI JH F = 

5A= X K G AIF=?E = ? K J

Est(xo ) = {g G/gxo = xo }
-I @EHA?J GKA Est(xo ) AI IK>CHKF @A G O J= >E )I IE = =??E AI JH= IEJEL= J @ I A JHA I O F H J= J EI HB I GKA Est(hxo ) = hEst(xo )h1 I A A A J I @A X I ? KC=@ I I AIJ=>E E =@ HAI @A

6A HA =
5A= X K G AIF=?E D EI HB = G/Est(xo )  ? CA A 5A= xo X K A A A J ?K= GKEAH= - J G AIF=?E I  ?AI X AI

,A
5A= f : G X g f (g ) = gxo F @A IA J ?AI @A 5A= g, h G J= AI GKA g Est(xo ) h E A

g 1 h Est(xo ) g 1 hxo = xo hxo = gxo f (x) = f (g ) X EH f : G/Est(xo ) [g ] f ([g ]) = f (g ) = gxo

@A G A X F H J= J

f AI I >HAOA?JEL= F H = JH= IEJELE@=@ @A = =??E @= = E OA?JELE@=@ @A f

F H J= J

f AI I >HAOA?JEL=

f AI >EOA?JEL=

- AH?E?E
8AH GKA f AI AGKEL=HE= JA F H J= J

X = G/Est(xo )

,A

E?E
5A= xo X = H>EJ= @A xo AI Orb(xo ) = {gxo /g G} X

5A= X K G AIF=?E

>IAHL=?E
,A = I A X = HA =?E

x G y (g G) J= GKA y = gx
)I IE Orb(xo ) = Orb(x1 ) Orb(xo )

G AI @A AGKEL= A ?E= ? [xo ] = Orb(xo ) Orb(x1 ) = O Orb(x) = X

xX

"

+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

>IAHL=?E
= =??E - CA AH= )I X = AI JH= IEJEL= D=O K = I = H>EJ= GKA AI J @ X

G =?J = I >HA ?=@= H>EJ= @A B H = ?AHH=@=

LEHJE @ = A K G AIF=?E D CA A CA A I O =@A CA A  ?K= GKEAH G AIF=?E

x Orb(xo ) gx Orb(xo ) ?
IA AI?HE>A ?

Orb(x ) O ?=@= H>EJ= AI K G AIF=?E D

K E @EI K J= @A D

I Orb(x ) = G/Est(x )

-A F
8 L=  I = FHE AH A A F = =??E @A G I >HA IE EI F H? KC=?E

gx = g x g 1
J=H GKA IE G AI =>A E=

gx = xx, g 

5A= xo G

Orb(xo ) = {gxo g 1 /g G} ={?

KC=@ I @A xo } KC=?E @A xo 

= conj (xo ) ? =IA @A ? Orb(xo ) = G/Est(xo ) Est(xo ) = {g G/gxo = xo }

= {g G/g xo g 1 = xo } = {g G/g xo = xo g } = Z (xo ) ?A JH= E =@ H @A xo 

+ H =HE
- ?A JH= E =@ H Z (g ) @A K A A A J ?K= GKEAH= g G AI K IK>CHKF +

G=

Orb(x ) K HAFHAIA J= JA F H ?=@= H>EJ= 

G=

conj (x )
I GKA x Z (G) conj (x) = {x} =K E A =I ? =IAI ? K A A A J O A HAIJ @A =I ? =IAI GKA@=

JA

)I HAF=HJEA @

G = Z (G)
+

conj (x ))
K J GKA E @AN= =I ? =IAI @A ? KC=?E ? I @A K A A A J

A ?

$

6- 4- ) ,- +)7+0;

+ H =HE B H K = @A =I ? =IAI
5A= G K CHKF EJ

| G |=| Z (G) | +
, @A = IK = IA J AA A J

[G : Z (x )]
= I >HA K HAFHAIA J= JA F H ?=@= ? =IA @A ? KC=?E ? I @A K

)F E?=?E

2H FEA@=@ 
EJ JHELE= E A = {1}  ?AI | Z (G) |> 1 @A H@A F JA ?E= @A FHE  | G |= p n , n

5A= G K CHKF 1 p FHE  A J

,A
2H >A I GKA A - ABA?J = A?K=?E @A =I ? =IAI p/[G : Z (x )] F=H= ?=@= K @A I IK = @ I

| G |= pn =| Z (G) | [G : Z (x )]
FAH [G : Z (x )] =| conj (x ) |> 1

[G Z (x )] = pr r 1 p/ [G : Z (x )] O ? p/ | G | p/ | Z (G) |

 $ 6A HA = @A +=K?DO
,A E?E
gG
5A = = H@A EJ 5A= G K CHKF 5KF C=

@A g = |< {g } >|=| {g n /n Z} |= O(g )

) CK =I ? I=I @EHA?J=I I GKA g AI @A H@A

5E g n = 1 O(g )/n < {g } > = Z/Kerf = O(g ) Z = ZO(g) n A H =K {n Z/g = 1} = O(g ) Z = { - F=HJE?K =H O(g ) = min{n > 0/g n = 1} 5E O(g ) = m O x < {g } > , A J

K JEF I @A O(g )}

?AI xm = 1 FKAI (g r )m = (g m )r 

+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

6A HA = @A +=K?DO
5A= G K CHKF H@A p EJ O p K FHE J= GKA p/ | G | - J ?AI ANEIJA K A A A J g G @A

,A
2HE AH +=K?DO @ >E 2 H E @K??E A |G| 2=HJE@= | G |= 2 ?=I A GKA G AI K CHKF EJ =>A E=

| G | FHE

, A

EI

=HCK A J  - AIJA ?=I IE g G/{1}

5E | G | AI FHE O p/ | G | A J FAH ? O(g )/p O(g ) = p 2=I E @K?JEL

?AI | G |= p

O(g ) > 1

0EF JAIEI @A 1 @K??E = FH FEA@=@ AI ?EAHJ= F=H= ?K= GKEAH CHKF =>A E= | G | 3KAHA I FH >=H F=H= G 6 A I K A A A J g G \ {1} 0=O @ I ?=I I

@A ?=H@E =

 p/O(g ) 5A JEA A A J ?AI GKA O(g ) = pr F=H= = C r g pr AI = FHE AH= LA GKA K = F JA ?E= @A g IA D=?A 1 F H J= J (g r )p = 1 AI = FHE AH= LA GKA K = F JA ?E= @A g r L= A 1 2 H J= J O(g r ) = p 5E p @ELE@A = O(g ) 5A= L = G/ < {g } > AIJA ?K ?EA JA JEA A IA JE@ FKAI F H IAH G =>A E= IK>CHKF I I H = AI |G| | L |= O(g) ? p @ELE@A = O(g ) A J ?AI p/ | L | 7IA I = 0 1 F=H= L J @ I IKI

[h] L @A H@A p F H
F H

J= J

[h]p = [hp ] = [1] =< {g } > s

J= J hp = g s F=H= = C

(hp )O(g) = 1 (hO(g) )p = 1 0=O @ I F IE>E E@=@AI hO(g) = 1 O(hO(g) ) = 1

%

2 /472 5 ; 6- 4- )5 ,- 5; I hO(g) = 1

,AI?=HJA

5E hO(g) = 1 [h]O(g) = [1] p/O(g ) FKAI O([h]) = p  @ELE@A O(g ) 2 H J= J

O(g )

FKAI AIJ=

I A A ?=I p

hO(g)

FKA@A IAH 1

O(h

)=p
A?AI=HE= A JA =>A E= >=IJ= ?  

4AIKA J F=H= A ?=I @A CHKF =>A E= +=I CA AH= G 2 H E @K??E 2=HJE@= 7IA 2=I E @K?JEL I = A?K=?E @A =I ? =IAI F=H= G A |G|

F=H= | G | FHE

| G |= 2 =>A E=

| G |=| Z (G) | +
5KF @HA

[G : Z (x )]
?=I = JAHE H

Z (G) = G G AI =>A E=
I Z (G)

) = E?A I I J H E I @A = IK =J HE= @A = @AHA?D= 2 H ?=@= ? =IA @A ? KC=?E ? I @A K A A A J IA AI? CA K x [G : Z (x )] AI A AH @A A A A J I @A AIJ= ? =IA @A ? KC=?E 5E p/ | Z (x ) | ?

| Z (x ) |=
F H

|G| [G:Z (x )]

O [G : Z (x )] > 1 F @A I =F E?=H = 0 1 = Z (x ) Z (x ) JEA A K

IA JEA A | Z (x ) |<| G | A A A J @A H@A p 5KF C=

J= J

I =D H= GKA x p

@ELE@A = Z (x )

(x ) p/[G : Z (x )] p/ [G : Z (x )] O ? p/ | G | p/ | Z (G) | =F E?= @ 0.1 , Z (G) JEA A A A A J I @A H@A p

- AH?E?E
5E G AI =>A E= pq EJ O | G |= pq ?

p, q FHE

I A J

?AI G JEA A K A A A J @A H@A

 % 2 /HKF I O 6A HA =I @A 5O M
,A E?E
7 CHKF G IA = = p CHKF IIE J @ A A A J x G JEA A H@A F JA ?E= 5A= p K FHE @A p

&

+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

- AH?E?E
5E G AI + JE K= EJ

G AI p CHKF | G | AI F JA ?E= @A p
I? = @A E?E K p IK>CHKF H @A G AI K IK>CHKF @A G GKA AI p CHKF HAIFA?J = = E ? K O AIJ ? JA E@

5E G AI p CHKF

7 p IK>CHKF @A 5O M @A G AI K p IK>CHKF =NE = ? IE -I @A?EH AI p IK>CHKF @A 5O M IIE AI p IK>CHKF @A G AIJHE?J= A JA A E C JH p IK>CHKF

- AH?E?E I
 5E G AI K CHKF O p AI FHE JHELE= AI {1} 5E G AI A J

?AI G JEA A p IK>CHKF I @A 5O M  ALA JK= JHELE= AI G JHELE= 

A JA

EJ O p/ | G | G JEA A p IK>CHKF I @A 5O M

! 5E G AI K CHKF = 5E H G AI K p IK>CHKF > 5E P G AI K p IK>CHKF IK>CHKF I @A 5O M 7 F=H @A A =I I? KC=@ I @A H g Hg 1 , g H  I ?AI IKI ?

p IK>CHKF I
J @ I p

@A 5O M A J

KC=@ I I

A =
5A= G K CHKF O H G - J ?AI G AI K p CHKF H O G/H I

p CHKF I

,A
)
3KA H AI K p CHKF AI ALE@A JA 5A= [g ] G/H
j

+
j

g G O(g ) = pj
j

g p = 1 [g ]p = [g p ] = [1] O([g ])/pj O([g ]) AI F JA ?E= @A p )

5A= g G [g ] G/H p CHKF

O([g ]) = pj = C [g ]
pj

= [1] = H

[g ] = H g p H p CHKF O(g p ) = pk g p
j j +k j

pj

= 1 O(g )/pj +k F H

J= J

AI F JA ?E= @A p

%

2 /472 5 ; 6- 4- )5 ,- 5;

'

A =
5A= G K CHKF

P G K p IK>CHKF @A 5O M j O

5E g G AI J= GKA

O(g ) = pj = C g Pg 1 = P
- J ?AI g P

>IAHL=?E
5A= H IK>CHKF @A G ,A 3KA@= ? E IA

H = E =@ H @A H ?

N (H) = {g G/g Hg 1 = H}

- AH?E?E FH >=H GKA

 N (H) AI IK>CHKF @A G

H N (H) O AI A H =
-

I CH= @A @A

I IK>CHKF I @A G GKA ? = AH=

JEA A = H ?

IK>CHKF

A =

IA FKA@A A K ?E=H @A = IECKEA JA

5E P AI K p IK>CHKF @A 5O M @A G O g N (P) JEA A H@A F JA ?E= @A p A J

?AI g P

,A
+

A = 
IE@AH= @ A H = E =@ H N (P) @A CHKF P IA JEA A

P N (P) g N (P)
6 A I A ?K ?EA JA N (P)/P O = ? =IA [g ] N (P)/P @A ?E= F=H= IK>CHKF I ?K ?EA JAI JEA A = P A = 5A= K =< {[g ]} >N (P)/P 4A? H@= @ A JA HA = @A ? HHAIF

K = L/P ?
2H >A

L IK>CHKF @A N (P) GKA ?

2 HA

I GKA L AI K p CHKF

L p CHKF P p CHKF O L/P p CHKF K AI ? ? E? CA AH=@ F H [g ]

2AH g JEA A H@A F JA ?E= @A p [g ] J= >E K p CHKF O O([g ]) = O(L/P) F H J= J

L/P AI

L AI K p CHKF L=P O?

2AH L P O P AI p IK>CHKF @A 5O M

gLgP

!

+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

+K
3KAHA 2 @A

J I?

KC=@ I JEA A A IK>CHKF K

H O K IK>CHKF I @A G
AH AIJA FH > A = A A IECKEA JA ? F H? KC=?E

A@E= JA A A A J I @A H

5A= G CHKF IF

I ?= ?K =H | {h K h1 /h H} | JANJ @A CHKF H I >HA S = {L G/L AI IK>CHKF @A G}

-IJK@E=H = =??E

H S S (h, l) hl = h l h1
= FHACK J= JEA A GKA LAH ? 5=>A I IECKEA JA Orb(K) = H/Est(K) ?

Orb(K) K S 

H AIF=?E I

Est(K) = {h H/hK = K} = {h H/h K h1 = K} = NH (K)

H = E =@ H @A K A H Orb(K) = H/NH (K) -LE@A JA A JA NH (K) AI IK>CHKF @A H  )I IE H AI EJ
|H| |NH (K)|

| {h k h1 /h H} |= [H : NH (K)] =

J=H GKA N (K) = NG (K) =I {g K g 1 /g G} = G/N (K) O IE G AI

EJ

| {g K g 1 /g G} |= [G : N (K)]

 %  5ACK @ 6A HA = @A 5O M
5A= G K CHKF  EJ O p K FHE - J ?AI

AH @A p IK>CHKF I @A 5O M @A G AI 1(modp) AH @A p IK>CHKF I @A 5O M @A G AI K @ELEI H @A | G | AH AI [G : N (P)] F=H= P K IK>CHKF @A 5O M @=@ I p IK>CHKF I @A 5O M @A G I ? KC=@ I A JHA I A H =K AIJA

! 6 @ I

,A
5A= P K p IK>CHKF @A 5O M ? JA I I? KC=@ I @A P

| {g Pg 1 /g G} |=| Orb(P) |
5A FKA@A LAH ?

G =?J = F H ?

KC=?E

I >HA IKI IK>CHKF I

%

2 /472 5 ; 6- 4- )5 ,- 5;

!

S = {H G/H IK>CHKF @A G} G S S (g, H) g Hg 1

3KAHA I A ?=H@E = @A K = H>EJ=

Orb(P) = {g Pg 1 /g G}
I =?JK=H F H ? KC=?E

2=H= ? J=H A Orb(P)

AH @A A A A J I @A Orb(P) D=?A

P G I >HA

| Orb(P) |=
P Orb(P)

| OrbP (P ) |

5E P = P OrbP (P) = {hPh1 /h P} = P | OrbP (P) |= 1 5E P = P | OrbP (P ) |=| {g P g 1 /g P} = [P : NP (P )] @ @A NP (P ) = {g P/g P g 1 = P } FAH g P O(g ) AI F JA ?E= @A p @EC= I O(g ) = pk A J ?AI F H A - ) O @=@ GKA g P g 1 = P p IK>CHKF @A 5O M ? ? KE I GKA g P 2 H J= J NP (P ) = P P 8A= I GKA P P = P E A P P P 5KF C= I GKA P P = P E A GKA P P P = P FKAI I p IK>CHKF I @A 5O M 2 H J= J P P P IK>? AIJHE?J  [P : P P ] > 1 FAH [P : P P ] AI @ELEI H @A p [P : P P ] = pj F=H= = C j 1 | Orb(P) |= 1 +
P =P

pjP 1mod(p)
IA= ? KC=@ ?

0=O

K p IK>CHKF @A 5O M H G GKA

5KF C= I GKA ANEIJA J= IK>CHKF O ? JA I J @ I IKI ? KC=@ I D=?EA @ =?JK=H 1 = P I >HA {g Hg /g G -IJA ? K J IA F=HJA A H>EJ=I O ? I EI I ?= ?K I = JAHE HAI

| Orb(H ) |=| {g H g 1 /g P} |= [P : NP (H )] = pl l 1
F H J= J p/ | Orb(H ) | , H ? KC=@ @A H I @A FH >=H GKA I

AH @A ? KC=@ I @A H = 0 mod(p)  FKAI =?=>= ? KC=@ I @A K p IK>CHKF @A 5O M I 1mod(p)

)I D=O p IK>CHKF I @A 5O M GKA IA= ? KC=@ I @A P -IJ FHKA>= ! @A JA HA = O KAC IA ? ? KOA  O

%

2HE AH 6A HA = @A 5O M
EJ F K FHE J= GKA | G |= pk q ? q FHE HA =JEL @A p E A p ?AI I p IK>CHKF I @A 5O M @A G JEA A ?=H@E = pk

5A= G K CHKF @ELE@A = q  A J

+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

,A
JA F H I GKA J @ I J= J EI I p IK>CHKF I @A 5O M @A G JEA A ECK= ?=H@E = HB I GKA GKAHA I FH >=H AI GKA
|G| |N (P)|

FKAI I
|G| |P|

KC=@ I

5A= P K p IK>CHKF @A 5O M @A G GKA [G : P] AI @ELEIE> A F H P

= [G : P] AI @A?EH
AI @ELEIE> A

,A IACK @ JA HA = @A 5O M IA JEA A GKA [G : N (P)] = F Hp O? ,A>A 2AH

|G| |P|

1mod(p) 

|G| |N (P)|

|N (P)| |P|

IA J

?AI FH >=H GKA [N (P) : P]

AI @ELEIE> A F H p

[N (P) : P] =| N (P)/P | CHKF ?K ?EA JA FKAI P N (P) 

)I 2 H? GKAHA I FH >=H GKA A IKF C= H@A @A CHKF N (P)/P I GKA A AI @ELEIE> A F H p A A A J @A H@A p JH=@E??E H@A @A N (P)/P AI @ELEIE> A F H P

2 H A JA HA = @A +=K?DO N (P)/P @A>A JA AH = C

O([g ]) = p [g ]p = [1] = P g p P (g p )p = 1 F=H= = C g p+1 = 1 O(g ) AI F JA ?E= @A p

2AH g N (P) g Pg 1 = P gP 2AH IE g P O([g ]) = 1 )I p @ELE@A = | N (P)/P | O?
j

j O(g ) AI F JA ?E= @A p
F H A = IA JEA A GKA

)F E?=?E
+K J I CHKF I  I= L EI ? H I I  @A H@A # D=O 5A= G K CHKF

| G |= 15

5A= P3 K 3 IK>CHKF @A 5O M @A G 5A= P5 K 5 IK>CHKF @A 5O M @A G AH @A ? N (P3 )] AH @A ? KC=@ I @A P3 = AH @A 3 IK>CHKF I @A 5O M @A G 1mod(3) = [G :

[G : N (P3 )][N (P3 ) : P3 ] = [G : P3 ]

KC=@ I @A P3 AI K @ELEI H @A [G : P3 ] =
|G| |P3 |

15 3

=5

0=O @ I @ELEI HAI @A 5

%

2 /472 5 ; 6- 4- )5 ,- 5;

!!

 1 1mod(3)

5 2mod(3)
2AH I=>A I GKA A O ? ? KE I GKA P3 AH @A ? JEA A KC=@ I @A P3 AI 1mod(3) F H I? KC=@ I E A P3 G J= J @AI?=HJ= I

| P5 |= 5
F H AH @A ? KC=@ I @A P5 1mod(5) = [G : N (P3 )] @ELEI H @A [G : P5 ] = 3 I J= J P5 G F H J= J K

P3 P5 AI IK>CHKF @A P3 O P5 P3 P5 = {1}

@A>A @ELE@EH = | P3 |= 3 O = | P5 |= 5

5A FH >=H I =@A = JA P3 P5 = P3 P5 G = P3 P5 = P3 P5 FAH P3 O P5 I ? ? E? I P3 = Z3 O P5 = Z5 F H J= J

G = Z3 Z5

0=O I

K CHKF @A H@A 15

- AH?E?E
+K J I CHKF I @A H@A 6 D=O

2H F
5A= G K CHKF @A H@A pk A J ?AI ANEIJA K = ?=@A = @A IK>CHKF I

Go = {1} G1 Gk = G ? | Gi |= pi i = 0 . . . k Gi G i = 0 . . . k

,A
A?AIEJ=HA I = FH FEA@=@ O= LEIJ= IECKEA JA EJ JHELE= | H |> 1  A J ?AI IK ?A JH AI JHELE= | Z (H) |> 1 5E H AI K p CHKF  2 H E @K??E ? A i 2H FEA@=@ F=H= i

?=@A = Go G1 Gi G j = 0 . . . i

| Gj |= pj

Gj

i=0: Go = {1} G AI ?EAHJ=

2=IA I @A i = i + 1

!" 5A= L = G/Gi CHKF

+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

JHELE=  FKAI i + 1 k 

| L |= [G : Gi ] = L AI p CHKF Z (L) AI

|G| |Gi |

pk pi

= pki 1
@A +=K?DO ?AI K L

JHELE= | Z (L) |= p ?

JHELE=

5A= [g ] Z (L) K A A A J @A H@A p  ANEIJA F H JA

K =< {[g ]} >= {[g ]t /t Z} L | K |= p

?

K =< {[g ]} > AI K IK>CHKF @A ?A JH @A L A J

@A ?E= K = H/Gi ? EH Gi+1 = H O JA A

2 H JA HA = @A ? HHAIF

H G H Gi | H |= [H : Gi ] | Gi |
I

| H |= pi+1
F H J= J F @A I @A

Go G1 Gi Gi+1 ?

| Gj |= p

-IJK@EA

I A FH > A = IECKEA JA
AIJ=I ? @E?E 3KAHA AI I=>A I GKA

G CHKF H, N IK>CHKF I @A G N G *= N H = {nh/n N, h H} IK>CHKF @A G 

)CHACA I =@A

I = DEF JAIEI @A GKA N H = {1}

I
A JA @AH N H 2 @H = I @A EH A N H

1 5A= n1 h1 , n2 h2 N H (n1 h1 )(n2 h2 ) = [n1 (h1 n2 h 1 )](h1 h2 ) 1 K = FAH=?E (n1 h1 )(n2 h2 ) = [n1 (h1 n2 h1 )](h1 h2 )

=H? CA AH=
N, H CHKF I H =?J = @A = C
@ A N F H =KJ H I I

: H Aut(N) h h h (n1 n2 ) = h (n1 )h (n2 ) h (n) = hn

- AIJ= IEJK=?E H F H N H + ? K J = FAH=?E F @A I @A EH A 2H @K?J

J H?E@

2H @K?J IA E@EHA?J @A N O

N H= N H

AI (n1 , h1 ) (n2 , h2 ) = (n1 h1 (n2 ), h1 h2 )

+=I

KO F=HJE?K =H
A JA

N, H CHKF I ?K= GKEAH= O H =?J = A N JHELE= hn = n n h (n) = idN (n) = n

- AIJA ?=I N H =N H ? (n1 n2 , h1 h2 ) FAH=?E ?

A JA = ?

A JA (n1 , h1 ) (n2 , h2 ) =

%

2 /472 5 ; 6- 4- )5 ,- 5;

!#

2H F
5E N O H I CHKF I O H =?J = I >HA N F H =KJ AI K CHKF AKJH 8 L= H I I A J ?AI N H HA?E @A E@

(1, 1) N H
IF HK A J = = IEJK=?E HECE =

1 LAHI (n, h)1 = (h1 (n1 ), h1 )

G CHKF N, H IK>CHKF I N G N H = {1}

- AIJA ?=I

H =?J = F H ?

KC=?E

I >HA N H I @A N  A@E= JA

h (n) = hnh1 N G h AI K =KJ

I A A A J I @A N H G IA

K JEF E?=>=

(n1 , h1 ) (n2 , h2 ) = (n1 h1 (n2 ), h1 h2 )

2H F
= BK ?E @A G N H

f : N H N H AI K EI (n, h) n h

H I

@A CHKF N H A A IK>CHKF

,A
3KA f AI EI H I AI F H @A E?E @A = FAH=?E A N H

3KA f AI I >HAOA?JEL= AI @EHA?J = E OA?JELE@=@ @A f LEA A @A N H = {1} AHf = {(n, h)/f (n, h) = 1} = {(n, h)/n h = 1} = {(n, h)/n = h1 } = N H

2H F
G CHKF
- J

N G H G O N H = {1}
KJ= n N, h H, n h = h n)

?AI N O H ?

O NH = N H (n, h) (n, h) 

!$

+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

,A
5 D=O GKA FH >=H GKA N O H ? KJ=

5A= n N h H

[n, h] = n h n1 h1 N H = {1} nh=hn ( h (n) = h n h1 = n)

- A ?=I CA AH= IE = = I G =N H F @A I? IE@AH=H I IK>? K J I

N = {(n, 1)/n N} G H = {(1, h)/h H} G

,EHA?J= A JA N O H I IK>CHKF I @A G

1 : N N n (n, 1)
6= >E  N H = {(1, 1)}

2 : H H I h (1, h)

EI

H I

N G
! NH = G " = =??E @A H I >HA N IA ? EI H I I 1 O 2 LEAHJA A =??E F H? KC=?E @AH I >HA N L= I

+K

J I CHKF I @A H@A $ D=O

| G |= 6 = 2 3 | P2 |= 2 P2 = (Z2 , +) | P3 |= 3 P3 = (Z3 , +) P2 P3 = {1}

AH @A ? KC=@ I @A P2 1mod(2) =@A I @A>A @ELE@EH = 3 1, 3 0=O @ I F IE>E E@=@AI  -NEIJA K 2 IK>CHKF @A 5O M P2 G -NEIJA 3 2 IK>CHKF I @A 5O M I H = AI

%

2 /472 5 ; 6- 4- )5 ,- 5; AH @A ?

9 J= J

!%

KC=@ I @A P3 1mod(3) @ELEI H @A 2 1 F H 

P3 G

4ALEIA -

I =I F IE>E E@=@AI F=H= P2

= IEJK=?E

P2 , P3 G P2 P3 = {1} P2 P3 = P2 P3 = Z2 Z3 )>A E=
0=O I= L EI H I I K I CHKF =>A E= (Z6 H I  = Z2 Z3 >KI?=H K EI = IEJK=?E G = P3 P2 = P3 P2 = Z3 Z2 5E GKAHA I I=>AH I I >HA GKA AI G D=O GKA A ? JHELE= @A Z2 A Z3  )??E AI F H =KJ H I I @A Z2 A Z3 JH=H I F IE> AI Z3 Z2  ? =??E @A 6 A A A J I

: Z2 Aut(Z3 ) o = id 3 1 (= id 3 )
0=O GKA A ? H I JH=H

1 1 = id
I F IE> AI =KJ

H I

I @A Z3 1

JHELE= AI = id I =KJ H I I @A Z3 FAH FHE AH =C I CA AH= I- @ H

) IK ?K=@H=@ IA= = E@A JE@=@

8A= I ? I I I @A Zn

f:

Zn Zn a +n b f (a +n b) = f (a) +n f (b)

f (1 + 1) = f (1) + f (1) f (k ) z Zn
AI A @

k f (1)
E IA A @ H I

AI? CEA @ f (1) @A

fz : Zn Zn k kz
H I

End(Zn ) = Zn
K JEF E?=JEL AI @A?EH

*EOA?JEL I )GKA I fz A GKA z JEA A E LAHI ? n x (Aut(Zn ), ) = (Zx n , n ) Zn : CHKF

fz A GKA z AI FHE

HA =JEL

K JEF E?=JEL @A

I E LAHJE> AI @A Zn 

n=3

!&

+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

(Aut(Z3 ), ) = ({1, 1}, 3 )

2 2 ) >=I f1 O f1 I=JEIB=?A f1 = f 1 = id 2AH f1 = id F H GKA IEHLA F=H= IAH 1 AI f1

J= J A

E? =KJ

H I

= =??E

: Z2 Z3 A A ?=I
AI Z2 Z3 ?

1 Aut(Z3 ) @A>A IAH

K JEF E?=?E

F H 1 0=O

- ?=I

(n1 , h1 ) (n2 , h2 ) = (n1 +3 h1 (n2 ), h1 +2 h2 ) = (n1 +3 (1)h1 n2 , h1 +2 h2 ) + ? KIE @ I I= L EI H I I CHKF I @A H@A 6

 Z6 )>A E=

S3

)>A E=

- AH?E?E
IJH=H GKA D=O @ I CHKF I @A H@A 4

Z4 O Z2 Z2

 & 2AGKA
4A?KAH@

AIJK@E @A (Sn, )

Xn = {1, . . . , n} Sn = Biy (Xn ) = { : Xn Xn / AI >EOA??E (Sn , ) AI K CHKF @A H@A n!

J=?E F=H= Sn CHKF IE

}
JHE? @A CH=@ n 

1 2 ... n (1) (2) (n)

,A

E?E

7 Sn IA @E?A
?E? @A =HC k
k n  IIE i1 , i2 , . . . , ik @EIJE J I A JHA I A Xn J= AI GKA (ij ) = ij +1 j = 1, . . . , k 1 O (i) = i IE i / {i1 , . . . , ik }

>IAHL=?E
J @= FAH KJ=?E AI K ?E? 2 HAA F

1 2 3 4 2 1 4 3

S4 O
F IE?E

AI K ?E?  @A @ I ?E? I

AI FH @K?J  ? 1 = (1 2) =

1 2 3 4 2 1 3 4 1 2 = 2 1 =

2 = (3 4) =

1 2 3 4 1 2 4 3

&

2-37-

-567,1

,- (SN , )

!'

,A

E?E

, I ?E? I = (i1 . . . ik ) Sn O = (j1 . . . jl ) Sn IA @E?A

@EI K J I
IIE {i1 . . . ik } {j1 . . . jl } =

- AH?E?E
5E O I ?E? I @EI K J I A J ?AI ? KJ=

2H F
6 @ Sn \ {1} IA AI?HE>A @A = AH= E?=  I= L F H A H@A @A I B=?J HAI  ? FH @K?J @A ?E? I @EI K J I  = F=HAI  = 1 l j O i @EI K J I j = i

,A
5A= G =< { } >= {1, , 2 , . . . , r } IK>CHKF @A Sn ,A = I = IECKEA JA =??E @A G I >HA Xn

G Xn Xn (, i) i = (i)
5E O1 , . . . , Ol I =I H>EJ=I @A = =??E @A G I >HA Xn @A ?=H@E = > 1 A J ?AI I @EI K J=I O = 1 . . . l @ @A j AI A ?E? @=@ F H 6 = I c Oj j = (c (c) 2 (c) . . . m1 (c)) ? mj =| Oj |? LA ?AHIA @A GKA AI 1 . . . l  = K E?E@=@  I= L H@A @A I B=?J HAI  I= A @A GKA IE = 1 . . . r ? I j ?E? I @EI K J I A J ?AI =I H>EJ=I  @A ?=H@E = > 1  @A IAH I ?E? I @A I j

>IAHL=?E
 5E Sn AI K ?E? @A =HC k O( ) =| { i /i Z} |= k

l l 5E 1 , . . . r I ?E? I @EI K J I (1 2 . . . r )l = 1 . . . r ,A =GK HAIK J= GKA IE Sn O( ) = mcm(O(1 ), . . . , O(k )) ?K= @ = @AI? F IE?E @A A ?E? I @EI K J I AI = 1 . . . k O( ) = mcm( =HC @A IKIK ?E? I )

) CK =I B H K =I JE AI
 5E = (i1 i2 . . . ik ) AI K ?E? @A =HC k O Sn AI ?K= GKEAH FAH KJ=?E 1 = ( (i1 ) (i2 ) . . . (ik )) A J ?AI

( 1 2 . . . k )( k k + 1 . . . l) = ( 1 2 . . . k k + 1 . . . l)
! ( 1 2 . . . k 1 k )( k 1 k k + 1 . . . l) = ( 1 2 . . . k 1)( k k + 1 . . . l)

"

+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

,A

E?E
Sn AI K ?E?
@A =HC 2

7 = JH=IF IE?E

= (i1 i2 )

2H F
6 @= FAH KJ=?E

Sn AI FH @K?J @A JH=IF IE?E

AI

2H F
2=H= n 3 Z (Sn ) = {1}

,A
5E Sn = (i1 i2 . . . ik )(j1 . . .) ? KJ= ?

= (ik j1 )

= (i1 i2 . . . j1 )(ik . . .) =
IE

= (i2 i3 . . .)

KJ= ?

= (i2 i3 )

 &  5EC
5E Sn =

@A K = FAH KJ=?E
=JHE @A FAH KJ=?E

p = [ e(1) e(2) . . . e(n) ] ?

P =I 0 ej = 1 0

?E=@= = AI

j =? K

= j @A In

2H F
5E , Sn A J ?AI P P = P

,A
2 H? K ?
j (P

=I
j (P )

P ) = P ?

= P e (j ) = = e (j ) =?
j (P )

n i=1 i (j )

e(i) = e( (j ))

&

2-37-

-567,1

,- (SN , )

"

>IAHL=?E
P AI K
? H I E OA?JEL @A (Sn , ) = (GL(n), )

GL(n)

=JHE?AI E LAHJE> AI @A n n

,A
- IEC

E?E
@A K = FAH KJ=?E

Sn IA @A

A?

sign( ) = (1) = det(P )

-I ? =H GKA IE AI JH=IF IE?E (1) = 1 - J ?AI IE Sn ?K= GKEAH= @=@ GKA = 1 . . . k ? 1 , . . . , k JH=IF IE?E AI P = P1 Pk (1) = det(P1 Pk ) = (1)1 (1)k = (1) (1) = (1)k )I JA A I K = BK ?E

sgn : Sn {1, 1} GKA AI K sgn( ) = (1)

F A? K AH F=H @A JH=IF ?EIE AH E F=H @A JH=IF IE?E AI

AFE

H I

@A

(Sn , ) O ({1, 1}, )

)@A I sgn( ) = 1 IE IA @AI? 1 IE IA @AI? F A ? K AI O sgn( ) =

J=?E
5E Sn AI J= GKA IK IEC AI 1 A J ?AI @A?E I GKA AI F=H IE

IA @E?A E F=H

,A

E?E
I
/HKF ) JAH = JA @A CH=@ n
= An = AH(sgn) Sn An = { Sn / AI F=H }

= =

2H F
| An |=
n! 2

,A
Sn /An = {1, 1} | Sn /An |=
|Sn | |An |

= 2 | An |=

Sn 2

n! 2

J=H GKA An AI K IK>CHKF FH FE = Sn 

=NE = A Sn

5E Sn H An [Sn : An ] = 2 = [Sn : H][H An ]

([Sn : H] = 1 O [H : An ] = 2 H = Sn )
@=@

([Sn : H] = 2 O [H : An ] = 1 H = An )
I IK>CHKF I @A @E?A FHE @A K CHKF

>IAHL=?E

AIJ AI K = F=HJE?K =HE@=@ @A

"

+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

2H F
An AIJ CA AH=@ F H
I ?E? I @A =HC 3

,A
 7 ?E? @A =HC 3 AIJ A An (i j k ) = (i j )(j k ) An 6 @ A A A J @A An AI FH @K?J @A ?E? I @A =HC 3 *=IJ= D=?AH F=H= FH @K?J I 1 2 @A 2 JH=IF IE?E AI = 1 = 2 = 1 > (i j )(j k ) = (i j k ) i = j = k ? (i j )(k l) = (i j k )(j k l) @EI K J I

2H F
An AIJ CA AH=@ F H
I ?K=@H=@ I @A I A A A J I @A Sn AI @A?EH An =< { 2 / Sn } >

,A
 2 AI F=H I ?E? I @A =HC 3 I ?K=@H=@ I

,A

E?E

5E G AI K CHKF K IK>CHKF H @A G IA @E?A IK>CHKF ?=H=?JAH IJE? IIE f : G G =KJ H I f (H) = H - F=HJE?K =H H IK>CHKF ?=H=?JAH IJE? @A G H G = E F E?= ?E= HA? FH ?= AI ?EAHJ=

-A F
5A= G = Z2 Z2 J @ IK>CHKF @A G AI H = FKAI AI =>A E=

H1 = Z2 {0} H2 = {0} Z2 H3 = {(0, 0), (1, 1)}

5 H = AI A G FAH ?=H=?JAH IJE? I

f (a, b) = (b, a) E JAH?= >E= H1 ?

H2 H2

g (a, b) = (a, a + b) E JAH?= >E= H3 ?

&

2-37-

-567,1

,- (SN , )

"!

2H F
An AI K IK>CHKF ?=H=?JAH IJE? @A Sn

,A
An =< { 2 / Sn } >
5E f : Sn Sn AI =KJ H I

f (An ) =< {f ( 2 )/ Sn } >

=< {f ( )2 / Sn } > =< { 2 / Sn } > = An

- AH?E?E I
 5E f : G K AI K 5E f End(Sn ) A J H I @A CHKF I O A G A J ?AI f (< A >) =< f (A) >

?AI f (A) A

+ H =HE
5E N An O f : Sn Sn AI =KJ H I A J ?AI f (N) An

2H F
5E n 5 I IK>CHKF I H = AI @A Sn I

{1}, An O Sn

,A
2H >A I GKA IE {1} = N Sn A J IECKA FH >=HA ?AI An N. I GKA K N ? AIJ=I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I ? ? KJ= ?  JEA A = C ?E? D=HA I ? @A =HC 3

5A= N \ {1} = CK = JH=IF IE?E

Sn J= GKA

 (Sn ) = {1} 

1 = [, ] =
)@A F H J= J JA A

1 1

N
? KC=@ @A K = JH=IF IE?E

I 1 = 1 JH=IF IE?E ?

I 1 N \ {1} JH=HE HAIK J=H = = E@A JE@=@ 

1 = FKAI @A

5E 1 O I @EI K J=I 1 = (i, j ) = (j, k ) 1 = (i j k ) ?E?

@A =HC 3

""

+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

5E 1 O I @EI K J=I JA A I (i, j )(k, l) A N i, j, k, l @EIJE J=I A JHA I  O F H J= J N ? JEA A J @ I I FH @K?J I @A @ I JH=IF IE?E AI @EI K J=I F H J= J ? JEA A = (k l)(j m) m / {i, j, k, l} n 5 (i j )(k l)(k l)(j m) = (i j m) N

,A

E?E
I E? I IK>CHKF I H = AI @A G I

7 CHKF G IA @E?A IE F A IIE G = {1} O

{1} O G

6A HA =
5E n 5 An AI IE F A

A = 6 ? E?
5E Sn , n 4 ? KJ= ?

Sn JH=IF IE?E

A J

?AI O( ) 2

,A
2 H? JH=@E??E F IE?E A ?E? I @EI K J I ? 5E O( ) > 2 IA AI?HE>A A IK @AI? JEA A ?E? @A =HC 3 

= (i, j, k, . . .)

5A= l / {i, j, k }  AIJ AI F IE> A FKAI n 4  O = (k l)

= (i j l . . .) (i) = k

KJ= ?

+= ?K A

(i) = l

,A
2 H? 

6A HA =
ANEIJA N An J= GKA N = {1} O N = An C= I GKA JA A I=C IK>CHKF H = FH FE = {1} O = An JH=@E??E IKF

0=O GKA FH >=H GKA

- AH?E?E

2H >=H GKA IE G AI CHKF O JEA A = C =NE = GKA ? JEA A  H 

H = FH FE =NE = ?

IK>CHKF

H = FH FE

D=O K
GKA = AI

- J ?AI ANEIJA K IK>CHKF =HA I N NSn (N) = An

HAIFA?J = = E ? KIE

2 H J= J JH=IF IE?E Sn N = N 1 1 N(1 ) = N N = 1 N1 N JEA A I @ I? KC=@ I A Sn N O N 

; IE 1 , An I

JH=IF IE?E

& 5E ?

2-37IE@AH=

-567,1

,- (SN , )

"#

I K = N N

K Sn K = {1}
AI JHELE=

2 H J= J JA A I @ I IK>CHKF I H = AI @A An N O N ?KO= E JAHIA??E F H J= J N( N ) = N N N( N ) Sn N( N ) An N( N ) = An N( N ) N {1} +

N?

KJ= ?

N @ I IK>CHKF I

H = AI ?

E JAHIA??E

JHELE= 

5E N ? KJ= ? JH=IF IE?E N, N, O( ) 2 An , O( ) 2 FKAI An JEA A I ?E? I @A =HC 3 

2 H A A = = JAHE H O( ) = 2

"$

+)2 67

- - - 6 5 ,- 6- 4 ) ,- /472 5

+=F JK ) E
 ,A
5A= R K ?

I
E?E
K J ?

AI * IE?=I
@ I AOAI @A ? F IE?E E JAH =

+ O (R, +, ) IA @E?A = E

IIE

 (R, +) AI CHKF =>A E=

AI =I ?E=JEL A R
! @EIJHE>KOA ? HAIFA?J = + A R AKJH F=H= + +K= @ IA JEA A AIJ= ?K=HJ=

" JEA A AKJH 1 ? 1 = 0 @ @A 0 AI A FH FEA@=@ IA D=> = @A

= E K EJ=HE  5E =@A I AI ? KJ=JEL A = E IA @E?A ?

KJ=JEL

J=
- CA AH= I JH I JH=>= =HA I? = E I K EJ=HE I ? KJ=JEL I

- AH?E?E
5E (R, +, ) AI K = E A J ?AI (a, b R)

a0=0a=0 a = (1) a (a b) = (a) b = a (b)

)I

FKA@A JA AH E LAHI F=H= "%

"&

+)2 67

) 1

,A

E?E
? KJ=JEL IA @E?A ?KAHF IIE J @ a K \ {0} JEA A E LAHI F=H=

5E (K, +, ) AI K = E

,A

E?E
KJ=JEL A A GKA J @ A A A J @EIJE J @A 0 JEA A E LAHI @ELEIE 

7 = E A?AI=HE= A JA ? F=H= IA IKA A = =H

= E ?

- AH?E?E
7 = E

R AI ?KAHF IIE (R \ {0}, ) AI CHKF =>A E=

,A

E?E

5E R AI K = E K A A A J a R \ {0} IA @EH
@ELEI H @A ?AH  IIE b R \ {0} JG a b = 0 >EA b a = 0

,A

E?E
ax = ay x =

7 A A A J a R \ {0} IA @E?A
?= ?A => A F=H= IIE (x, y R) y O xa=yax=y

- AH?E?E
7 = E - K = E R
JEA A @ELEI HAI @A 0 IIE J @ a R \ {0} AI ?= ?A => A F=H=

R J @ aR?

E LAHI F=H= AI ?= ?A => A

- K ?KAHF K

D=O @ELEI HAI @A 0

,A

E?E
E E @A E JACHE@=@ 
= E @A E JACHE@=@  AI K = E ? KJ=JEL IE @ELEI HAI

7
, @A ?AH

) 1

5 ,- 2

1 5

"'

-A F I
(Z, +, ) AI K @
E E @A E JACHE@=@ E E @A E JACHE@=@ F H A A F

6 @ ?KAHF (K, +, ) AI @ 

(R, +, ), (C, +, ), (Q, +, )

(Zm , +, ) AI = E ? KJ=JEL m 2  Zm = {[n]m /n Z} x m y x y m Z n1 m n2 n1 l1m n2 l2 F H J= J l1m l2 - Zm [n] m

[n1 ] [n2 ] = [n1 n2 ] J= >E

JEA A IA JE@ HA =JEL ?

AI @ELEI H @A ?AH [n] JEA A E LAHI F=H= n AI FHE E E @A E JACHE@=@ m AI FHE

Zm AI ?KAHF Zm AI @

) E
,A E?E

I @A 2 E

E I

5E R AI K = E ? KJ=JEL A ? K J @A F E E I A K = E @AJAH E =@= x O = ? A ?EA JAI A R AI R[x] = {(ao , a1 , . . . , an , . . .) R /(no ) tq an = 0 n no } ,A = I =I IECKEA JAI FAH=?E AI A R[x]

(ai )i + (bi )i = (ai + bi )i (ai )i (bi )i = (ci )i (R[x], +, ) AI = E

= = ? KJ=JEL ?

ci =

i j =0

aj bij

I x = (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0, . . .) R[x] @A AIJ= B H = xn = x . . . x = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . .) O n veces i n i @ @A E@A JE ?= I I A A A J I F H J= J (ao , a1 , . . . , an , 0, . . .) = i=0 ai x a R ? (a, 0, . . . , 0, . . .) R[x] 1@A JE ?=?E KIJE ?=@= F H A DA?D GKA = BK ?E f : R R [ x] AI K = E OA??E GKA FHAIAHL= + O f (a + b) = f (a) + f (b) a (a, 0, . . . , 0, . . .) O f (a b) = f (a) f (b) J=H GKA
n i=0

ai xi =

n i=0 bi

xi R[x] ai = bi i N

#

+)2 67

) 1

,A

E?E
i

5E p(x) =

ai xi R[x] @A

I IK CH=@ ?

CH(p(x)) =

N{n N/an = 0}(= 0

p(x) = 0) CH(0) =

LA ?E

AI

n + = + n = n N {} < n n N

2H F
p(x), q (x) R[x]
 CH(p(x) + q (x)) N{CH(p(x), CH(q (x))}

CH(p(x) q (x)) CH(p(x)) + CH(q (x))

>IAHL=?E

AI
D=O @ELEI HAI @A ?AH

CH(p(x) q (x)) = CH(p(x)) + CH(q (x)) IA JEA A ?K= @ R AI @

E E @A E JACHE@=@ R[x] AI @

E E @A E JACHE@=@ 5E p(x), f (x) R[x], f (x) =

5E R AI K ?KAHF IA JEA A A JA HA = @A = @ELEIE 0, !q (x) , !r(x) R[x] tq. p(x) = q (x) f (x) + r(x) CH(r(x)) < CH(f (x))

- CA AH= IA JEA A  =K GKA R IA= K ?KAHF  p(x) R[x], a R p(x) = q (x) (x a) + c ? c R , @A c = p(a) A GKA p(a) AI AL= K=H = BK ?E

p : R R
BK ?E

F E

E= =I ?E=@= = F E

E p(x)

x p(x)
B H K = @A F E

E AL= K=@= A A A A A J x

-I @A?EH p(x) = ao + a1 x + . . . + an xn R[x]

p(a) = ao + a1 a + . . . + an an R

,A

E?E
a H=
@A p(x) IIE (x a) AI K

a R IA @E?A H= @A p(x) R[x] IIE p(a) = 0 5A >JEA A B=?J H @A p(x) E A p(x) = q (x) (x a) 

) 1

5 ,- 2

1 5

#

+ H =HE
5E a1 , . . . , ak R I H= ?AI @A p(x) @EIJE J=I A JHA I A J ?AI (xa1 )(xa2 ) (xak )/p(x)

+ H =HE
5E p(x) R[x] JEA A CH=@ n N A J ?AI p(x) =@ EJA = I n H= ?AI @EIJE J=I

+ H =HE
5E R AI E EJ O p(x), q (x) R[x] A J ECK= AI IIE p(x) = q (x) ?AI =I BK ?E AI F E E= AI p, q : R R I

,A
) a R p(a) = q (a) p(x) q (x) JEA A = J @ a R ? H= J= J IK CH=@ @A>A IAH p(x) q (x) = 0 p(x) = q (x)
E EJ=I H= ?AI F H

>IAHL=?E
5E R AI EJ R = {ro , . . . , rk } A J ?AI p(x) = (x ro ) (x r1 ) (x rk ) R[x] CH(p(x)) = k + 1 p(x) = 0 5E A >=HC = BK ?E F E E= =I ?E=@= = p(x) AI = BK ?E K = (i {0, . . . , k } p(ri ) = 0) -I @A?EH p(x) O 0 JEA A = EI = BK ?E F E = =I ?E=@=

,A

E?E
= E I K H I K D H I  @A R = P IAH K = BK ?E

5E R OP I J= GKA

f : R P

 (r1 , r2 R) f (r1 + r2 ) = f (r1 ) + f (r2 )

(r1 , r2 R) f (r1 r2 ) = f (r1 ) f (r2 )

! f (1R ) = 1P

>IAHL=?E
 O 5A JEA A H I E F E?= ! 2 H A A F =I ?E AJ? ? AI @A EI H I IA AIFAH=H =

f : R P 5=JEIB=?A  O r f (r) = 0
H I AFE H I A @

FAH H I

! =KJ

+)2 67

) 1

! *KA
,A E?E

I 5K>?

K J I @A K = E
K J ?AHH=@

5E R AI K = E  ? KJ=JEL  K IK>= E S @A R IAH K IK>? F=H= + O GKA ? JEA A = 1 R O J= GKA ? + O HAIJHE CE@ I AI = E

,A

E?E

5E (R, +, ) AI K = E ? KJ=JEL K E@A= I A R AI K IK>CHKF @A (R, +) J= GKA (r R)(x I) r x I O =@A I I R 5E I = R D=> = I @A E@A= @ACA AH=@ 2=H= GKA IEHLA I E@A= AI F=H= D=?AH ?K ?EA JAI

(R, +) AI CHKF =>A E= [x] + [y ] = [x + y ]

>IAHLA I GKA

(I, +) (R, +) O JEA A IA JE@ A CHKF =>A E=

(R/I, +)

R/I = {[x]/x R} [x] = x + I

[x] = [x ] [y ] = [y ] [x y ] = [x y ] x x I (z I) x = x + z y y I (u I) y = y + z x y = x y + x u + y z + z u [x y ] = [x y ]
I I

6A A

I =I A R/I @ I AOAI

[x] + [y ] = [x + y ] [x] [y ] = [x y ] (R/I, +, ) AI = E

?

[1] A

AKJH F=H= F H J= J

+ I R R/I JEA A 1 = [1] = 0 = I

I @A K A A A J  IE r / I [r] = [0] = I) O

2H F
5E f : (R, +, ) (S, +, ) AI K )@A I J @ E@A= A R AI K H I @A = E ? A @A = C I A J H I ?AI AHf = f 1 ({0}) AI K E@A= @A = E I

,A
AHf AI IK>CHKF @A (R, +) O IE x AHf O r R f (r x) = f (r) f (x) = f (r) 0 = 0 r x AHf + f (1) = 1 = 0 1 / AHf F H J= J AHf AI E@A= A R 5A= I K E@A= @A R AH = I F H J= J = BK ?E

: R R/I AI K x [x] J @ E@A= AI ? A @A K H I

H I

@A = E I

@A = E

*7-

5 57*+

7 6 5 ,- 7

) 1

#!

>IAHL=?E
= @A E?E @A E@A= IA FKA@A HAA F = =H I

R F H1 / I O GKA@= =

EI =

?E

-A F
1@A= AI A (Z, +, ) 5K>CHKF I @A (Z, +)

m Z, m N
 F=H= m = 1 HAIK J= K E@A= @ACA AH=@ 

m = 1 m Z AI E@A= @A Z

!  6A HA = @A .=?J H
5E f : (R, +, ) (S, +, ) AI K H I @A = E I O I R AI K E@A= ? A J ?AI ! H I @A = E I f : R/I S J= GKA A @E=CH= = IECKEA JA ?
f

I KJ=

AHf

S _ f

R/I

f = f  ALE@A JA A JA f ([x]) = f (x) f E OA?JEL= I =

AHf

f I >HAOA?JEL= f AI I >HAOA?JEL=

-A F
1@A= AI A K ?KAHF (K, +, )  7 E@A= A K = E - AH?E?E JHELE=  ? KJ=JEL ? JEA A A A A J I E LAHJE> AI HAIFA?J = 

- K J @ x = 0 AI E LAHJE> A 2 H J= J A E? E@A= @A K ?KAHF AI I = {0}

#"

+)2 67

) 1

+ H =HE
5E (K, +, ) AI K ?KAHF O f : K R AI K f AI E OA?JEL= H I @A = E I A J ?AI AHf = {0} EA

-A F
5E K AI K ?KAHF +K AI I I E@A= AI @A (K[x], +, ) 5E I AI E@A= A K[x] A J @EIJE J @A 0 ?AI I = p(x) K[x] ?

p(x) K[x] K F E

@A CH=@

,A
{0} = 0 K[x]
5KF C= I GKA I {0}  ? JA E@ AIJHE?J= A JA  6 A I p(x) I \ {0} @A CH=@ E 8A= I GKA (f (x) I) f (x) = p(x) q (x) F=H= = C q (x) 2=H= A IE f (x) I @ELE@= I F H p(x) >JA A I f (x) = q (x) p(x) + r(x) ? CH(r(x)) < CH(p(x)) J=H GKA r(x) I FKAI r(x) = f (x) + q (x) p(x) I @A JH @A I \ {0} r(x) = 0 f (x) = q (x) p(x) F H
I I

O? J= J

p(x) AI @A CH=@ I = p(x) K[x]

1@A= AI CA AH=@ I F H 5K>?

5A= R K = E OAR = =

K J I
I E@A= CA AH=@ F H A = IECKEA JA ? K J

(A) =
IAI E@A= ,IA

- AH?E?E
 (A) = {
n i=1 ri ai /n

N, ai A, ri R}

5E u A AI E LAHJE> A (A) = R

>IAHL=?E
5E R BKAH= ? KJ=JEL IKI E@A= AI IA @A A ?

I R E ? KIE

AIJHE?J= 

(I, +) IK>CHKF @A (R, +) O r R, x I, r x I x r I

4AIK J=

(A) = {

n i=1 ri

xi si /n N, ri , si R, xi A}

*7-

5 57*+

7 6 5 ,- 7

) 1

##

-A F

@A = E

?
n2

KJ=JEL I
R = {(aij )i,j =1...n /aij K}
=JHE?AI KIK= AI =JHE?AI @A n n = ? A ?EA JAI 1 0 0 1 ? KJ= 0 0 0 0

 5A= K K ?KAHF A K ?

= IK = O FH @K?J @A

- = E @A @ELEIE @A I ?K=JAH E AI H = R4 = R R3 + AI ? F A JA = ? F A JA O (a, v ) (b, w) = (a b < v, w >, a w + b v + v w) a,v ) (a, v )1 = ((a,v ? (a, v ) = (a, v ) ) 2

,A

E?E
R IA @E?A FHE ?EF= IE AI CA AH=@ F H K A A A J

7 E@A= A K = E

,A

E?E
R IA = =
@ AI FHE ?EF=

7 = E E@A= A

E E E@A= FHE ?EF=  @EF IIE AI @

E E @A E JACHE@=@ O J @

-A F I
- JA HA = @A = @ELEIE
I ?KAHF I I @EF  D=?A = (Z, +, ) O (K[x], +, ) K ?KAHF  @EF E? E@A= A 0 

- AH?E?E
- = E @A I A JAH I @A /=KII G = {a + b i/a, b Z} C ?

+, @A C I

K @EF

- AH?E?E
5A= R K @ E E @A E JACHE@=@ ,A ,A E = I A R R \ {0} = IECKEA JA HA =?E

(a, b) (c, d) a d = b c
5A= K = R R \ {0}/ IA K

[(a, b)] + [(c, d)] = [a d + b c, b d] [(a, c)] [(c, d)] = [(a c, b d)]
2H >=H GKA AIJ=I @ I FAH=?E AI AIJ >EA @A E@=I O GKA (K, +, ) AI K ?KAHF 8AH GKA : R K AI K H I @A = E I O GKA E@A JE ?= @ a R ? a [(a, 1)] (a) = [(a, 1)] K A J ?AI [(a, b)] = a (= a b1 )a, b R, b = 0 b

K IA = = A ?KAHF @A BH=??E AI @A R  5E R = Z A J ?AI K = Q 5E R = K[x] A J ?AI K =

BH=??E AI H=?E = AI 5E R AI K ?KAHF k A J ?AI K = k 

#$

+)2 67

) 1

- AH?E?E
IJH=H GKA IE P AI K ?KAHF O R P AI IK>= E @A P A J ?AI A ?KAHF E ? KE@ A P GKA ? JEA A = R AI EI HB = K =
?KAHF @A BH=??E AI @A R
I FAGKA

" ) C @A ,ELEIE>E E@=@ A ) E

JA I GKA IE R AI K = E (Rx , ) ? +K= @ R AI ? KJ=JEL Rx AI =>A E= I A A A J I u Rx IA IKA A

I
B H = K CHKF

Rx = {r R/r AI E LAHJE> A }

= =H K E@=@AI @A R

,A

E?E

,EHA I GKA @ I A A A J I a, b I
K EJ=HE= A JA AGKEL= A JAI IIE u Rx J= GKA b = u a E A a, b AIJ A = EI = H>EJ= @A = =??E @A (Rx , ) A R F H K JEF E?=?E 

J=?E
a b  FH >=H GKA AI @A AGKEL= A ?E= 

,A

E?E
5A= a, b R ,A?E I GKA a
@ELE@A = b IIE (c R) J= GKA b = c a

,ELEIE>E E@=@

>IAHL=?E
5E a b a/b b/a - CA AH=
/
AI @A H@A

- AH?E?E
8AH GKA A K @ E E @A E JACHE@=@ a/b b/a a b )@A I a/b, a a , b b a /b F H J= J IA FKA@A @A EH = HA =?E
/
A R/ O =GK I AI @A H@A

"  +=I A GKA R AI K @EF

a/b b (a) (b) (a)
J=H GKA a b (a) = (b)  A K @ E E @A E JACHE@=@

"

) /

,- ,18151*1 1,), -

) 1

#%

,A

E?E
7 A A A J c R IA @E?A @ELEI H

5A= a, b R

NE

@ELEI H  ? @ @A a O b IIE

-I ?

c/a c/b
@A a O b AI J= >E @ELEI H @A c ?AI c J= >E

+K= GKEAH @ELEI H ?

J=H GKA IE c AI - K @

(d R) d/a d/b d/c

AI ? @ @A a O b ? @ @A a O b c c

? @ @A a O b O c c A J

E E @A E JACHE@=@ IE c AI

? @ @A a O b A J

?AI c AI

2H F
5E R AI K @EF O a, b R ? = CK @A I @ I @EIJE J @A 0 A J ?AI c ? @ @A a, b

,A
+ IE@AH=H I = (a, b) F H IAH @EF I = (c) ?

cR

a (c) c/a b (c) c/b

F H J= J

c AI K @ELEI H ?

@A a O b

5A= d K @ELEI H ?

@A a O b

a (d) d/a b (d) d/b {a, b} (d) (c) = (a, b) (d) d/c
J=H GKA (a, b) = { a + b/, R (a, b) = (c) = a + b/, R 1CK= @=@ @A

*A KJ

- AH?E?E
, I AA A J I I
FHE I HA =JEL I IE (, R) 1 = a + b ? @ A JHA A I AI 1 a, b FHE I HA =JEL I IIE

+ H =HE
5A= R K @EF 5E a, b, c R ?

a, b FHE

I HA =JEL I O a/(b c) A J

?AI a/c

,A
a/(b c) b c = a , R a, b FHE
I HA =JEL I 1 = a + b , , R c = (c ) a + b c

c = (c + ) a a/c

#&

+)2 67

) 1

,A

E?E

7 @ E E @A E JACHE@=@ R IA = =
@ E E @A B=?J HE =?E E?= IIE (a R\{0}) p1 , . . . , pk FHE I E? I I= L F H AGKEL= A ?E= K EJ=HE= O H@A J= GKA a p1 p2 . . . pk  K E@=@AI ? k = 0 a 1 Rx 

2H F
6 @ @EF AI @ E E @A B=?J HE =?E E?=

,A
 -NEIJA ?E= @A @AI? E LAHJE> AI  2 H ? JH=@E?E S= F IE?E A FH @K?J @A FHE I F=H= I A A A J I @A R \ Rx  I} 5KF C= I GKA

5A= S = {a R \ Rx /a

AI FH @K?J @A FHE

+ IE@AHA I F=H= a S K = ?=@A = AIJHE?J= A JA ?HA?EA JA @A E@A= AI (ao ) (a1 ) (an ) ? ao = a 5E AI GKA AIJ= ?=@A = AIJ > EC=@= = @AJA AHIA A (an ) ANEIJA an+1 S J= GKA (an ) (an+1 ) F H J= J an = c d ? c, d / S c, d / S JEA A @AI? F IE?E A FHE I an JEA A @AI? F IE?E A FHE I + IE@AHA I A E@A= I = =K E

(an )
n

- AH?E?E

@A K = ?=@A = @A E@A= AI AI E@A=

I=

(an ) AI E@A= A R I = (a) a R

2AH A CA AH=@ H a I @A>A FAHJA A?AH = = C (an ) O a (an ) (a) = I (an ) F H J= J I = (an ) = ?=@A = JAH E A (an )

S=
7 E?E@=@ @A = @AI? F IE?E 5A= a p1 . . . pk q1 . . . ql

p1 . . . pk q1 . . . ql pk /(q1 . . . ql )
5E pk O q1 I FHE I HA =JEL I pk /q1 (q2 ql ) pk /(q2 . . . ql ) F H I ?=I I AIJ IA @AJEA A A pk /ql  2 H J= J J= J A A FA H @A

pk qi = C
J=?E IA= H=

i = 1...l
=> A E JAH?= >E= I qi O ql O HAIK J= pk ql p1 pk1 

2=H= GKA = q1 ql1

5A IECKA E @K?JEL= A JA

pk1 ql1  I= L HA H@A =?E pkj qkj

,7

5 5 *4- 7

) 1

R
2 H J= J

#'

=I @ I @AI? F IE?E AI @A>A =?=>=H = EI JEA F  KIJE ?=H 1 . . . l) pi q(i) F=H= = CK = FAH KJ=?E Sk

(i =

@K I I >HA K = E

R
7 @K E GKEAH@ M  R @K (M, +)  IK AKJH IAH 0  @ J=@ @A

5A= R K = E A?AI=HE= A JA ? KJ=JEL E GKEAH@  I >HA A = E R AI K CHKF =>A E= K =

AO @A ? F IE?E ANJAH =

: R M M (r, m) rm
6= GKA  1m = m m M

(, R)(m M) (m) = ( )m
! (, R)(m M) ( + )m = m + m " ( R)(m1 , m2 M) (m1 + m2 ) = m1 + m2

>IAHL=?E
5A FKA@A @A EH R @K I @AHA?D I 5E R AI ? E GKEAH@ I O IA D=> = IE F A A JA @A R @K I KJ=JEL ? E ?E@A I @AHA?D I ? I

-A F I
R = K ?KAHF
K K @K E GKEAH@ AI K K AIF=?E LA?J HE=

-A F
R=Z
IZ @K I I AN=?J= A JA EI GKA I CHKF I =>A E= I - ABA?J 5E (A, +) AI CHKF =>A E= @A E I F=H= Z, a A si > 0 a + ... + a veces 0 si = 0 a = (a) + . . . + (a) si < 0
veces

,AIFK I @A K JEF AI E @K??E HAIK J= K Z @K

AI IA ?

? KOA GKA A
?

AIJ=

K JEF E?=?E

F H AI?= AH

$ 4A? FH ?= A JA F=HJEA @ ? m M IA JEA A IECKEA JA

veces

+)2 67 K Z @K

) 1

(M, +) AI CHKF =>A E=

5E Z O

> 0 m = (1 + . . . + 1)m = 1m + . . . + 1m = m + . . . + m
veces

= 0 m = 0  FH FEA@=@ CA AH= @A R

@K I

r R , m M , r 0 = 0 m = 0 

< 0 1(m) = (1)m = ( 1)m = (1m) m = ()(m) = (m) + . . . + (m) veces

-A F

!
-IJK@EA I I K[x] @K I

5A= K K ?KAHF

5A= M K K[x] @K + IE@AH= @ GKA K FKA@A IAH E@A JE ?=@ ? A IK>= E @A I F E E I ? IJ= JAI A K[x] (a a + 0 x + . . .) 5A FKA@A HAIJHE CEH =
K JEF E?=?E F H AI?= =H = AI?= =HAI @A K K M M ? GKA M HAIK J= IAH K K AIF=?E LA?J HE= JA I GKA IE J = I A A A A J @A = E

x K[x]

x(m1 + m2 ) = xm1 + xm2 m1 , m2 M x(m) = (xm) K, m M

)I = BK ?E

T : M M m xm
E A= @A K A L M A I EI

AI K = JH= IB H =?E

) = E LAHI= @=@ I K A L V I >HA A ?KAHF K O K = JH= IB H =?E E A= T : V V F @A I @A EH K = AIJHK?JKH= @A K[x] @K @A = IECKEA JA = AH= = IK = AI = GKA V JH=A ? 5E v V O p(x) =
n i=0

K AL

=
K JEF E?=?E E I p(T ) =

F H AI?= =HAI F E
n i=0

E I

ai xi K[x] @A

ai T

.=?E A JA IA FHKA>= GKA IE p(x), q (x) K[x] A J ?AI p q (T ) = p(T ) q (T ) O @A =D HAIK J= GKA =
AO @A ? F IE?E ANJAH = K[x] V V (p(x), v ) p(x)v = p(T )(v ) @A A K = AIJHK?JKH= @A K[x] @K A V A = GKA xv = T (v )

#  5K>
5E M AI K GKA @K

@K I
I >HA A = E

R K IK>

@K

N @A M AI K IK>?

K J N M J=

(N, +) AI IK>CHKF
= K JEF E?=?E F H AI?= =H AI ?AHH=@= A N

(r R)(n N) rn N

,7

5 5 *4- 7 AIJ=I ? @E?E IJH=?E

) 1

R
@K

$

J=H GKA ? + IIE =I

AI N HAIK J= IAH K R

EI =I @A

AI GKA A A ?=I @A AIF=?E LA?J HE=

N M AI IK>

@K

 N=

N AI ?AHH=@ F=H= ?

>E =?E

AI E A= AI (r1 , r2 R)(n1 , n2 N) r1 n1 + r2 n2 N

-A F
I IK>


@K I @A K K @K IK>AIF=?E I LA?J HE= AI

-A F
I IK> @K I @A K Z @K IK>CHKF I

-A F
I IK> - K[x] W V

!
@K I @A K K[x] @K @K

AI K K A L V ?

S : V V JH= IB H =?E

E A= 5E W AI IK>

@K

W AI I A L @A V -IJ=> A F H S (w W ) S (w) W
E A S (W ) W 

J= @A =@LAHJA ?E=
5A= M K R @K

r R, m M

rm = 0 E F E?= r = 0 m = 0 =K GKA A = E JA C= @ELEI HAI @A ?AH  J @=I =I FH FEA@=@AI @A AIF=?E I LA?J HE= AI IA = JEA A F=H= @K I
-A F A K Z @K FKA@A F=I=H IECKEA JA

M = Zp p Z, p = 0, m = [1] IA JEA A p[1] = [p] = [0]

,A

E?E
 AI K A A A J @A ?

5E M AI K R @K O m M IA @E?A GKA m JEA A J HIE J HIE  IIE r R \ {0} J= GKA rm = 0

+)2 67

) 1

-A F
5E R AI K @ E E @A E JACHE@=@ O M AI K R @A J HIE } AI K IK> @K @A M @K A J ?AI

T M = {m M/m AI

-A F

E JAHAI= JA @A IK>

@K I
A IM=R @A = E  E AR? R @K  = K JEF E?=?E I IK> @K I A AIJA ?=I I I E@A= AI

5A= R = E ? KJ=JEL J F H AI?= =H AI = K JEF E?=?E @ACA AH=@ E ? KE@ 

*KA =I BK ?E

AI
H I @A R @K I  JH= IB H =?E E A=  AI

5E M O N I R @K I K
D K = BK ?E T : M N J= GKA

(x, y M) T (x + y ) = T (x) + T (y ) (r R)(x M) T (rx) = rT (x)

-A F


JA A I =I JH= IB H =?E AI E A= AI A JHA AIF=?E I LA?J HE= AI

5E R = K ?KAHF

-A F
5E R = Z ? Z @K O CHKF =>A E= E A= AI A JHA Z @K I IE F A A JA I AI I EI HAIK J= GKA =I JH= IB H =?E H I I @A CHKF I AI

-A F

R = K[x] 4A? H@A I GKA K K[x] @K AI K AIF=?E LA?J HE= V ? K = JH= IB H =?E E A= S : V V J= GKA F=H= A AI?= =H x K[x] O K LA?J H v V xv = S (v )
5A= f : V W K H I @A K[x] ? HHAIF @EA JAI = V O W HAIFA?JEL= A JA  f AI K E A=  E A= A JHA @K I O S1 , S2 =I JH= IB H =?E AI E A= AI

IALV OW 

2=H= x K[x] GKAHA

I GKA f (xv ) = xf (v ) (v V ) E A f (S1 (v )) = S2 f (v ) v V

,7

5 5 *4- 7

) 1

R
f

$!

S1

S2

V f

- @E=CH= = ?

KJ=

# ! +K ?EA JAI
5A= M @K I >HA 44 O N M K IK> @K + IE@AH= @ (M, +) ? CHKF A J ?AI (M/N, +) CHKF =>A E= *KA = FH FEA@=@ =>A E= N AI IK>CHKF H = 2 @A I ?= ?K =H @ @A A ?K ?EA JA AI HAIFA?J = x y y x N J= J GKA@= >EA @A E@= A M/N = K JEF E?=?E

[x] = [y ] v R [rx] = [ry ] F H F H AI?= =H R M/N M/N (r, [x]) r[x] = [rx]
O M/N HAIK J= IAH R = @K ?

: M M/N J= GKA (x) = [x]

EI = IAHEA @A JA HA =I GKA IA JEA A F=H= CHKF I O IKI ?K ?EA JAI L= A A AIJ= IEJK=?E

6A HA = @A + HHAIF
5A= M K R IK> @K @K I @A M GKA ?

@A ?E=
N M IK>
@K 0=O K = ? HHAIF @K I @A M/N @A ?E=   A JHA JEA A = N IK>

N P M P/N
4A AL= ?E= @A AHf 1 f IE f : M N AI R @K @A M E A=

AHf = f 1 ({0}) AI IK> @K

1 f = f (M) AI IK>

@A N

$"

+)2 67

) 1

f E OA?JEL=

AHBf = {0}

f I >HAOA?JEL= 1 f = N

6A HA = @A .=?J H
5E f : M N AI R E A= O L IK> @K J= GKA A IECKEA JA @E=CH= = ? KJ= @A M ?

AHf A J

?AI ! f : M/L N

N _

v M/L

f ([x]) = f (x) f E OA?JEL= L =

AHf  AHf = ( AHf )/L 1 f 

f I >HAOA?JEL= f I >HAOA?JEL=  1 f

- AH?E?E I
 1 JAHIA??E ?K= GKEAH= @A IK> @K @A M @K I AI IK> @K

N + L AI IK>

6A HA =I @A 1I

H I

I
IK> @K I A J ?AI

 5E M AI K R @K O N L I N/N L = (N + L)/L [n]NL [n]L

5E M AI R @K O N L M IK> (M/N)/(L/N) = M/L [[x]N ]L/N [x]L

@K

A J

?AI

,7

5 5 *4- 7

) 1

$#

# " 5K =I 2H @K?J I 5K =I @EHA?J=I AJ?

,A E?E
@K OAM 5A @A A A IK> @K CA AH=@ F H A ?

5E M AI K R

< A >= AN N submodulo < A > AI K IK>

@K

O AI A

I FAGKA

@A

I GKA ?

JEA A = A IEIJA A =I ? >E =?E

+ =H= A JA < A >= { n i=1 ri ai /n N, ri R, ai A} AI E A= AI EJ=I @A A A A J I @A A

<A>?

5K = @A 5K>

@K I
O {M : } K = B= E E= ?K= GKEAH= @A IK> @K I @A M =

5A= M K R @K IK = @A = B= E E= AI

+ M =<

M >
=I IK =I EJ=I @A A A A J I A I @EIJE J I M E A

+ M ?

IEIJA A
n i=1

+ M = {

mi /n N, i , mi Mi }

,A

E?E
J=

= IK = IA @E?A @EHA?J= O IA =

M = + M  IIE

( ) M A (+\{ A} M ) = {0}

2H F - AH?E?E 
=I IECKEA JAI FH F IE?E  AI I AGKEL= A JAI

= IK = N = + M AI @EHA?J= 6 @ n N IA AI?HE>A @A = AH= E?= ? IK = EJ= @A A A A J I @A I M

! {1 . . . k } , ? i = j IE i = j Mi m1 = = mk = 0

IA JEA A GKA m1 + . . . + mk = 0, mi

$$

+)2 67

) 1

2H @K?J @A K = B= E E= @A R

@K I
+ ? K J A FH @K?J @A AIJ= @A A A??E 

5A= {M } K = B= E E= L=? = @A R @K I B= E E= AI M = {(m ) /m M }

m = (m ) IA FKA@A A JA @AH @A m :

= AH= B H = ?

K =
BK ?E

m() = m M
5E M = ?E

F @A

I @=H A K = AIJHK?JKH= @A R

@K

,A

I A M =I FAH=

AI + O

(m ) + (m ) = (m + m )
K JEF E?=?E F H AI?= =H A R

(m + m)() = m() + m() (rm)() = rm()

r(m ) = (rm )

- AH?E?E
M ?
=I FAH=?E AI HA?E @A E@=I AI K R @K

2H F - AH?E?E 
5A= o ,A =

fo : Mo M =

M
?

mo (m )

m =

0 IE = o mo IE = o fo (Mo )

fo AI K H I @A R @K I O F H J= J M ? JEA A K IK> @K EI HB = Mo  I
LA?J HAI ? 0 A J @=I =I ? F A JAI @EIJE J=I = o 
2 H JH= F=HJA JA A I =I
FH OA??E AI

o : M Mo (m ) o ((m ) ) = mo m m(o )  AL= K=?E

A o  =I FH OA??E AI I AFE H I I @A @K I

2H F
5A= (M ) K = B= E E= @A R @K I O IA= N JH R @K B= E E= @A H I R @K I {h : N M } ! H I @A R @K I h : N M ? M = J= GKA ( ) A @E=CH= = IECKEA JA ? KJ= I @A M

,7

5 5 *4- 7

) 1

R
M h

$%

N h M

E A h = h

,A
h(n) = (h (n))
= K E?E@=@ AI @EHA?J=

+ H =HE
5E {M } O {N } I B= E E=I @A R @K I E @AN=@=I F H A EI O {h : N M } K = B= E E= @A JH= IB H =?E AI R E A= AI A J ?AI ! H I R @K I h : N = N M = M J= GKA ( ) A @E=CH= = IECKEA JA ?

@A KJ=

N h M

= @A

IJH=?E

GKA@= @A A AH?E?E

$&

+)2 67

) 1

5K = @EHA?J= ANJAH =
 JA @HA I = FHE HE IK> K @K I @A K AH @K EJ @A A @A M =

@K

@=@ 

5A= {M } K = B= E E= @A R I I= L J= LA
IK = @EHA?J= @A -I @EHA?J GKA M AI K IK> I M

@K I IA= M = {(m )

M /m = 0 F=H= J @ I
@K

I  F=H= ?=IE J @ }

= =

I = AIJA IK>

MM =

>IAHL=?E

AI

 (o ) 1 (fo ) M F H J= J F @A I ? IE@AH=H AIJ= BK ?E AC= @ = M = JA I = io : Mo M  H I   E OA??E ?= E?= 2 @A I A J ?AI E@A JE ?=H Mo ? io (Mo ) M 6 @ m M AI IK = m = (m ) =
tq m =0

EJ= @A A A A J I @A I @EIJE J I M m =I M =< M >= + M =@A

IM=

- AH?E?E I
 5E {M } AI K = B= E E= @A R @K I N AI JH R @K O {h : M N} AI K = B= E E= @A JH= IB H =?E AI R E A= AI A J ?AI ! JH= IB H =?E R E A= h: M N J= GKA ( ) A IECKEA JA @E=CH= = ? KJ=

 5E {M } O {N } I B= E E=I @A R @K I O {h : M N } AI K = B= E E= @A JH= IB H =?E AI E A= AI ! h : M N R E A= J= GKA ( ) A @E=CH= = IECKEA JA ? KJ=

,7

5 5 *4- 7

) 1

$'

M N h

 5A= {M } K = B= E E= @A R @K I O ( ) N M K IK> @K N AI K IK> @K @A M O ( M )/( N ) (M /N ) =

A J

?AI

## +

K J I E A=

A JA E @AFA @EA JAI *=IAI

5A= M K R @K 7 = B= E E= @A A A A J I @A M {m } IA @E?A E A M IIE ? >E =?E E A= EJ= J= GKA r m = 0  I EJ r R  I AI?= =HAI @A>A IAH 0 ( I ) r = 0
I

>IAHL=?E
{m } AI E J @= IK>B= E E=
-NEIJA @K I 51 B= E E=I E EJ= {m }I  I EJ  AI E

-A F
R = Z M K Z N \ {0} Z EJ
= B= E E= L=? = AI @K I @K EJ ?K= GKEAH= ? r/ | M | F H J= J E F H @A?HAJ F H 5=>A I GKA J @ m M JEA A H@A r rm = 0 {m} AI E J= J AI = E?= B= E E= E @A JH @A AIJ I

-A F
(Q, +) AI K Z
E CK = B= E E= ? 4-815)4 - R? @K

m Q \ {0} {m} AI E
I A A A J I @A Q AI E

2
@K

{1} AI E

%

+)2 67

) 1

,A

E?E
@K

7 = >=IA @A K R

M AI K = B= E E= E GKA

CA AH=

-A F
 {1} AI >=IA @A R E C ! Q

@K

EJ AN?AFJ {0} ?KO= >=IA AI  JEA A >=IA

JEA A >=IA ?

@K

- AH?E?E
7 = >=IA AI K
E =NE = = AH= E?= ? ? >E =?E

{m } >=IA @A M IIE J @ m M IA AI?HE>A @A E A= EJ= @A I m

,A
7 R

E?E
@K IA @EH

E>HA IE JEA A K = >=IA

-A F
R? R
@K AI E>HA

Rn =

n i=1

R AI E>HA >=IA ?=

E?=

+=H=?JAHE =?E 2H F

@A

IR

@K I E>HAI O IKI >=IAI

5A= M K @K O {m } K = B= E E= @A A A A J I A M A J ?AI M AI E>HA ? >=IA {m } IIE R @K N O B= E E= {n } A N ! BK ?E R E A= f : M N J= GKA ( ) f (m ) = n

,A
) M E>HA ? >=IA {m } 6 = I K = B= E E= {n } A N O @A E f (m) = r n @ @A m = r m AI = E?= = AH= @A AI?HE>EH m ?
E A= @A
I

I A A A J I @A = >=IA

I F=H= m M ? >E =?E E?E @A f

-I @EHA?J GKA AI R E A= GKA f (m ) = n O GKA AIJ= AI = E?= F IE> A @A FKAI F=H= GKA IA= E A= IE f (m ) = n A J ?AI f ( r m ) = r f (m )
I I

,7 C=

5 5 *4- 7 I GKA

) 1

R
= I = ICJA BK ?E

%

) 5KF
GKA

r m = 0 5A= o I O @A

f : M R J=

mo 1 m 0 = o FAH F H DEF JAIEI ANEIJA K = E?= BK ?E GKA D=?A AIJ O? r f (m ) = f ( r m ) = f (0) = 0 JA A I GKA ro 1 = 0 ro = 0 5E HAFAJE I AIJ I
8A= ? ? KE
I

I GKA r = 0 I A

F H

J= J

{m }I AI B= E E= E
E A= f : M N

I =D H= GKA {m }I = B CA AH= M I n = m N ! K = BK ?E
_ M

5A= N =< B > ( ) IA A??E J= GKA f (m ) = m ( )

f N

6 A If :MM? = ? F IE?E i f @ @A i : N M AI = E ? KIE + ( )f (m ) = i(f (m )) = f (m ) = m f : M M AI = E?= BK ?E E A= J= GKA m m F H J= J f = idM 1 f = 1 (idM ) = M FAH @A = ? IJHK??E @A f 1 f = 1 (i f ) = 1 f N =< B > F H J= J M < B > ( M) M =< B >

@K

E>HA I >HA K ?

K J A

5A= R = E ? KJ=JEL 5E a AI K A A A J F @A I ? IJHKEH Ra = R {a} = {(r, a)/r R} ? = IK = (r, a) + (s, a) = (r + s, a) O = K JEF E?=?E F H AI?= =H A R r(s, a) = (r s, a)

Ra AI K @K EI HB = R (r, a) r  + R AI K @K E>HA ? >=IA {1} Ra AI E>HA ? >=IA {(1, a)} ) J=HA I (1, a) = a Ra F H J= J @EHA I GKA Ra AI E>HA ? >=IA {a} + r(1, a) = (r, a) IA JEA A Ra = {ra/r R} = Ra
5E =D H= D=?A I AIJ a A JA A >=IA {a} ) J= I FA = Ra
aA

I K = B= E E= @A

@K I E>HAI {Ra }aA ?

Ra @A

2H F
FA AI E>HA ?
>=IA A

+)2 67

) 1

,A
x FA x AI IK =
Ra1 Rak k i=1 ri ai = 0

EJ= @A A A A J I A

I IK = @ I AIJ

x = x1 + + xk = ra1 + + rk ak ri R ai A ?
=@ IE F=H= ri R, ai A @EIJE J I A JHA I

A CA AH= FA F H JH

4A? H@A I GKA ai LEIJ ? A A A J @A FA AI (0, . . . , 0, ai , 0, . . . , 0) F H J= J k r a = (0 . . . , r a , . . . , 0 , . . . , r a , 0 . . . ) = 0 r a = 0 A R a j r = 0 j j j i i j j j j i=1 i i

2H F
6 @ R @K AI ?K ?EA JA @A = C

@K

E>HA  =I >EA EI

HB 

,A
5A= M K R @K = JAHE H A FA 5A= A M K CA AH=@ H E>HA ? >=IA A H I
f

< A >= M )F E?= @ ! BK ?E

=?

IJHK??E

2 H = ?=H=?JAHE =?E @A @K (a A) f (a) = a f AI K AFE

E A= f : FA M J= GKA

FA

FA/Kerf

f ([x]) = f (x)
H I

= BK ?E 3KA D=O A

E A= E @K?E@= A A ?K ?EA JA f : FA / AHf M AI K EI AHf

x AHf x = r1 a1 rk ak , f (x) = 0 E.A x = r1 a1 rk ak J= GKA r1 a1 + + rk ak = 0A M

2H F
5A= M O N @ I @K I E>HAI ? ECK= ?=H@E = M =N >=IAI {b } O {c } HAIFA?JEL= A JA = >=I @A

,7

5 5 *4- 7

) 1

%!

,A
2 H = ?=H=?JAHE =?E @A @K I E>HAI ! BK ?E c 5E IA FHA AHA EH=H = N ? A @K GKA g (c ) = b ? F C= I E A= f : M N J= GKA f (b ) = E>HA ! BK ?E E A= g : N M J=

f g M N M b c b g f : M M AI E A= J= GKA g f (b ) = b F H @K I E>HAI g f (b ) = idM + IJHKOA @ f g EI H I I E LAHI I K @A JH

J= J F H = ?=H=?JAHE =?E @A HAIK J= f g = idN f O g I

J=
K?D=I @A =I FH FEA@=@AI @A I AIF=?E I LA?J HE= AI L= A A CA AH= F=H= @K I

2H F
5E M AI K R E>HA @K E>HA O N M IK> @K A J ?AI N E IEGKEAH= JEA A F H GKA IAH

-A F
R = ( Z 6 , + , ) ? @K I >HA IE EI R AI E>HA ? >=IA {1} 5KI IK> @K I I AI E>HA
= IK = O A FH @K?J F H AI?= =H I I @A I E@A= AI I = (2) = {0, 2, 4} AI K E@A= O

0=O ?=I I @ @A AIJ=I ? I=I = @= >EA F HAA F 5KI IK> @K I I I E@A= AI (n) = n Z E>HAI ?

R=Z? @K I >HA IE EI >=IA {n} IE n = 0 IE n = 0

6A HA =
5E R AI K @EF L AI K R @K E>HA ? >=IA {b } A J ?AI M AI E>HA O JEA A K = >=IA {m } O M L AI K IK> @K

,A
+ IE@AHA I I IK>? K J I O = = I M = M L IE@AH=H =GKA I IK> @K I E>HAI @A L

L =< {b } >

1 JAHAI=H ?

I ?=I I A GKA M AI E>HA ?

>=IA {m } O | || | ? =I ? @E?E AI @A

6H=>= =HA I ? I =HHE>=

JKF =I @A = B H = ( , L , M , m = {m } )

%"

+)2 67

) 1

5A= A A ? K J @A AIJ=I JKF =I GKA GKAHA I FH >=H AI GKA A F IAA K A A A J  JKF =  F=H= A =  L = L M = M O F H J= J M AI IK> @K E>HA @A L ? >=IA @A ?=H@E = | |=| |  7I=HA ,EHA I I GKA H H@A A IA

( , L , M , m = {m } ) ( , L , M , m = {m } )  M M  O = >=IA m @A M AI K = ANJA IE @A = >=IA m @A M AI @A?EH O (u ) m = m AI ? =H= A JA @A H@A A A A = FKAI ( = , L = {0}, M = {0}, m = ( = )) A

8A= I GKA (A, ) JEA A =I DEF JAIEI GKA HAGKEAHA A A = @A H

A= 5A= {(i , Li , Mi , mi = {m }i )}iI = K = ?=@A = A A J J= A JA H@A =@= 2 @ G JEA A K = ? J= IKFAHE H

6 A I =
(i) (i)

AI @A?EH

K = B= E E=

iI

i O F=H= M JA @HA
E@

I = >=IA m = {m }

=
iI

i O
AI

m = m IE i AIJ >EA @A @A =I JH=I 

2 @ m AI E O CA AH= M

F H GKA =I >=IAI @A

I @EIJE J I Mi I

ANJA IE

E A= E @AFA @A ?E=
7 =? KC=H I >E =?E
(i) m

E A= E

EJ= @A

I m IAH K = ?

>E =?E

E A= A = C

Mi O A AIA

/A AH= M x M = L M x L =< {b } > x M x AI ? >E =?E E A= EJ= @A I b O I GKA =F=HA ?= AIJ=H J @ I A = C i x Li M = Mi x AI ? >E =?E E A= @A I {m }i m
-LE@A JA A JA | || | O m AI K = ANJA IE @A J @=I =I >=IAI mi J= J ( , L , M , m ) AI K = ? J= IKFAHE H @A = ?=@A = 2 H 2@ H

i F H

A JEA A K A A A J
=NE =

=NE = ( , L , M , m )

F=H= AIJA A A A J

+ @A ? IJK >HA = KI=H AC=HA I = K = ? JH=@E??E @A A 6 A I o \

H IKF A I GKA F=H= AIJA A A A J =NE = O D=?EA @ ?HA?AH AIJHE?J= A JA AIJA A A A J =NE = @A JH

5A= = {o }

,7

5 5 *4- 7

) 1

R
AIA ?=I m = m =NE =

%# O HAIK J= GKA ( , . . . , m ) <

2 @H = ?KHHEH GKA M = M A ( , . . . , m ) F H J= J ?HA?AH = A

5E AI ?KHHA M M 8AHA I GKA IA A FKA@A =CHAC=H K A A A J = = >=IA @A M O D=>HA I ?HA?E@ AIJHE?J= A JA 0=C I 3K A A A J I D=O A M J= J

x M x M x L (= L Rbo ) F H x = y + rbo ? y L r R O =@A I x M

KAIJH= J=HA= - ? JH=H K A A A J

x IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH ?

I F=H= =CHAC=H = = >=IA @A M O D=?AH =F=HA?AH K = >=IA @A M

5A= I = {r R/(y L ) y + rbo M } R + R AI K @EF I = (ro ) F=H= = C

I AI K E@A=  F IE> A A JA @ACA AH=@  A ro R

I GKA m {mo } AI >=IA F=H=

5A= mo = yo + ro bo M  ANEIJA FKAI ro I  8A= M

E A= E @AFA @A ?E=
5A= smo +

r m = 0 sro bo + syo +
m L

r m = 0
M L

syo +

r m L syo +

r m = = o A

t b

+ I {b } I E sro = 0 J @ I I t = 0 FAH A KAIJH= IEJK=?E ro = 0 M = M  s = 0 F H J= J J @ I I JH I r = 0

ro = 0  FKAI

/A AH=@ H M = M (L Rbo ) 8E I GKA K x ?K= GKEAH= @A M AI @A = B H = x = y + rbo F H J= J ? y L O =@A I r = sro I 6 = @ x smo = y syo
L

x smo =

r m x = smo +

r m

- AH?E?E
5E R AI K @ E E @A E JACHE@=@ O L AI K R A EI ?=H@E = @K A J ?AI J @=I =I >=IAI @A L JEA A

- AH?E?E I
5A= R K = E ? KJ=JEL

R K E@A=

%$  5E M AI K R GKA I M AI IK>

+)2 67

) 1

@K @A E I I M = { n i=1 si mi /n N, si I, mi M} @K @A M O @A DA?D I M=< {sm/s I, m M} >

2H >=H

5 >HA M/I M @A E I = K JEF E?=?E F H AI?= =HAI A A = E ?K ?EA JA R/I [r] [m] = [rm] 8AH GKA AIJ @= K = BK ?E >EA @A E@= R/I M/I M M/I M O GKA ? AIJ M/I M HAIK J= IAH K R/I @K ! 5E M =

I M IK>

@K I @A M

A J

?AI I M = H I

I M

O @A =GK @K I

GKA M/I M =

M /I M

m ]

[m ]

O AIJA EI

AI ?

I >HA R O J= >E

I >HA A = E

" 5E M AI E>HA ? R/I @K ?

R @K @A >=IA B = {b } A J >=IA {[v ]}

?AI M/I M AI E>HA ?

# - E@A= I R AIJHE?J= A JA E ? KE@  IA @E?A ):1 ) IIE AI =NE = ? HAIFA?J = = E ? KIE @A JH @A I E@A= AI FH FE I @A R E A IE J AI K E@A= FH FE @A R O J I I = J 2H >=H GKA = 6 @ E@A= FH FE J R AIJ ? JA E@ A = C F=HJE?K =H R IEA FHA JEA A E@A= AI =NE = AI > R/I AI ?KAHF I AI E@A= =NE = @A R $ 2H >=H GKA IE M AI E>HA | B1 |=| B2 | ? E@A= =NE = @A R  H  -

@K

@ I >=IAI B1 O B2

A J

?AI

,A

E?E
@K E>HA = ?=H@E = @A IK >=IA

5A = = 4= C @A K R

#$
R IAH K = E

@K I
?

EJ= A JA CA AH=@ I
KJ=JEL

,A

E?E
@K M IA @E?A @A
JEF J= GKA M =< A >= {
k i=1

7 R M EJ

EJ 
EJ= A JA CA AH=@  IIE A = {a1 , . . . , ak } i ai /i R}

-A F I
Q Rn AI
AI EJ= A JA CA AH=@ I >HA Z EJ= A JA CA AH=@ I >HA R  O E>HA ? EJ AI = >=IA ?= E?=  @K

6 @ CHKF =>A E=

EJ= A JA CA AH=@ ?

,7

5 5 *4- 7

) 1

%%

,A

E?E
M IA @EH ? ? E? IIE AI
EJ= A JA CA AH=@ F H K ? K J @A = B H =

7 R @K A = {a}

,A =GK A =@A = JA R IAH K @EF

+
M ? ? E?

IR

@K I ? ? E? I
mo M F = R {1} AI >=IA

M =< {mo } >= Rmo = {rmo /r R} ?

@K E>HA ?

5=>A I GKA IE F AI A R = BK ?E

K CA AH=@ H  F H A A F

: R(= F) M = Rmo r(= r1) rmo

AI K AFE H I AH AI K IK> @K @A R AH = I K E@A= @A R 

M 2AH = R/ AH F IE> A A JA J @ R 
J=H GKA - HAIK A

AH = {r R/rmo = 0} = {r R/(m M)rm = 0} =

= K =@ H @A M
K R @K ? ? E? M AI EI HB = (R/= K =@ H @A M) =M KAC I AI FHE ?EF=

6A A I GKA AH = = K =@ H @A M = I E@A= A R F=H= = C ro R

I = (ro ) = R ro

ro IA = = = K =@ H
)I JA A ? ? E? I 

E E =

>EA

H@A @A M
EI GKA O= JA = K JEF E?=?E I F=H= Z @K I

I GKA M = R/(ro ) = R/R ro 

J=H GKA A H@A ro @A M AIJ @AJAH E =@ I= L F H JE> AI E A (ro = r1 ) (u Rx ) r1 = u ro

F H A A A J I E LAH

>IAHL=?E
ro 1 M = {0} ro = 0 M AI E>HA ?
) JAI @A LAH GKA IK?A@A A AIJK@EA I IECKEA JA >=IA {mo } A ?=I CA AH= ? I R @K I EJ= A JA CA AH=@ I

%&

+)2 67

) 1

.K ?E

AI E A= AI A JHA

@K I E>HAI

=I BK ?E AI E A= AI A JHA @K I E>HAI I >HA K = E ? KJ=JEL R IA FKA@A @AI?HE>EH  J= ? A ?=I @A AIF=?E I LA?J HE= AI  ? =JHE?AI = ? A ?EA JAI A R 5A= F1 O F2 R L= A JA @K I E>HAI ? >=IAI B1 = {a1 , . . . , an } O B2 = {b1 , . . . , bm } HAIFA?JE F AJ= A JA O K E?= A JA @AJAH E =@= IE ? ? F AJ= A JA @AJAH E =@=I F H IKI ? ?A I =

7 = BK ?E f : F1 F2 GKA@= ? f (a1 ), . . . , f (an ) F2 2 H IK F=HJA AIJ=I E >=IA B2 CA AI AIJ

H@A =@=I A

H@A =@=I AI
=JHE

r1j rmj

= [f (aj )]B2

f (aj ) = r1j b1 + . . . + rmj bm A LA?J H @A ?

)I

f IA HAFHAIA J= @A = AH= E?= r11 r12 . . . r1n [f ]B1 B2 = [f ] = rm1 rm2 rmn [f ] Mmn (R)
0=O >EOA??E

F H =

L(F1 , F2 ) Mmn (R) f [f ]

I =K L(F1 , F2 ) AI K R HAIK J= EI HB ? R >EOA??E = JAHE H  @K @K  (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) O (rf )(x) = rf (x)  GKA  ? A R @K Mmn (R)  A EI H I AI =

) F=HJEH @A [f + g ] = [f ] + [g ] O (rf )(x) = rf (x) IA JEA A GKA IE F1 , F2 O F3 I E>HAI ? >=IAI B1 , B2 O B3 HAIFA?JEL= A JA O f : F1 F2 g : F2 F3 I E A= AI A J ?AI [g f ]B1 B2 = [g ]B2 B3 [f ]B1 B2  FH @K?J KIK= @A =JHE?AI  5A JEA A I EI I HAIK J=@ I GKA A H I CA>H= E A=
1 1 [f ] ]B1 B2 B1 B2 = [f

f : F1 F2 AI K EI =JHE?AI @A 2=I= A

[f ]B1 B2 AI E LAHJE> A A Mnn (R) ?

5A= B1 O B1 >=IAI @A F1

PB1 B1 = [idF1 ]B1 B1

PB1 B1 = [idF1 ]B1 B1

1 = PB1 B1 PB 1B
1

(x F1 )[x]B1 = PB1 B1 [x]B1

,7

5 5 *4- 7

) 1

R
f

%'

B1

F 1

B1 B2 f

F 2

B2

id B B F1 1 1 F 1 f f

1 id P F2 B B 2 2 F 2 B1 B2

B 1

B 2

1 [f ]B1 B2 = PB [f ]B1 B2 PB1 B1 2B

2

,A

E?E

, I =JHE?AI A, A Mmn (R) IA @E?A AGKEL= A JAI IIE P Mmm (R), Q Mnn (R) E LAHJE > AI J= AI GKA A = P 1 AQ , I =JHE?AI I AGKEL= A JAI IIE HAFHAIA J= = = EI = JH= IB H =?E E A= ?= >E= @ =I >=IAI 

-A F
[2] M11 (Z) f : Z Z x 2x IK E LAHI= IAH = [ 1 ] / M11 (Z) 2
AI E LAHJE> A

J=
6 @= = JA H = @A @AJAH E = JAI A GKA =I @A =JHE?AI A Mnn (R) - F=HJE?K =H  | AB |=| A | | B | IJH=?E AI HAGKEAH= @ELEIE L= A F=H=

A AI E LAHJE> A IIE | A | AI E LAHJE> A A R O A AIJA ?=I

| A1 |= (| A |)1

+=I CA AH=

@K I

EJ= A JA CA AH=@ I
@K EJ= A JA CA AH=@ I >HA A @EF

5A= M =< {m1 , . . . , mn } >= Rm1 + . . . + Rmn K R

& 5E F = Ra1 . . . Ran AI K R @K E>HA

+)2 67 EJ= A JA CA AH=@ - J

) 1 ?AI = BK ?E

: F M x = r1 a1 + . . . + rn an r1 m1 + . . . + rn mn AI K AFE H I O F H J= J M = F/ AH
2 H K JA HA = LEIJ ? = JAHE HE@=@ A IK> >=IA @A ?=H@E = k @ @A k n + @K

L=

AH F AI J= >E

E>HA ? @K E>HA

IE@AHA I A ?=I CA AH= A GKA L = 1 f ? f : F F F=H= F JH EJ= A JA CA AH=@  F H A A F F = L f = i ? i : L F = E ? KIE

)I A FH > A = @A AIJK@E=H @K I EJ= A JA CA AH=@ I I >HA K @EF R AGKEL= A = AIJK@E=H @K I @A JEF F/1 f @ @A f : F F E A= F O F I R @K I E>HAI @A H= C EJ m O n HAIFA?JEL= A JA ,=@=I K = >=IA B @A F O B @A F f JEA A 3K IK?A@AH = IE I I ?=F=?AI @A A ? GKA A = [f ] JA C= = IECKEA JA B H =
1 r 0 0

=JHE HAFHAIA J= JA A = [f ]B B O JH= B A F @A @

JH=H K = >=IA B A F

3K F @A

I @A?EH @A ?K ?EA JA F/1 f

B = {b1 , . . . , bm } B = {a1 , . . . , an } f (b1 ) = 1 a1 f (b2 ) = 2 a2 f (br ) = r ar f (br+1 ) = = f (bm ) = 0 1 f = R1 a1 Rr ar 0 )@A I F = Ra1 Rar Ran F/1 f = Ra1 /R1 a1 Rar /Rr ar Rar+1 Ran 7 - -4+1+1 ) 6-41 4 F/1 f = (R/R1 )[a1 ] (R/Rr )[ar ] F ? F E>HA @A >=IA {ar+1 , . . . , an }
)I

F/1 f = R/(1 ) R/(r ) F

I A J ?AI GKA A @K HECE = M = F/L = F/1 f AI I= L EI EJ= @A @K I ? ? E? I K @K E>HA @A H= C EJ I H I I

+ KEH = K = IK = 8A=

I GKA A FKA@A IAH @A = B H = GKA GKAHA

,7

5 5 *4- 7

) 1

&

6A HA =
6 @= =JHE A Mmn (R) ?

R K @EF AI AGKEL= A JA = K =

=JHE @A = B H =

1 r 0 0

1 /2 / /r = 0

,A
)F E?=HA FAH=?E  FAH=?E I FAH=?E AI A A A J= AI = = =JHE A F=H= AL=H = = = B H = @AIA=@=

AI A A A J= AI AI 2HE =HE=I = ? K =K K JEF @A JH=

= 5K =H = K =

Epq( )=

1 p

(Epq ())1 = Epq () Epq () A

5K = = = =I = q @A A IK ? K =I =p K JEF E?=@= F H =q K JEF E?=@= F H

A Epq () : 5K = = = ? K
> 1 JAH?= >E=H

= p @A A IK ? K

&
q 1 1 p

+)2 67

) 1

q Ipq= p

1 1

1 Ipq = Ipq

Ipq A A Ipq
?

E JAH?= >E=

=I p O q =I p Oq ? K =I A D  F H A A A J I E LAHJE> AI
-1 d1 -1 D = dn -1 dn

E JAH?= >E= ? K =I D A 

K JEF E?=H

d1

D=

d1 , . . . , dn Rx
)@A I A?AIEJ=HA I = FAH=?E E LAHJE> A IA?K @=HE= S A @

@A S = In2

@AJAH E = JA @A

a11 . . . 5E A = a21 . . . GKAHA A

m I >JA AH S A = 0 ? A

m=

?@(a11 , a21 )

2=H= AIJ @A>A I AI? CAH @A = AH= =FH FE=@= , , O a11 a11 + a21 = a11 + a21 a21 SA= A A

,7

5 5 *4- 7

) 1

R
- J

&! ?AI IE

+ R AI @EF I=>A I GKA ANEIJA R J= AI GKA a11 + a21 = m AI? CA I = O = JA A I a11 + a21 = m

m/a11 m/a21 , R J= AI GKA a11 = m O a21 = m @A AIJ= B H = JA A I GKA a11 + a21 = m + m = 0 m + m = m + = 1 FAH + = @AJ

-I? C= I = O = )@A I a11 + a21 = m AI E LAHJE> A ?@(a11 , a21 ) O

- HAIK A 5E AI? CA I , , , O @A J= B H = GKA a11 + a21 = a11 = m , a21 = m( ) IA >JEA A A @A = B H = @AIA=@= 2=H= ? JE KAH = @A IJH=?E A?AIEJ=HA I A IECKEA JA A =

A =
5E A = 0 AI AGKEL= A JA = K = =JHE @A JEF

0 B

@ELEI H @A J @ I

I A A A J I @A B

,A
-I ? =H GKA A = AIGKE = (1, 1) F @A I K>E?=H K A A A J @EIJE J @A ?AH = K =H ? FAH=?E AI IA?K @=HE=I J @= = ? K = >= AC= I = O KI=H F=H= IECKEA JA

m 0 0

m @ELEI H @A J @= = FHE AH= ? K

I EI

= HECE = =I ? A @A = K =H = = = = @AHA?D= @A

2=I IECKEA JA D=?A m >JA A I

F H? K

&"
m1 0 0

+)2 67

) 1

m1 /m

) IECKEA JA F=I

>JA A

m2 0 0

m2 /m1
@A AIGKE =I m3 /m2 /m1 /mo = m ?=@= K =I ?E=@ = =JHE?AI

5A CA AH= K = IK?AIE

mi 0 0 o

mi 0

) H = + IE@AHA 5A= I =

I GKA I

I mi IA
AIJ=>E E =  I E@A= AI (mo ) (m1 ) (m2 ) (mi ) (mi+1 )

(mi )
i

I AI E@A= A R

O F H IAH AIJA K

@EF

m R J= GKA I = (m)
J= J

m I i N J= GKA m (mi ) (m) (mi ) (m) I = (m) = (mi ) F H (j i) (mi ) = (mj ) mj = umi ? u E LAHJE> A
2 H J= J A =C A J F=I= I @A

mi 0 0 a

mi 0

= HAL I

,7

5 5 *4- 7

) 1

&#

) IAH mi = mi+1  mi mi+1  IA JEA A GKA mi = mi+1 AI K @ELEI H @A J @ I I A A A J I @A = @AHA?D= @A mi A = FHE AH= =JHE O A LA @A D=?AH AIJA JE F=I F @A I FEL JA=H F H /=KII O = K =H A HAIJ @A = = IE = JAH=H I ?AH I >= mi 0A I AC=@ =

m 0

0 B

2AH =K IA I=>A IE m @ELE@A = =I ? IECKEA JA 5E m @ELE@A = (B )ij IK = IA CA AH= I =

A JAI @A B

2=H=

CH=H GKA =I @ELE@= D=?A IA EI FH ?A@E EA J

= i = = FHE AH= O D=?A

m 0 0 B 0

m @ELE@A = (B )ij O = m
6AH E = I ?KA @ IA AIJ=>E E = Im 2 H E @K??E IA ? ? KOA A JA HA =

+ H =HE
6 @= =JHE ?K=@H=@= E LAHJE> A I >HA K @EF AI AGKEL= A JA = K = C = E LAHJE> A =JHE @E=C = @A @E=

>IAHL=?E
- R = Z

R = K[x] K ?KAHF  I

IA HAGKEAHA

FAH=?E

IA?K @=HE=I IA FKA@A IA FKA@A JH= IB H =H A

>JA AH = F=HJEH @A =I FHE =HE=I

AI FHE =HE=I F H GKA =I a b A H =K M22 (R) c d = JH=L I @A FAH=?E AI

m  ? m = 0 FHE =HE=I AIJ CH=?E=I = = C HEJ @A -K? E@AI

.?.@(a, b)  I

&$

+)2 67

) 1

+ H =HE
6 @ @K EJ= A JA CA AH=@ I >HA K @EF R AI EI R/(k ) F ? F K @K E>HA EJ= A JA CA AH=@ HB = K @A JEF R/(1 ) O 1 1 /2 / /k = 0

+K= @ R = Z J @ CHKF =>A E= EJ= A JA CA AH=@ AI EI HB = Z1 Zk Zm ? 2 1 / /k = 0 6 @ CHKF =>A E= EJ AI @A = B H = Z1 Zk k 2 1 / /k = 0 O A ?=H@E = @A CHKF AI i=1 i

-A F
5E A AI =>A E= ?

|A| = 24

Z24 3 23 Z2 12 2 3 22 Z2 Z2 Z6 2 2 3 2

+ H =HE
6 @= =JHE A Mnn (R) AI FH @K?J @A =JHE?AI A A A J= AI O IA?K @=HE=I 5 >HA R = Z R = K[x]  K ?KAHF  A IAH FH @K?J @A A A A J= AI

- AH?E?E 
5A= M K R @K O T M IK @K H I @A J HIE @A R @K I A J ?AI f (T M) = T M

 5E f : M M AI K EI

T (R/(1 ) R/(r ) F) = R/(1 ) R/(r )

! M/T M =F

+ H =HE
5E R AI K @EF O M AI K A J ?AI M AI E>HA @K IE J HIE  E A T M = {0}  O EJ= A JA CA AH=@

- AH?E?E
5A= M K R 1 fc = cM @K c R O fc : M M = J=H GKA cM = (c)M K JEF E?=?E F H c  fc (x) = cx  ) J= I

 5E M = M1 M2

,7

5 5 *4- 7

) 1

&%

= cM = cM1 cM2 > M/cM = M1 /cM1 M2 /cM2 5E c O d I FHE I HA =JEL I A J ?AI c R/(d) = R/(d)

! 5E d = a c  a, c = 0  A J R/(c) " 5E d = ?@(c, b) A J

?AI c R/(ac) = (c)/(ac) = R/(a) O (R/(ac))/(c R/(ac)) =

?AI c R/(b) = R/(b/d)

# 4A?KAH@ 5E M = Rmo AI K R @K ? ? E? A = K =@ H @A M = I = {r R/rmo = 0} = (ro ) ro = o(M) AI A H@A @A M 2H >=H GKA 5E M1 , M2 I @K I ? ? E? I A J ?AI o(M1 )/o(M2 ) o(cM1 )/o(cM2 )

6A HA =
5E R AI K @EF J @ R @K ? 1 1 / /r = 0 O F E>HA E LAHJE> AI  I E? I EJ= A JA CA AH=@ M AI EI HB = R/(1 ) R/(r ) F EJ= A JA CA AH=@ - H= C @A F O I i  I= L K JEF I

,A
= ANEIJA ?E= @A EI H I IA @A@K?A @A JA HA = = JAHE H 8A= I GKA IK?A@A ? = K E?E@=@ @A AIJ= @AI? F IE?E 5KF C= I GKA M = R/(1 ) R/(r ) F R / ( ) R / ( ) F ? F , F , 1 i r O 1 i s LAHE ?= @ =I = i 1 s i ? @E?E AI @A JA HA = ,A - AH?E?E  IA ? ? KOA B=?E A JA GKA L = R/(1 ) R/(r ) = L = R/(1 ) R/(s ) OF=F 2H >A 5A= p FHE I GKA r = s 2 H? JH=@E??E IKF C= I GKA r > s ?AI @A A AH?E?E
R/(i ) pR/(i )

J= GKA p/1 p/i i {1 . . . r} A J

= R/(p)

R/(i ) p O i I FHE I HA =JEL I L /pL 5E p/i IA JEA A pR/( = R/(p) IE = 0  A AH?E?E i)  )I L/pL = L /pL AGKEL= A = R/(p) R/(p) = R/(p) R/(p) r LA?AI s LA?AI

? p AI FHE I = (p) AI =NE = R/I = R/(p) AI ?KAHF AI ? R/(p) @K I FAH F H IAH R/(p) ?KAHF AI K EI FKAI JEA A @EIJE J= @E A IE r > s  8A= I =D H= GKA i i 1 i s GKA i i 2 H? JH=@E??E IKF

- EI H I = JAHE H H I A JHA R/(p) A L C= I GKA 1 j s J=

&& 5A= j =

+)2 67

) 1

JE = LA GKA i N oi E A r r , r1 r1 , . . . , i+1 i+1 , i N O i @ELE@A = i

i N O i IEC E ?= GKA i i

@ELE@A = i IKF

C=

I GKA i J= J

@ELE@A =

K JEF EGKA I L F H i @AI@A j = 1 D=IJ= j = i j /i F H i R/(j ) = 0 4AIK J= A J ?AI R/(i+1 /i ) R/(r /i ) +

i R (j )

i+1 = i+1 , . . . , r = r
I =HC GKA L F H J= J
=0

L = S R/(i / ?@(c, i ))R/(i+1 /c) R/(r /c) i i i = 1 . . . n

,A

E?E
1 , . . . , r IA = =
B=?J HAI E L=HE= JAI @A R - H= C @A F IA = = H= C @A M H(M)
@K

+ H =HE
5E M AI K CHKF =>A E= EJ= A JA CA AH=@ A J ?AI M IA AI?HE>A @A = AH= E?= k ? M = Zq1 Zqr Z ? 1 < q1 / . . . /qr = 0 =JKH= AI E? I O k 0 E? = =@ A H= C @A CHKF =>A E= 5A= R K @EF 5E M AI K R @K IK = K =@ H AI I = {r R/(m M)} rm = 0} I AI K E@A= F H J= J e R J= GKA I = (e) e IA = =
= K =@ H E E = 
= K =@ H FHE ?EF= 
ANF A JA @A M  IE M AI ? ? E? IA = =
H@A @A M  ) J= I e = e(M) @A E@ K E?= A JA I= L K JEF E?=?E F H A A A J I E LAHJE> AI 5E M AI EJ= A JA CA AH=@

M =< {m1 , . . . , mk } >= Rm1 + + Rmk

F H J= J

r ) K =@ H @A M rmi = 0 1 i k k } = (e)
-I @EHA?J GKA e = e(M) = 5=>A

I = {r R/rmi = 0 1 i

+ {o(m1 ), . . . , o(mk )} @

@A (a)(b) = ( + {o(m1 ), . . . , o(mk )})

I GKA M = R/(1 ) R/(r ) F

F = {0} e(M) = 0 F = {0} M AI @A J HIE

- J ?AI m1 = [1]R/(1 ) , . . . , mr = [1]R/(r ) I CA AH=@ HAI @A  = ? FE= EI IKI HAIFA?JEL I H@A AI I 1 , . . . , r O IK + AI r = e(M) 6A A I GKA IE M AI @K E>HA EJ= A JA CA AH=@ @A T M HB= @A M O @A J HIE O ..

M = TMF ?
A H IKF C=

TM

@K

8A= I JH= @AI? F IE?E ? F IE?E @A M 

I GKA M AI @A J HIE

 JH= @AI

,7

5 5 *4- 7

) 1

&'

,=@ K FHE p R = ? 0 J= GKA pi m = 0} F=H= M

A JA p FHE =HE= @A M AI Tp M = {m M/i A?AI=HE= A JA EJ= A JA CA AH=@

Tp M AI K IK> 0 Tp M

@K

@A M

- ABA?J

5E m1 , m2 Tp M, pi m1 = 0 , pj m2 = 0 pi+j (rm1 + sm2 ) = 0 r, s R rm1 + sm2 Tp M

2H F
5A= M K R @K @A J HIE 5KF C= I GKA {p } AI K = B= E E= @A FHE I A R ? ?=@= p K HAFHAIA J= JA @A K = ? =IA K EJ=HE= @A FHE I 6 @=I =I ? =IAI HAFHAIA J=@=I K =OI K = LA ?=@= K = A J ?AI M = Tp M

,A
5A= x M \ {0} O IA= n R IK H@A = K =@ H E E = o(x) = n 

AI E LAHJE> A IE
1 p 1 k p k

x=0

n = 0 FKAI x AI @A J HIE

5A= n = E LAHJE> A  5A= ni =

8A=

u = @AI? F IE?E @A n ? FH @K?J @A FHE I  u AI K A A A J I GKA x = x1 + + xk ? xi Tpi M 1 i k

n up i
i

1ik

- AH?E?E
? K J

 E @K??E  1 , . . . , k R J= GKA 1 n1 + + k nk = 1  FKAIJ GKA A @A = F=HAI n1 , . . . , nk I FHE I HA =JEL I ?@(n1 , . . . , nk ) = 1

i

i x = 1 n1 x+ +k nk x , xi = i ni x 1 i k , p i xi = i pi ni x = 0 xiTp

MM=+ Tp M

= IK = AI @EHA?J= AIJ AGKEL= A =

 - AH?E?E 

5E xi Tpi M i = j IE i = j 1 i, j k O x1 + + xk = 0 A J ?AI xi = 0 1 k 2 1 i k x1 = x2 x3 xk FAH o(x1 ) = p 1 O o(x2 x3 xk ) = p2 pk GKA AI F IE> A IE 1 = 0 F H J= J 1 = 0 x1 = 0 4AFEJEA @ A EI =HCK A J IA ? ? KOA GKA xi = 0 1 i k

- AH?E?E
5E M = {0} AI ? ? E? O @A J HIE k 1 = p 1 pk u p1 , . . . , pk FHE k 1 R/(p 1 ) R/(pk ) I=>A I GKA M = R/( ) = o(M) = e(M) R \ ({0} Rx ) I u Rx i > 0 1 i k - J ?AI R/( ) = @K @A J HIE EJ= A JA p1 , . . . , pl FHE I GKA =F=HA?A

)F E?= @ J @ AIJ HAIK J= IECKEA JA 5E M AI K R i,k l CA AH=@ A J ?AI M = i=1 [R/(pi i,1 ) R/(pi i )] ?

' A = @AI? F IE?E A = CK @A I j A A A J= AI @A M

+)2 67

) 1

@A r ? 1 / /r I B=?J HAI E L=HE= JAI i,j ANF A JA @A pi i,k R/(pi i,1 ) R/(pi i ) I pi i,j IA = = @ELEI HAI = Tpi M

-A F
A CHKF =>A E=
@A 24 A A A J I

1 = 3 23 Z24 (A1 ) 1 = 2 2 = 3 2 Z2 Z12 (A2 ) 1 = 2 2 = 2 3 = 3 2 Z2 Z2 Z6 (A3 )

- J H E
T3 A1

I @A @ELEI HAI A A A J= AI

A1 = Z3 Z8
T2 A1

A2 = Z3 Z4 Z2
T3 A2 T2 A2

A3 = Z2 Z2 Z2 Z3
T2 A3 T3 A3

K[x]

@K I @A 6 HIE

.E EJ= A JA /A AH=@ I

4A? H@A I GKA IE M AI K[x] @K A J ?AI M = V AIF=?E LA?J HE= I >HA K K J ? K = JH= IB H =?E E A= T : V V GKA ? HHAIF @A = = K JEF E?=?E F H x K[x] 5E v V O p(x) = ao + a1 x + + an xn K[x] = K JEF E?=?E F H AI?= =H AIJ @A E@= F H p(x)v = p(T )(v ) ? p(T ) = ao id + a1 T + + an T n 5E V AI @A @E A IE EJ= O B = {v1 , . . . , vk } 1 = v = 1 v1 + + k vk A =IEC = (v ) = k k (V, T ) (K , TA ) AI IK >=IA = BK ?E H I

: V Kk J= GKA
@A K[x] @K I

AI K EI

k TA

TA x = Ax , A = [T ]BB

,7

5 5 *4- 7

) 1

'

>IAHL=?E
5E V AI A L @A @E A IE n < I >HA K I=>A I GKA L(V, V ) AL  = Mnn (K)  ? F H J= J L(V, V ) AI @A @E A IE n2 - J ?AI IE T : V V AI K = JH= IB H =?E E A= {T o , T 1 , T 2 , . . . , T k , . . .} = {T k /k N} AI @ ao , a1 , . . . , ak K J @ I K I J= GKA ao T o + a1 T 1 + + ak T k = 0 5E p(x) = ao + a1 x + + ak xk p(x) K[x]/{0} O p(T ) = 0 5A= I = {p(x) K[x]/p(T ) = 0} I AI K E@A= A K[x] F H J= J FKAI K[x] AI @EF m(x) AIJ E?= A JA @A E@ I= L F H K JEF E?=?E @EIJE J=I @A ?AH  E A I E LAHJE> AI A K[x] 

I = (m(x)) F H ? IJ= JAI

m(x) IA AI? CA ?

F E

@A ?AH @A

A E? E?  ? A ?EA JA @A = =O H F JA ?E= @A x AI 1  O IA = = E @A = JH= IB H =?E E A= T m(x) AI A F E E E? @EIJE J H CH=@ J= GKA m(T ) = 0 JEF @A m(x) K K[x] @K  ? T = K JEF E?=?E F H x  V AI @A J HIE O m(x) AI IK = K =@ H E E =

(p(x) K[x]) p(T ) = 0 p(x) AI

+ IE@AH= @ A F=H (V, T ) ? m(x)v = 0 v V F H J= J

{p(x) K[x]/p(x) v = 0 v V } p(x)v = 0 v V p(T )v = 0 v V p(T ) = 0 L(V, V ) m(x) AI = K =@ H

E E = A J ?AI J=H J= >E GKA @=@ GKA V AI @A @E A IE EJ= ? K A L JEA A >=IA {v1 . . . vn } (v V ) v = 1 v1 + + n vn FAH K K[x] F H J= J V AI CA AH=@ ?

K[x]

@K

F H v1 . . . vn

- HAIK A

IE V AI A L I >HA A ?KAHF K O T : V V AI E A=

 m(x) K[x] \ {0} E? J= GKA m(T ) = 0 O m(x) AI A F E E @EIJE J @A ?AH @A A H CH=@ GKA D=?A AIJ I =K IE P (T ) = 0 F=H= p(x) K[x] m(x)/p(x) + IE@AH= @ V ? K[x] E E = m(x)  A F E E ? A = I? K @K E @K  ? xv = T (v )  V AI @A J HIE @A T  O EJ= A JA CA AH=@ ? = K =@ H

) = E LAHI=

M @A J HIE

EJ= A JA CA AH=@ I >HA K[x]

5=>A I GKA M AI K T : V V )@A I 1 (x)/ /r (x) = 0 E? I I= L B=?J HAI E

AIF=?E LA?J HE= V I >HA K ? K = JH= IB H =?E K E A= M = K[x]/(1 (x)) K[x]/(r (x)) ? K[x] @K I ? I B=?J HAI E L=HE= JAI @A @K E? I IE IA FE@A E? I  I LAHJE> AI E A ? IJ= JAI @EIJE J=I @A ?AH  8A= I FHE AH A ?=I M ? ? E? M = K[x]/( (x)) ? (x) A H@A @A M )@A I vo V (= M) J= GKA M = K[x]vo E A (v V )(p(x) K[x]) v = p(T )(vo ) = ao vo + a1 T (vo ) + + ak T (vk ) {vo , T (vo ), . . . , T k (vo ), T k+1 (vo ), . . .} CA AH= V ? AIF=?E LA?J HE= I >HA K

'

+)2 67

) 1

2AH IE p(x) K[x] F @A I @ELE@EH F H (x) p(x) = q (x)p(x) + r(x) ? CH(r(x)) < CH( (x)) = n v = p(T )(vo ) = q (T ) (T )(vo )+r(T )(vo ) = r(T )(vo ) = bo + b1 T (vo ) + +
(x)vo =0

bn1 T n1 (vo ) F H J= J {vo , T (vo ), . . . , T n1 (vo )} CA AH= V ? ? A L I >HA K AI @A @E A IE EJ=

A H =K {vo , T (vo ), . . . , T n1 (vo )} I I >HA A ?KAHF K - ABA?J E OF H J= J ?

A L I >HA K E A V IJEJKOA K = >=IA @A A L

5E o vo +1 T (vo )+ +n1 T n1 (vo ) = 0 i K 0 i n1 A J ?AI p(T )(vo ) = 0 F=H= p(x) = o + 1 x + + n1 xn1 p(x)vo = 0 A = AIJHK?JKH= @A K[x] @K p(x)V = 0 FKAI V AIJ CA AH=@ ? K[x] @K F H {vo } p(x) AI JEF @A (x) FAH CH(p(x)) < CH( (x)) p(x) = 0 IKI ? A ?EA JAI o = = n1 = 0 +K AI = =JHE @A T ? HAIFA?J = = >=IA B = {vo , T (vo ), . . . , T n1 (vo )} @A A L V

v1 v2

= =

vo T (vo )

T v1 T v2

= =

T vo T 2 vo

= v2 = v3

vn2 = T n2 (vo ) T vn1 = T n1 vo = vn vn1 = T n1 (vo ) T vn = T n vo = ?

5A= (x) = co + c1 x + + cn1 xn1 + xn  A = K =@ H  E E = @A K[x] @K

M = (V, T )

+= ?K A I T n vo (x)vo = 0 = co vo + c1 T vo + cn1 T vo + T n vo T n vo = co vo c1 T vo cn1 T n1 vo = co v1 cn1 vn 2 H J= J

0 1 A= [ T ] = B 0

0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

- c1 - c2

0 1 - cn-1

=JHE ?

F= AH= @A (x)

J=

I [T ]B = C(x)

- AH?E?E
- F E E ?=H=?JAH IJE? @A = =JHE ? GKA A F E E E @A T AI (x) F= AH= @A (x) AI pC(x) = (1)n (x) J=H

,7

5 5 *4- 7

) 1

'!

2H F
5A= M K K[x] @K @A @ GKA M = (V, T ) ? V A L I >HA K O T : V V = K JEF E?=?E F H x 5A= (x) K[x] \ {0} E? - J ?AI M AI ? ? E? @A H@A (x) IIE V JEA A K = >=IA B J= GKA = =JHE HAFHAIA J= JA @A T A AIJ= >=IA AI = =JHE ? F= AH= @A (x)

,A
) -IJ @A
IJH=@

) B = {v1 , . . . , vn } (x) = co + c1 x + + cn1 xn1 + xn T v1 T v2 = v2 = v3 xv1 x2 v 1 = v2 = v3

[T ]B = C(x) IEC E ?=

T vn1 = vn xn1 v1 = vn T vn = co v1 c1 v2 cn1 vn

+

K[x]

@K

M = V AI CA AH=@ F H {v1 } E A M AI ? ? E?
J= J

)@A I T vn = xn v1 = co v1 c1 xv1 cn1 xn1 v1 (x)v1 = 0 F H = K=J @ M=V

(x)
F H E? I

2 H IAH V = M ? ? E? JEA A = K =@ H E E = (x) @A CH=@ ECK= = @E V = n IAH = K =@ H E E = (x)/ (x) FAH CH( (x)) = CH( (x)) = n O = > I I (x) = (x) /A AH= E?A I F=H= A ?=I A GKA M AI @A J HIE EJ= A JA CA AH=@ I >HA K[x] K[x]/(1 (x)) K[x]/(r (x)) ? 1 (x)/ /r (x) = 0 CH(1 (x)) 1

M =

r (x) AI A = K =@ H E E = @A J @ M E A (v V ) r (x)v = r (T )v = 0 ( (T ) = 0) )@A I ?K= GKEAH F E E p(x) J= GKA p(T ) = 0 I=JEIB=?A (v V ) p(x)v = 0 E A p(x) = K = J @ M r (x)/p(x)
)I r (x) AI A F E E E

m(x) @A = JH= IB H =?E

E A= T

)@A I A A L V IA @AI? F A ? V = V1 Vr ? T (Vi ) Vi O Vi JEA A K = >=IA J= GKA = =JHE HAFHAIA J= JA @A T A A = AI C(x) @A AIJ= B H = V = M JEA A K = >=IA  ? A L I >HA K  A = GKA = =JHE HAFHAIA J= JA @A T AI

'"

+)2 67

) 1

C 1 (x) C 2 (x)

C r (x)

1 (x), . . . , r (x) I

I B=?J HAI E L=HE= JAI @A K[x]

@K

M
EJ= T : V V E A= IECKEA JA EJ= I >HA K ?

4A? H@= @ GKA J @ F=H (V, T ) ? V A L I >HA K @A @E A IE AI K K[x] @K @A J HIE EJ= A JA CA AH=@ ? ? KE I @K I EJ= A JA CA AH=@ I @A J HIE K = JH= IB H =?E E A= A I EI

I >HA K[x] IIE A L @A @E A IE

)F E?=?E

=JHE?AI @A n n = ? A ?EA JAI A K +KAHF

A @A
A K = JH= IB H =?E

5A= A Mnn (K)

K E A=

TA : Kn Kn x Ax (Kn , TA ) FH @K?A K K[x] @K EJ= A JA CA AH=@ O @A J HIE ! EIJ= @A F E E I E? I 1 (x)/ /r (x) = 0 CH(1 (x)) 1 O K = >=IA @A Kn J= GKA = =JHE HAFHAIA J= JA @A TA ? HAIFA?J = AIJ= >=IA AI

C 1 (x) C 2 (x)

C=

C r (x)

. H = ?=

E?= H=?E

= @A A

,7

5 5 *4- 7

) 1 E

R
@A A

'#

)@A I r (x) AI A F E E EI = JH= IB H =?E E A=

A AI IE E =H = C FKAI = >=I HAFHAIA J=

7I= @ GKA A F E E ?=H=?JAH IJE? @A C(x) AI (1)CH((x)) (x) O GKA A F E JAH IJE? @A K = =JHE @A = B H =

E ?=H=?

A1 A2 = Polcar(A 1 )Polcar(A 2 ) Polcar(A r )

AI pA1 pA2 pAr @ @A pAi AI A F E E ?=H=?JAH IJE? @A Ai 1 i r O GKA A F E ?=H=?JAH IJE? @A =JHE?AI IE E =HAI AI A EI HAIK J=

+ H =HE 
5E A Mnn (K) IK F E pA (x) AI A FH @K?J @A E ?=H=?JAH IJE? AI pA (x) = (1)n 1 (x) r (x) I B=?J HAI E L=HE= JAI @A A   5= L IEC I

+ H =HE
5E A Mnn (K) O m(x) AI IK F E  E E E = A J ?AI m(x)/pA (x)  FKAI m(x) = r (x)

+ H =HE !  6A HA = @A +=K?DO 0= E J
5E A Mnn (K) O pA (x) IK F E E ?=H=?JAH IJE?


A J ?AI pA (A) = 0

)F E?=?E @A J HIE

@A = @AI?

F IE?E

FHE =HE= @A R

@K I

EJ= A JA CA AH=@ I
M =
l i=1

5A= R K @EF O M K R @K i,k R/(pi i )  IK = EJ=  6 A F E

EJ= A JA CA AH=@ @A J HIE E FHE A

R/(pi i,1 )
I

I R = K[x] O p(x) = x F E E I FHE I  -IJK@EA I K[x]/(p(x)k )

K[x]  CA AH=

A JA D=O

'$ 5=>A I GKA AI ? ? E? @A H@A p(x)k = vo = T vo >=IA @A V = M = T k1 vo

+)2 67

) 1

M = (V, T ) M = K[x]vo

v1 v2 vk

[T ]Base = Cp(x)k MF E E

p(T )vo = (T id)k vo = 0 (x )k = p(x)k AI A = K =@ H E @A T  0 w1 w2

E E = @A

KAL= >=IA F=H= V = M

(T id)k vo = (T id)k1 vo = (T id)k2 vo = (T id)vo vo

= wk1 = wk
K = >=IA @A V += ?K A I = =JHE HAFHAIA J= JA

wi = 0 1 i k {w1 , . . . , wk } I @A T ? HAIFA?J = AIJ= >=IA wk1 = T wk wk

wk2 = (T id)2 vo = (T id)wk1 = T wk1 wk1

T wk = wk + wk1 T wk1 = wk1 + wk2 T w2 T w1

2 H

= =
J= J

w2 + w1 w1
= =JHE @A T A AIJ= >=IA AI

1 1 1

1 1

,7

5 5 *4- 7 H@= 

) 1

'%

* GKA @A

{w1 , . . . , wk }AI K = >=IA @A V F H GKA JEA A A CH((x )k ) = k O =@A I AI E 1 (T id)k1 vo + + k vo = 0

 4-815)4

AH ? HHA?J @A A A A J I

O @E V =

K JEFE?= @ F H (T id)k1 k = 0

5E A K[x] I E? I F E E I FHE I E? I I @A = B H = x  F H A A F K = C  A J ?AI A L V @A @E A IE EJ= I >HA K O T : V V E A= ANEIJA K = >=IA B @A V J= GKA = =JHE HAFHAIA J= JA @A T ? HAIFA?J = AIJ= >=IA AI @A = B H =

1 1 1 1 i 1 1 i 1 m 1 m

. H = ?=

E?= @A

H@= @A T  O I > GKAI

1 , . . . , m I

I L= HAI FH FE I @A T

i 1 i 1 i 1 l 1 i 1 i l

'& A AH O J= =  F=H= ?=@= i AIJ

+)2 67 K E?= A JA @AJAH E =@ I

) 1

- > GKA
i 1 i 1 i 1 l 1 i 1 i l

FH LEA A @A K = F=HJA {w1 , . . . , wl } @A = >=IA B  ? HHAIF @EA JA = IK = @ ? ? E? FHE =HE K[x]/((x )l ) @A @K (V, T )  GKA AI J= GKA w1 AI LA?J H FH FE @A T T w1 = i w1  ? L= H FH FE =I ?E=@ i  O w2 , . . . , wl I LA?J HAI F HFE I CA AH=@ I @A T
? =I @A w1 GKA I=JEIB=?A

T w2 = i w 2 + T w3 = i w 3 +

w1 w2

T wl = i wl + wl1
 -IJ= >=IA LEA A @A K CA AH=@ H wo A K[x]/((x )l ) J= GKA (x )l wo = 0 wi = (x )li wo O (x i )l wi = 0 i = 1 . . . l (T i id)l wi = 0  5E V = Kn A Mnn (K) T = TA : Kn Kn ?
1 1 1 1 i 1 1 i 1 m 1 m = J = [T A ] B

TA (x) = Ax

,7

5 5 *4- 7

) 1

''

J= GKA P AP 1 = J )I A AI @E=C = E => A IIE J @ I I > GKAI @A H@= I @A 1 1 J @ I A A A J= AI @A K[x] @K (Kn , TA ) I @A JEF (x i )1 I @ELEI HAI

2HACK J=

3K =JHE A K[x] D=O GKA

@E=C = E =H F=H= >JA AH I B=?J HAI E L=HE= JAI 1 (x), . . . , r (x) A A ?=I @A K K[x] @K EJ= A JA CA AH=@ O @A J HIE  E A (V, T ) V A L I >HA K @A @E A IE EJ= O T : V V E A=  5A= B = {v1 , . . . , vn } >=IA @A V  ? A L I >HA K  {v1 , . . . , vn } CA AH= V ? K[x] @K  FAH O= AI E  2 @A I AI?HE>EH V ? ?K ?EA JA @A K K[x] @K E>HA 5A= F K K[x] @K E>HA ? >=IA {b1 , . . . , bn } (F = K[x]n )

5A= A E? AFE H I  @A K[x] @K I @A F A V = M  J= GKA (bi ) = vi i {1, . . . , n} : F V AFE H I V I A @AJ= A AH = F/ AH -IJK@EA I

xvj = T (vj ) = n i=1 aij vi E A= T A = >=IA B xvj

- F
n i=1

@A aij AI A A A A J ij @A =

=JHE A @A = JH= IB H =?E

aij vi = 0 . H K = A V
n i=1

5A= cj = xbj
n i=1

aij bi F
n i=1

(cj ) = (xbj cj AH
2H >A I=C @K

aij bi ) = x(bj )

aij bi = xvj

n i=1

aij vi = 0

F H

J= J

A H

AH =< {c1 , . . . , cn } > I GKA L AH F =< {v1 , . . . , vn } >

5A= L =< {c1 , . . . , cn } > I=>A

xbj

L
n i=1

[xbj ]L = [

aij bi ]
1 @K?JEL= A JA xk bj L n =I z F i=1 i bi

n [x2 bj ]L = [xxbj ] = x[xbj ] = x[ n i=1 aij bi ] = [ i=1 i bi ] i K n b K F H J= J p ( x ) K[ x] p(x)bj L i i=1 i i n z L i=1 i bi i K

- F=HJE?K =H IE z

AH :

z L 0= z
- HAI

n i=1

i bi i K
n i=1

n i=1

i (bi ) 0 =
A H I

i vi 1 = = n = 0 AI @A?EH

AH z L 0 z L @A K[x] @K I

: F V AFE {c1 , . . . , cn } >

F/ AH =V ?

K[x]

@K I

AH =<

5A= F @K E>HA @A H= C n @A >=IA {b1 , . . . , bn } O f : F F = E?= JH= IB H =?E K[x] E A= GKA = bi A =IEC = f (bi ) = ci i {1, . . . , n} 4AIK J= 1 f =< {c1 , . . . , cn } >=

 AH V K[x] @K I = F/1 f ? ?= ?K =H I B=?J HAI E L=HE= JAI @A V  ? 2 H K[x]

+)2 67

) 1

? K

+ K

J= J = =JHE =
@E=C = E =H F=H= @K  AI [f ]B B x a11 a21 n = 1 @A AIJ= =JHE [f (b1 )]B = [c1 ]B = [xb1 i=1 ai1 bi ]B = an1 a1j a2j n = =JHE = j [f (bj )]B = [cj ]B = [xbj i=1 aij bi ]B = F H J= J x a jj

AI xIn A

anj

2H F
I B=?J HAI E L=HE= JAI @A T : V V I I E? I F E ? CH(1 (x)) 1 J= GKA =
@E=C = E =H xIn A HAIK J= E I E? I 1 (x)/ /r (x)

1(x)

r (x) 0 0

- AH?E?E
5A= R EHA I I A A A J I @A R @K E>HA Rn ? ? K =I n N \ {0} K @EF r1 r2 r= 5A= m1 , . . . , mn Rn O B H A I = =JHE A = [m1 | |mn ] Mnn (R) rn 5A= = @AJ(A) =I IECKEA JAI FH F IE?E AI I AGKEL= A JAI  - IK> @K

M =< {m1 , . . . , mn } > Rn AI E>HA

,7

5 5 *4- 7

) 1



{m1 , . . . , mn } AI E
!

=0
EJ= A JA CA AH=@ )@A I EJ  CHKF

" Rn /M AI @A J HIE

= 5E R = Z Rn /M AI @A J HIE EJ= A JA CA AH=@ Rn /M AI n =>A E= EJ  O A AIJA ?=I |R /M| = | |

> 5E R = K[x] K ?KAHF Rn /M AI @A J HIE EJ= A JA CA AH=@ K[x]n /M AI @A @E A IE EJ= ? A L I >HA K O A AIJA ?=I CH( ) = @E K V



+)2 67

) 1

+=F JK

6A H = @A +KAHF I
! )C I I >HA 2 E E I
?

5A= R K = E ? KJ=JEL O X = {x } = =HA I

E @AJAH E =@=I

K = B= E E= @A A A A J I GKA ? A E I I

3KAHA I @A EH F E E I = ? A ?EA JAI A A = E R ? L=HE=> AI x : 3 @A @=H IA JE@ = ANFHAIE AI @A JEF 2x2 1 x2 3x5 x3 x4 + x5 7 2=H= B H = E =H AIJ  O =I FAH=?E @A EHA I IECKEA JA AI + O GKA AIFAH=H = I GKA ANEIJ= A JHA F E AH

5A= : N K = BK ?E J= GKA I= L K () = = 0 5A= F A ? K J @A AIJ=I BK ?E AI = IK = GKA@= >EA @A E@= A F 5A= , F + : N +

EJ @A A

+ AI =I ?E=JEL= ?

KJ=JEL= O JEA A AKJH 0 E x =

6 @ AI ?= ?A => A F=H= +

) ?=@= F A =I ?E= I A {1 , . . . , k } = { / = 0}

1 x 1

x k k @

@A

- ? K J @A F E E I = ? A ?EA JAI A R ? E @AJAH E =@= X = {x } IAH R[X ] = R[{x } ] = R x J=H GKA (R[X ], +) AI K R @K E>HA @A >=IA {x }F
F

,A

I =D H= A FH @K?J A R[X ] ?

IECKA A JA A ?=@=

2=H= @ I A A A J I @A = >=IA x x = x+ O KAC IA ANJEA @A E A= m j i ri sj xi +j B=?J H ( n j =1 sj x ) = i=1 ri x )( i = 1...m j = 1...n !

"

+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

- AH?E?E
 2H >=H GKA JA A I K FH @K?J >EA @A ? KJ=JEL @A AKJH xo 1 E@ A R[X ] O GKA (R[X ], +, ) AI K = E H I @A

= BK ?E : R R[X ] J= GKA = r A =IEC = (r) = rxo AI K = E I GKA FAH EJA E@A JE ?=H r R ? rxo R[X ] ! 5A= O F J= GKA 1 IE = () = 0 IE = = = @ x = A A A J x A J ?AI x = x1 1 xkk " 5E R

FH >=H GKA F

IE {1 , . . . , k } = { / =}

JEA A @ELEI HAI @A 0 R[X ]

JEA A @ELEI HAI @A 0

# R[X ] JEA A = IECKEA JA

FH FEA@=@ K ELAHI=  5E S AI K = E ?K= GKEAH= O : R S AI K D H I @A = E I O {s } AI K = B= E E= @A A A A J I A A = E S GKA ? KJ= A JHA I - J ?AI ! D H I @A = E I : R[X ] S J= GKA (r) = (r) r R O (x ) = s - F=HJE?K =H IE : R R AI = E@A JE@=@ AIJ IEC E ?= GKA IA A??E = @ F=H= ?=@= E ? C EJ= x K L= H s R ?=@= F E E ri xi R[X ] @= H CA = IK AL= K=?E A = B= E E= {s } $ 1 JAHFHAJ=H J @ AIJ A X = {x}

-NJA IE

AI @A +KAHF I
K IA @E?A K = ANJA IE
@A k K|k  IIE k AI IK>?KAHF @A K IA = J= [K : k] = @E
kK

5A= K O k @ I ?KAHF I

K AI K AIF=?E LA?J HE= I >HA k O IK @E A IE IA @E?A EJ= IE [K : k] = @E k K AI EJ=

= ANJA IE

,A

E?E

5A= K|k K = ANJA IE 7 A A A J K IA @E?A = CA>H=E? I >HA k IIE p(x) k[x] \ {0} J= GKA p() = 0 = ANJA IE K|k IA @E?A = CA>H=E?= IIE J @ a K AI = CA>H=E? I >HA k H= - A F R|3 3 2 AI = CA>H=E? I >HA Q FKAI x3 2 Q[x] JEA A ?

2H F
5E = ANJA IE

K|k AI

EJ= A J

?AI AI = CA>H=E?=

-:6- 51

-5 ,- +7-42 5

#

,A
5E a K A J ?AI {1, a, a2 , . . .} K -IJA ? K J AI E FKAI = IAH @E k K < ?K= GKEAH ? K J E IAH EJ o , . . . , n k J @ I K I J= GKA o 1 + 1 a + 2 a2 + n an = 0 6 = @ p(x) = o + 1 x + + n xn K[x] \ {0} IA JEA A p(a) = 0 a AI = CA>H=E?

,A

E?E

5A= K|k K = ANJA IE @A ?KAHF I O A K -

IK>?KAHF @A K CA AH=@ F H A I >HA k IAH A IK>?KAHF @A K I FAGKA GKA ? JEA A = k O = A ) J= I k(A) -IJA IK>?KAHF ANEIJA O AI
(a1 ...an ) k(A) = { p /n N, p(x1 . . . xn ), q (x1 . . . xn ) k[x1 . . . xn ], a1 . . . an A, q (a1 . . . an ) = q (a1 ...an ) 0}

K IA @E?A

EJ= A JA CA AH=@ I >HA k IE A AI

EJ

2H F
5E K|k AI K = ANJA IE EJ= A J ?AI K AI EJ= A JA CA AH=@ ? ?KAHF I >HA k

,A
5E {v1 . . . vn } AI >=IA @A K ? AIF=?E LA?J HE= I >HA k A J ?AI K = k(v1 , . . . , vn )

J= = HA? FH ?= @A AIJ= FH FEA@=@ AI ?EAHJ= 8A= I K A A F 5A= k K ?KAHF ?K= GKEAH= O k(x) A ?KAHF ?K ?EA JA @A k[x]
k(x) =
p(x) /p(x), q (x) q (x)

k[x], q (x) = 0 k(x) AI K = ANJA IE

EJ= A JA CA AH=@= CA AH=@= F H

k k[x] k(x) F H J= J x I >HA k O [k(x) : k] =

2 E

@A K A A A J = CA>H=E?
5A= I = {p(x) k[x]/p(a) = 0}

5A= K|k O a K = CA>H=E? I >HA k

I {0}  E ? KIE

AIJHE?J= FKAI a AI = CA>H=E? I >HA k @ACA AH=@ FKAI 1 /I

I AI K E@A= A k[x]  k[x] AI K @EF F H m(x) AI FHE

IE J= J

I = (m(x)) ?

m(x)

E? CA AH=@ H

E? @A CH=@

BKAH=

$

+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5 A HAI GKA

m(x) = p(x)q (x) ? CH(p(x)) O CH(q (x)) = > I =O HAI ECK= AI GKA 1 O CH(m(x)) I = (m(x)) m(a) = p(a)q (a) = 0 p(a) = 0 q (a) = 0 p(x) I q (x) I CH(p(x)) m(x) CH(q (x)) m(x)
2 H J= J !m(x) k[x] FHE {p(x) k[x]/p(a) = 0} = m(x) k[x] E? O @A CH=@ E J= GKA

m(x) IA = =
F E ?KAHF k

F E

E EHHA@K?E> A @A a ?

HAIFA?J =

J=H GKA I = AH ? A H I @A = E I : k[x] K J= GKA = p(x) k[x] A =IEC = (p(x)) = p(a) )I = E =CA @A GKA = J=HA I k[a] AI K IK>= E @A K O AI EI HB ? IK>= E @A K = k[x]/ AH @A AIJ= B H = k[a] = k[x]/(m(x))  p(a) [p(a)]  JA I GKA - ABA?J @A>E@ = GKA m(x) AI EHHA@K?E> A @ACA AH=@ A E@A= I = (m(x)) AI K E@A= AIJHE?J=  =NE = A J ?AI

5E J = (p(x)) p(x)/m(x)

AI J= GKA (m(x)) J  E ? KIE

I E@A= =NE = k[x]/(m(x)) ?KAHF k[a] = {o + 1 a + + n an /n N, o . . . n k} AI K ?KAHF O AI A IK>?KAHF @A K CA AH=@ F H k O a - ABA?J -I ? =H GKA k[a] k(a) = JH= E ? KIE AI ?EAHJ= FKAI a O k AIJ ? JA E@ I A k[a]

2H > A = 4A =?E

=@
E FHE A I K = H=

5A= k K ?KAHF O p(x) k[x] K F E -NEIJA = C -NEIJA O IA ? ?KAHF K ANJA IE IJHKOA @A = IECKEA JA

@A k J= GKA p(x) JA C= = = AH=

aK
 F H

+ IE@AHA I A E@A= I = (p(x)) k[x] -IJA E@A= AI J= J E = k[x]/(p(x)) AI ?KAHF 5A= : k E () = []

=NE = FKAI p(x) AI FHE

AI K H I @A ?KAHF I F H J= J AI E OA?JEL  HA? H@=H GKA A E? E@A= @A K ?KAHF AI {0}  )I k IA FKA@A LAH ? IK>?KAHF @A E  E@A JE ?= @ k ? [] E 
- E D=O K = H= F=H= p(x) - ABA?J A J ?AI [f (x)] = ,A AIJ= B H =

E = {[f (x)]/f (x) k[x]} FAH IE f (x) = ao + a1 x + + an xn ao + a1 [x] + + an [x]n E = {f ([x])/f (x) k[x]} [f (x)] = f ([x]) = 0 f (x) AI K JEF ? ?K I GKA [x] E AI H= @A p(x)
@A p(x) F H

J= J p([x]) = 0

-:6- 51

-5 ,- +7-42 5

%

-A F
k = R p(x) = x2 + 1 F E
E FHE A R[x]

E = R[x]/(x2 + 1)
F H J= J

5A= f (x) = ao + a1 x + + an xn R[x] [f (x)] = ao + a1 [x] + + an [x]n 5=>A I GKA [x2 + 1] = 0 = [x]2 + 1, [x]2 = 1 a1 + b[x] )I ? A L I >HA R E =< {1, [x]} >

[f (x)] E, [f (x)] =

{1, [x]} I

E
CH=@ 1 CH=@ 2

5E o + 1 [x] = 0 A E [o + 1 x] = 0 o + 1 x = q (x) (x2 + 1) o = 1 = 0

E AI K AIF=?E LA?J HE= @A @E A IE

+ AI = K JEF E?=?E I+ FA I

2 I >HA R ?

>=IA {1, [x]}

(a + b[x])(c + d[x]) = ac + (ad + bc)[x] + bd[x]2 = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)[x] E AI EI

HB = 8 L= I = ?=I CA AH= k K ?KAHF O p(x) k[x] K F E AI K = ANJA IE EJ= ? [E : k] = CH(p(x)) E FHE 8A= I GKA E|k

5A= p(x) = ao + a1 x + + am1 xm1 + xm ai k, i = 1 . . . m 1

1 i p([x]) = ao + a1 [x] + + am1 [x]m1 + [x]m = 0 [x]m = m IA i=0 (ai )[x] 2 H E @K??E JEA A GKA [x]j =< {1, [x], . . . , [x]m1 } >j m KAC ? AIF=?E LA?J HE= I >HA k E AIJ CA AH=@ F H {1, [x], . . . , [x]m1 } )@A I AIJ= AI K = B= E E= E I >HA k 1 m1 m1 m1 i i i i 5E m i=0 i [x] = 0 [ i=0 i x ] = 0 i=0 i x (p(x)) E A i=0 i x = q (x)p(x) q (x) m1 m 1 k[x] FAH CH( i=0 i xi ) m 1 < m = CH(p(x)) q (x) = 0 i=0 i xi = 0 A k[x] i = 0 i = 0 . . . m 1

- FHE AH HAIK J=@ AH=

K|k K = ANJA IE a K = CA>H=E? I >HA k m(x) FHE A k[x] K ? JEA A K IK>?KAHF EI HB = k[x]/(m(x)) @ @A m(x) JEA A = a ? H= AIJA IK>?KAHF AI k(a) = k[a] = k[x]/(m(x)) @A @E A IE EJ= I >HA k ? [k(a) : k] = CH(m(x))
)I @=@ K F E E p(x) k[x] FHE K = H= AI k[x]/(p(x)) = ANJA IE

E E = @A k A = GKA p(x) JEA A

IA?KA ?E=I
?AI [E : k] = [K :

>IAH?=?E 5E k K E  ?=@A = @A ANJA IE AI @A ?KAHF I  A J k][E : K] IA= EJ I E EJ I I ?=H@E = AI E L K?H=@ I

,A
A J

5E {e : } AI K = >=IA @A E I >HA K O {f : } AI K = >=IA @A K I >HA k ?AI {f e /(, ) } AI K = >=IA @A E ? A L I >HA k ,- =GK EJ= E|K O K|k I ANJA IE AI EJ=I

E|k AI ANJA IE

&

+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

+ H =HE
5A= K|k K = ANJA IE ANJA IE = CA>H=E?= O a1 , . . . , an K = CA>H=E? I I >HA k A J ?AI k(a1 , . . . , an )|k AI K =

,A
+ IE@AHA I = IECKEA JA ?=@A = @A IK>?KAHF I @A K J=H GKA ki+1 = ki (ai+1 )

k = ko k(a1 ) = k1 k(a1 . . . an ) = kn

ai+1 AI = CA>H=E? I >HA k AI = CA>H=E? I >HA ki k 5A= m(x) A F E E EHHA@K?E> A @A ai+1 I >HA k m(x) ki [x] k[x] IE A >=HC m(x) F @H = IAH A F E E EHHA@K?E> A @A ai+1 I >HA A ?KAHF ki =I [k(ai+1 ) : ki ] < ? ? K I A J ?AI GKA kn |ko = k(a1 . . . an )|k AI K = ANJA IE EJ= O F H J= J = CA>H=E?=
IE JA A I = ?=@A = @A ANJA IE = CA>H=E? I >HA k J= >E AI I >HA K

>IAHL=?E

AI @A ?KAHF I k K E O a E AI

+ H =HE
5E K|k AI K = ANJA IE ? K = k(a : ) O a AI = CA>H=E? I >HA k A J K|k AI K = ANJA IE = CA>H=E?= ?AI

,A
1 n 5E a K = k(a : ) a = q(a ? p(x1 . . . xn ), q (x1 . . . xn ) k[x1 . . . xn ] ...an ) 1 q (a1 . . . an ) = 0 a k(a1 . . . an ) K O O= FH >= I GKA k(a1 . . . an ) AI ANJA IE = CA>H=E?= @A k F H J= J a AI = CA>H=E? I >HA k

p(a

...a

- AH?E?E
,=@= K = ?=@A = @A ANJA IE AI k K E E|k AI = CA>H=E?= IIE E|k O K|k I = CA>H=E?=I

!
,A

 +AHH=@KH= = CA>H=E?=
E?E
E p(x) k[x] @A CH=@

7 ?KAHF K IA @E?A = CA>H=E?= A JA ?AHH=@ IIE J @ F E 1 JEA A H= ?AI A K -A F A JA HA = BK @= A J= @A

CA>H= =IACKH= GKA C AI = CA>H=E?= A JA ?AHH=@

-:6- 51

-5 ,- +7-42 5

'

,A

E?E
K @A K ?KAHF k IA @E?A ?AHH=@KH= = CA>H=E?= @A k IIE K|k AI = CA>H=E?=

7 = ANJA IE 

= ANJA IE

K AI = CA>H=E?= A JA ?AHH=@
-A F

C AI ?AHH=@KH= = CA>H=E?= @A R

- AH?E?E
5A= k K ?KAHF O K k K = ANJA IE k k K ?AHH=@KH= = CA>H=E?= @A k = CA>H=E?= A JA ?AHH=@= I GKA 2H >A I GKA ANEIJA

5A= k = {a K/a AI = CA>H=E? I >HA k} 5=>A

k AI K ?KAHF k|k AI = CA>H=E? kkK

,A>A I FH >=H GKA k AI = CA>H=E?= A JA ?AHH=@ GKA f (x) JEA A K = H= a K 5A= f (x) k[x] @A CH=@ 1 5=>A I

5A= E = k(ao . . . an ) @ @A ao . . . an k I J= AI GKA f (x) = ao + a1 x + + an xn E AI AN JA IE EJ= O = CA>H=E?= I >HA k f (x) E[x], a AI H= @A f (x) a AI = CA>H=E? I >HA E

k E E E(a) I ANJA IE AI a AI = CA>H=E? I >HA k a k

EJ=I k E(a) AI ANJA IE

EJ= AI = CA>H=E?=

- AH?E?E
 5E K AI K ?KAHF = CA>H=E?= A JA ?AHH=@ E=K 5E K AI = CA>H=E?= A JA ?AHH=@ J @ F E F A A K[x] ? f (x) = a(x c) ! E C ?KAHF O E AI K = ANJA IE = CA>H=E?= @A K

E f (x) K[x] @A CH=@ 1 IA @AI?

EJ AI = CA>H=E?= A JA ?AHH=@ JH=H A K = ? =KIKH= = CA>H=E?= = ?K= GKEAH ?KAHF k

)FK J=

I =D H= = A ?



+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

A =
5E k AI K ?KAHF O f1 (x) . . . fn (x) I K = ?= JE@=@ EJ= @A F E E I @A CH=@ 1 A k[x] A J ?AI ANEIJA K = ANJA IE = CA>H=E?= EJ= E|k A = GKA ?=@= K @A AIJ I F E E I JEA A = A I K = H=

,A
I A k[x] ? pi (x)/fi (x) -NJA @= I k F=H= GKA I fi (x) J= >E =I JA @H  5=>A I GKA F @A I ANJA @AH k = E1 = k[x]/(p1 (x)) O HAIK J= E1 = k(a1 ) ? a1 H= @A p1 (x)  O [E1 : k] = CH(p1 (x))  p2 (x) k[x] E1 [x] FAH F @H = IAH FHE A E1 [x] 5A= p2 (x) K B=?J H FHE @A p2 (x) A E1 [x] 5=>A I GKA E1 IA FKA@A ANJA @AH = E2 @A p2 (x) )I = E1 [x]/(p2 (x)) O E2 = E1 (a2 ) ? a2 H= @A p2 (x) O F H J= J E2 = k(a1 )(a2 ) = k(a1 , a2 ) O ? [E2 : E1 ] < A J ?AI [E2 : k] < + A EI =HCK A J E @K??E  ANJA @A I E2 En = En1 (an ) = k(a1 . . . an ) ANJA IE EJ= @A k ? 2HE AH J A I p1 (x), . . . , pn (x) FHE I pi (x) JA C= H= ?AI  O F H J= J

E3 = E2 (a3 ) ? ai H= @A pi (x)

a3 H=

@A p3 (x)

A =
5A= k K ?KAHF -NEIJA K = ANJA IE = CA>H=E?= E @A k J= GKA J @ F E E f (x) k[x] @A CH=@ 1 JEA A = A I K = H= A E I =K IE {f (x)} AI = B= E E= @A J @ I IF E E I @A CH=@ 1 = ? A ?EA JAI A k F @A I FA@EH GKA ( )(a E) H= @A f (x) O E = k(a : )

,A
5A= X = {x } 6H=>= A I A A
CH=  = E @A F E E I = ? A ?EA JAI A k A E @AJAH E =@=I A X k[X ] ,A JH @A AIJA = E IA= I A E@A= CA AH=@ F H I A A A J I @A {f (x)} I = ({f (x)} )  ? I=I ? f1 (x1 ) + x3 x4 f2 (x2 ) AIJ A I  8A= I GKA I AI K E@A= IKF C= @ACA AH=@ I GKA 1 I EA 1 =
n i=1

2 H ? JH=@E??E k[X ] i = 1 . . . n

gi (X ) fi (xi )

gi (X )

f1 (x1 ) . . . fn (xn ) I K = ?= JE@=@ EJ= @A CA AH=@ HAI -NJA @= A A GKA f1 (x1 ) . . . fn (xn ) JA C= H= ?AI a1 , . . . , an HAIFA?JEL= A JA
- K[x] k[x] 1 = ,A = I =D H= a =
n i=1

I k = K ?KAHF K

gi (X ) fi (xi ) IECKA IEA @ ?EAHJ

n i=1

a 1 =

ai IE = i O AL= KA I 1 = 0 IE n J= J i=1 gi (X ) fi (xi ) = 0 F H

gi (X ) fi (xi ) A
? JEA A

x =
I

1 /I
= A

+ I AI E@A= @ACA AH=@ D=O = C E@A= E = k[X ]/J ?KAHF FKAI J AI =NE =

=NE = J k[X ] GKA

-:6- 51

-5 ,- +7-42 5



i k k[X ] k[X ]/J = E i AI H I @A ?KAHF I AI E OA?JEL= F H J= J F @A I FA I=H GKA k E e1 )@A I I A A A J I @A E I @A = B H = i [x1 ] [xk ]ek E = k[[x ] : ] E AIJ CA AH=@ = F=HJEH @A k F H {[x ] : } O =@A I A E f ([x ]) = [f (x )] = 0
= = @ b = [x ] E JA A I E = k(b : ) f (b ) = 0
IJ

6A HA =
6 @ ?KAHF k JEA A ? =KIKH= = CA>H=E?=

,A
Eo = k E1 = ANJA IE @A Eo @A A = = JAHE H . . . - CA AH= En+1 AI = ANJA IE En @=@= F H A A = = JAHE H 6A A I k = Eo E1 En En+1
5A= K =
n

@A

En AI ?KAHF F H IAH K E

?HA?EA JA @A ?KAHF I

K AI = CA>H=E? I >HA k 5E a K n N J= GKA a En FAH En AI = CA>H=E? I >HA k K AI = CA>H=E? I >HA k K AI = CA>H=E?= A JA ?AHH=@ 5A= f (x) = ao + + an xn K[x] mo , . . . , mn N J= AI GKA ao , . . . , an AIJ A Emo , . . . , Emn HAIFA?JEL= A JA 5E Em AI A =O H  ? HAIFA?J = = E ?KIE  @A AIJ I ?KAHF I A J ?AI f (x) Em [x] JEA A H= A Em+1 K

AHIE

AI
AHIE
@A

5E k O K I ?KAHF I K H I @A ?KAHF I : k K IA IKA A = =H K = E k A K 4A? H@=H GKA AI A?AI=HE= A JA E OA?JEL 5E =D H= L|k AI K = ANJA IE @A ?KAHF I
L K

i k

O : L K AI K = E

AHIE

GKA ANJEA @A IA @E?A GKA

L= I >HA  IA @E?A GKA
L= I >HA k

+=I F=HJE?K =H IE A K = E ? KIE


L

+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

i k

-A F

conj.

A =
5A= K|k K = ANJA IE = CA>H=E?= @A ?KAHF I

K K

5A= K = E @A ?KAHF I

AHIE

I >HA k  (x) = x x k  A J

?AI : K K AI K =KJ

H I

-:6- 51

-5 ,- +7-42 5

!

,A
>IAHL=?E  5E : K K AI K = E AHIE I >HA k A J ?AI AI K = BK ?E E A= @A K A K ? AI?= =HAI A k (x + y ) = (x) + (y ) O (x) = () (x) IE k () = F H J= J AI k E A= >IAHL=?E )I IE [K : k] < AIJA AI A JA HA = @A E OA?JEL= @A K A L @A @E n = JH @A @E n AI K EI H I
0=O GKA FH >=H = I >HAOA?JELE@=@ @A 5A= a K O E = k (a) I=>A I GKA F E E E @A a A k[x] < 2H >A I GKA (E) E F H IAH a = CA>H=E? I >HA k CA>H= E A= BK ?E E A=

[E : k] = CH=@ @A

5A= p(x) = bo + b1 x + + bn1 xn1 + xn k[x] A F E E E @A a p(a) = n 1 n bo + b1 a + + bn1 a + a = 0 5E =F E?= I = p(a) (p(a)) = 0 = bo + b1 (a) + + n 1 n bn1 (a) + (a) (a) AI JH= H= @A p(x) A K 5KF C= I GKA a1 , . . . , ar I =I H= ?AI @A p(x) A K 6H=JA I @A JH=>= =H ? L = k(a1 , . . . , ar ) (L) = k( (a1 ), . . . , (ar )) F H A =HCK A J = JAHE H (ai ) AI H= @A p(x) A K (L) L  A HA= E@=@ AI @EHA?J= A JA ECK=  ? a1 = a L a = (aj ) =C j 7 F ? I @A A ? =JKH= H I @A ?KAHF I O IA= p(x) = ao + a1 x + + an xn k[x] ) E @A K[x] @=@ F H p (x) = (ao ) + (a1 )x + + (an )xn H I @A = E I J= I 5A= : k K K F H p (x) = F E 6A A IK

k[x] K[x] p(x) p (x)

)@A I a k H= @A p(x) (a) K H= @A p (x)

A =
5A= K|k K = ANJA IE @A 5A= p(x) k[x] A F E p (x) E[x] ANEIJA K = b = AIJ= ANJA IE )@A = C b H= @A p (x) A E ?KAHF I : k E K = E AHIE O a K = CA>H=E? I >HA k E E @A a - J ?AI F H ?=@= H= b E @A F E E E?= ANJA IE : k(a) E @A J= GKA (a) = b = A I I J @= ANJA IE @A = : k(a) E AI @A = B H = b F=H=

,A
-NEIJA ?E= @A b

"
k(a) b

+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

E k

5=>A

I GKA k(a) = k[x]/(p(x)) k a [x] I = BK ?E E () E (co + c1 x + + cn xn ) = (co ) + (c1 )x + + (cn )xn b H I @A = E I GKA ANJEA @A = J @ k[x] O GKA = @= x A b  H I J= J

+ IE@AHA : k[x] k x  -I A E?

(p(x)) = p (b) = 0 F H : k[x[/(p(x)) E k () [x] b

6A A IA J ?AI GKA

IA = K = A A E@A= (p(x)) E @K?A K

f k(a) = k[x]/(p(x)) E k k () a [ x] b b = f AI J= GKA a b () = () IE k b (a) = b

A kOA

= K E?E@=@ @A b LEA A @A DA?D GKA k(a) AIJ CA AH=@ F H k {a} O b AIJ - GKA J @=I =I ANJA IE AI IA= @A AIJ= B H = AI @EHA?J I = @A IJH=?E @A A = 6A A
k(a) b E k

4ALEIA

-:6- 51

-5 ,- +7-42 5

#

4A? H@A I GKA A k(a) I A A A J I I @A = B H = y = o + 1 a + + n an ? i k i = 1 . . . n  y = f (a) f (x) k[x]

b @A>EAH= I=JEIB=?AH GKA b (o ) + b (1 )b (a) + + b (n )b (a)n = (o ) + (1 )b + + (n )bn 2AH y F @H = AI?HE>EHIA @A L=HE=I = AH=I ? F E E AL= K=@ A a + n C=H= JE = I GKA (o ) + (1 )b + + (n )b @AFA @A @A F E E GKA KI= I F=H= AI?HE>EH y
2=H= HAI LAH AIJA FH > A = HA? H@A I GKA k(a) = k[x]/(p(x)) x [x] ,A = I A J ?AI k[x] L k () E? H I @A = E I x b A@E= JA k

q (x) = o + 1 x + + n xn (q (x)) = (o )+ (1 )b + + (n )bn (p(x)) = p (b) = 0 E @K?A K E? : k[x]/(p(x)) L J= GKA o + 1 [x] + + n [x]n (o ) + (1 )b + n + (n )b

+ H =HE
5A= K|k ANJA IE ?AHH=@ L - J = CA>H=E?= O : k L K = E AHIE @A k A K ?KAHF = CA>H=E?= A JA ?AI ANEIJA E AHIE AI : K L I >HA

K L

5E =@A I K AI = CA>H=E?= A JA ?AHH=@ O L AI = CA>H=E? I >HA (k) A J @A J= AI AI K EI H I

?AI ?K= GKEAH=

,A
 -NEIJA ?E= @A ANJA IE 2 H H AI : K L

IA= A = { : J L/k J K, |k = }

$
K

+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

= A AI H@A =@

1 , 2 A, 1

2 2 AI ANJA IE

@A 1

> 5E { } AI K = ?=@A = A A
F

5A= J =

J L y J (y ) AIJ >EA @A E@= O AI H I @A ?KAHF I I >HA F H J= J A O F H @A E?E AI ? J= IKFAHE H @A = B= E E= { } -NEIJA K A A A J =NE = J J AI K IK>?KAHF GKA ?
JEA A = k ,A = I
K

-:6- 51

-5 ,- +7-42 5

%

5E J K  AIJHE?J= A JA E ? KE@  ? K AI = CA>H=E? I >HA k AI I >HA J 6 = @ a K \ J =F E?= I A A = ? k = K K = K(a) O F @A I ANJA @AH F H = K(a) GKA ? JH=@E?A GKA IA= =NE =  6A A I A IECKEA JA @E=CH= =

alg. cerrado

K L

alg. cerrado

O GKAHA I FH >=H GKA AI EI H I 5 HAIJ= FH >=H GKA AI I >HAOA?JEL= 5A= K = (K) L k AI EI HB = k O F H J= J J= >E = CA>H=E?= A JA ?AHH=@ JA A I k K L ? L|k = CA>H=E?=

L|K ANJA IE

= CA>H=E?= L = K

+ H =HE
5E K|k O L|k I @ I ?AHH=@KH=I = CA>H=E?=I @A : K L I >HA k EI

A J

?AI ANEIJA K EI

H I

,A
7I=H A ? H =HE = JAHE H =
K

L k

-A F

C AI = ?AHH=@KH= = CA>H=E?= @A R

 JA HA = BK @= A J= @A

CA>H= 

&
C

+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

conj.

!
,A

! +KAHF I @A @AI?
E?E

F IE?E
F IE?E

5E k AI K ?KAHF O f (x) k[x] AI K F E E @A CH=@ 1 K

?KAHF @A @AI? F=H= f (x) AI K = ANJA IE K @A k J= GKA  f (x) JEA A J @=I IKI H= ?AI A K f (x) = (x c1 ) (x cn ) ?

E A f (x) IA @AI? F A A B=?J HAI E A= AI A K[x] c1 , . . . , cn =I H= ?AI @A f (x)

K IA CA AH= = F=HJEH @A k

A@E= JA =I H= ?AI @A f (x) E A K = k(c1 . . . cn )

2H F
5E f (x) AI @A CH=@ 1 A k[x] A J  -NEIJA K ?KAHF @A @AI? ?AI F=H= f (x) @A f (x) A J ?AI ANEIJA EI H I I

F IE?E

5E K|k O E|k I @ I ?KAHF I @A @AI? F IE?E : K E I >HA k  E A (x k) (x) = x 

,A
K K

k inclusion

E inclusion

-:6- 51

-5 ,- +7-42 5

'

5A= E ?AHH=@KH= = CA>H=E?= @A E J=H GKA ? I >HA k A J ?AI E AI = CA>H=E? I >HA k )@A ?AHH=@KH= = CA>H=E?= @A k 6A A I A IECKEA JA @E=CH= =
K

E AI = CA>H=E? I >HA E O E AI = CA>H=E? I E AI = CA>H=E?= A JA ?AHH=@ E AI

E alg. cerrado

2 H K ? H =HE = JAHE H : K E I >HA k ,A>A

= E ? KIE

: k E IA FKA@A ANJA @AH = K = E

AHIE

I FH >=H GKA (K) = E

+ K O E I ?KAHF I @A @AI? F IE?E @A f (x) k[x] A J ?AI A K[x] = k(c1 . . . cn ) f (x) = (x c1 ) (x cn ) O A E[x] = k(c1 . . . cn ) f (x) = (x c1 ) (x cn )

( ) : K[x] E[x] g (x) g (x)

J=H GKA f (x) = f (x)

H I

@A = E

f (x) = (x c1 ) (x cn ) f (x) = (x (c1 )) (x (cn )) )I @AI? F A A B=?J HAI FHE I ? f (x) = (x (c1 )) (x (cn ))
+

A E

f (x) IA

E E f (x) JEA A @ I @AI?

F IE?E

AI A E[x]

 f (x) = (x (c1 )) (x (cn ))  f (x) = (x c1 ) (x cn ) 2 H K E?E@=@ @A @AI? F IE?E A B=?J HAI FHE I A A @EF E[x] AIJ=I @ I @AI? F IE?E AI I = EI = I= L J= LA A H@A @A I B=?J HAI F H J= J i = 1 . . . n j = 1 . . . n J= GKA (ci ) = cj ({c1 , . . . , cn }) = {c1 , . . . , cn } 2AH K = k(c1 , . . . , cn ) O E = k(c1 , . . . , cn ) F H J= J (k) = k( (c1 ), . . . , (cn )) = k(c1 , . . . , cn ) = E

,A

E?E

5E F = {f (x)} AI K = B= E E= ?K= GKEAH= @A F E E I @A CH=@ 1 A k[x] K ?KAHF @A @AI? F IE?E @A = B= E E= AI K = ANJA IE K|k J= GKA

   +=@= f (x) @A = B= E E= IA AI?HE>A ?

+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

FH @K?J @A B=?J HAI E A= AI A K IF E E I @A = B= E E=

K AIJ CA AH=@ = F=HJEH @A k F H =I H= ?AI @A J @ I

J=

- ?KAHF @A @AI? - ?KAHF @A @AI?

F IE?E F IE?E

@A f (x) AI A @A = B= E E= {f (x)} @A = B= E E= L=? = AI k

- AH?E?E
 F JEA A ?KAHF @A @AI? F IE?E

5E K|k O E|k I ?KAHF I @A @AI? F IE?E @A = B= E E= F A J ?AI I EI HB I I >HA k I =K IE : K E AI K = E AHIE @A K A = ? =KIKH= = CA>H=E?= E @A E I >HA k A J ?AI (K) = E O @A A K EI H I A JHA K O E I >HA k

! ! )F E?=?E
! !  ,A
5A= R K = E - AIA = E IK>= E

= ?KAHF I
AI 2HA E E =HAI
K E@=@ +K

EJ I
AI A IK>= E I FAGKA GKA ? JEA A R

E?E
?

KJ=JEL ?

@A>A AIJ=H 0, 1, 1 + 1, 1 + 1 + 1, . . . , n 1, . . . I FAGKA A R P IA IKA A = =H A

IK>= E J= J

5A= P = {n 1/n Z} AIJA A FHE @A R AI EI HB = (Z|P| , +) IE AI JH=HE EJ

(P, +) AI K CHKF ? ? E? CA AH=@ F H {1} F H (Z, +) IE AI

5E P AI IA = K = 5E (P, +) = (Zm , +) A = E @A
?=H=?JAH IJE?= 0 EJ

|P| = m AI = FHE AH= LA GKA 1 + + 1 = 0 A ?=I ?

m LA?AI

1++1

R IA @E?A @A
?=H=?JAH IJE?= m IE (P, +) = (Z, +) IA @E?A
H I

J=H GKA A A ?=I @A ?=H=?JAH IJE?= m A EI

P Zm AI n 1 [n]

H I

@A = E

J=
IE 1 + + 1 = 0 (a R) a + + a = a(1 + + 1) = 0
m LA?AI m LA?AI m LA?AI

5E R ABA?J

JEA A @ELEI HAI @A 0  @

E E @A E JACHE@=@  IK ?=H=?JAH IJE?= AI 0

FHE

!!

)2 1+)+1

) +7-42 5 .1 16 5 EJ A ?K= GKEAH ?=I IK ?=H=?JAH IJE?= AI 0 F H F=H= R EJ @A ?=H=?JAH IJE?= m J= J

  I

5=>A I GKA IE R AI >=IJ= FH >=H = = H =?E

5KF C= I GKA m AI FHE  HA? H@=H GKA {1, 0} R F H J= J m 2  k 2, l m 1 J= GKA m = k l = A I a = k 1 O b = l 1 = > I I @EIJE J I @A 0 FKAI k O l I A HAI GKA m O = FHE AH= LA GKA K = IK = @A
K I IA = K = AI ? m 2AH a b = (k l)1 = m1 = 0 a O b I @ELEI HAI @A 0 J=H GKA A AIJA ?=I R @A ?=H=?JAH IJE?= FHE = m A IK>= E FHE ?KAHF  FKAI AI EI HB = ?KAHF (Zm , +, )  = =@ IK>?KAHF FHE

(P, +, ) AI K

>IAHL=?E
- CA AH= A = E R AI K @K I >HA ?K= GKEAH IK>= E IK>= E FHE F H J= J IE R AI @A ?=H=?JAH IJE?= FHE = LA?J HE= I >HA A IK>?KAHF FHE A F=HJE?K =H I >HA IK A J ?AI R AI K AIF=?E

+=I R = k ?

k ?KAHF
J= J AI @A ?=H=?JAH IJE?= 0

JEA A @ELEI HAI @A 0 F H

p FHE =

 +=I ?=H=?JAH IJE?= p FHE = k IAH AIF=?E LA?J HE= I >HA A IK>?KAHF FHE kp = (Zp , +, ) )I k AI K = ANJA IE @A kp = Zp k IAH K A L LA?J HE= @A @E A IE EJ= n  F @H = JA AH K = >=IA E EJ=  I >HA kp 5E @E kp k = n A J ?AI k = kn p = (Zp ) ? AL +=I ?=H=?JAH IJE?= 0 ?K ?EA JAI A JHA A A A k = =@ IK>?KAHF K = ANJA IE @A k3 O - IK>= E FHE P AI EI HB = (Z, +, ) 5E J = I I J I @A P HAIK J= K IK>?KAHF A IK>?KAHF I FAGKA A FHE @A k  = J= I k3  GKA AI EI HB = (Q, +, ) k AI F H J= J K A L I >HA k3

6A HA = 
5E k AI K ?KAHF 2=H= = @A IJH=?E EJ A J ?AI |k| = pn @ @A p = ?=H(k) FHE I O1nN @A IECKEA JA JA HA = A?AIEJ=HA I IECKEA JAI HAIK J=@ I

A =
- ?=H=?JAH IJE?= p (a + b)p = ap + bp
i i i

iN

,A
(a + b)p =
p j =0

p j

aj bpj = ap + bp +
0<j<p

p j
0

aj bpj

2 H E @K??E

I >HA i IA ?

? KOA

+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

I=>AH IE K F E

E JEA A H= ?AI HAFAJE@=I

H= HAFAJE@= A J ?AI (x a)m q (x) = g (x)

5E g (x) k[x] JEA A = a ?

+K= @ k AI K ?KAHF @A E I = @AHEL=@= ? = E?= BK ?E k E A= D : k[x] n n 1 k[x] J= GKA D(x ) = nx A AH?E?E  5A FHKA>= B=?E A JA GKA IE f (x), g (x) k[x] A J ?AI D(f (x), g (x)) = D(f (x)) g (x) + f (x) D(g (x)) ,A = JAHE H ? ? KE I GKA a AI H= JEF A @A g (x) k[x] a AI H= @A g (x) O D(g (x))

6A HA =
p FHE n 1 D=O ?KAHF
EJ I F @A pn A A A J I

,A
, @A >KI?=H F = CA>H=E?= @A Zp Fp  FKAI @E
p

5E F ANEIJA @A>AH IAH K = ANJA IE EJ= ANJ = CA>H=E?=  + A ?A @A Zp 

F=n

EJ  ANJ

I ? K = Zp = ?AHH=@KH= = CA>H=E?= @A Zp  ANJ = CA>H=E?= I CH= @A F IE> A n = A Iq=p 3KAHA I >KI?=H A K = Zp K IK>?KAHF @A q A A A J I

2=H= = >KIGKA@= 5E F ANEIJEAH= J = I G = (F \ {0}, ) CHKF K JEF E?=JEL ? q 1 q A A A J I (x G) x = 1 x = x 6A @H = I A J ?AI (x F) xq = x 5A= =D H= f (x) = xq x Zp [x] K[x] 5A= F A ?KAHF @A @AI? F IE?E FKA@A >KI?=H @A JH @A K  IJHA I GKA F = {H= ?AI @A xq x}

q1

@A xq x  IA

{H= ?AI @A xq x} AI ?KAHF

5E a, b {H= ?AI @A xq x}

A ABA?J

(a b)q = aq bq = a b a b {H= ?AI @A xq x}

1 q 5E a = 0 ( a ) = 1 aq

1 a

a JEA A E LAHI A {H= ?AI @A xq x}

1q = 1 1 {H= ?AI @A xq x} 0q = 0 0 {H= ?AI @A xq x} 2 H A A = = JAHE H (a + b)q = aq + bq = a + b (a + b) {H= ?AI @A xq x} (a)q = (1)q aq = (1)q a 5E p 3 , (1)q = 1 (a)q = a 5E p = 2 , (a)q = a FAH a + a = 0 a = a (a)q = a {H= ?AI @A xq x}

F H

J= J a

!! )I +K

)2 1+)+1

) +7-42 5 .1 16 5

 !

{H= ?AI @A xq x} AI ?KAHF

J I A A A J I JEA A E@A= AI GKA JA C= q A A A J I AI @A?EH GKA IA= q H= ?AI @EIJE J=I

2=H= AIJ ?= ?K A I = @AHEL=@= @A f (x) = xq x H= ?AI F H J= J f (x) JEA A H= ?AI HAFAJE@=I 2 @A I? ? KEH A J

Df (x) = qxq1 1 = 1

JEA A

?AI GKA F = {H= ?AI @A xq x} AI K ?KAHF ?

q = pn A A A J I

6A HA = !
5E p AI FHE On1 A J ?AI @ I ?KAHF I ?K= GKEAH= K O F ?

pn A A A J I I

EI

HB I

,A
I A A A J I @A F O @A K I=JEIB=?A = A?K=?E xq x = 0 2AH xq x Zp [x] JEA A = I q H= ?AI O A F  O J= >E A K  D=O q H= ?AI F H J= J F  O J= >E K  AI ?KAHF @A @AI? F IE?E @A xq x I >HA Zp F H J= J F =K

J=?E
6A HA = "

5E q = pn IA IKA A =

J=H ?

Fq = ?KAHF

EJ ?

q AA A J I

 5A= F K IK>?KAHF @A Fq

- J

?AI |F| = pj

j/n

j/n ! IK>?KAHF F @A Fq ?

r = pj A A A J I

,A
= @A ?E AI IJH=?E GKA@= @A A AH?E?E FAH IA FKA@A J =H A ?KA J= =I IECKEA JAI E @E?=

 5E k K E A J

?AI [E : k] = [E : K] [K : k] I IE G AI CHKF =>A E= lAA A J I ?

2H >=H GKA (r 1)/(q 1) =@A O l/m A J ?AI ANEIJA H G ?

m = q1 AA A J I

-A F
-IJHK?JKH= @A 5K>CHKF I @A F12

 "
F 12 p

+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

F 6 p

F 4 p

F 3 p

F 2 p

F p

- AH?E?E
5E k AI K ?KAHF ?K= GKEAH= O (G, ) (kx , ) AI K IK>CHKF (G, ) AI ? ? E? K JEF E?=JEL EJ A J ?AI

,A
+

(G, ) AI

EJ

(G, ) AI ? ? E? IIE (G, ) = (Zn , +) ?

n = |G|
I @EIJE J I A JHA IE

l 1 5A= n = p = @AI? F IE?E @A n A FH @K?J @A FHE 1 pl Zn = Z 1 l = Z 1 Z l p1 pl p1 pl Tp1 (

n)

Tpl (

n)

GKA D=HA I F=H= = @A IJH=?E AI A J ?AI J =H K = ? F j Tp (G) = {a G/ap = 1, = C j } @A G O FH >=H GKA AI ? ? E? 5A= H = Tp (G) K = ? F A JA p G/O(< {x} >) = pj = C j } 5E H BKAH= ? ? E? ? GKAHA H@A @A A A A J I A H I FHE =HE= A J
j

A JA FHE =HE= ?K= GKEAH= =C

H = {x G/xp = 1 O(a) = pl

j } = {x
NE

?AI H =< {a} >

pl IAH A

5A= pl = =N{O(x)/x H} O a K A A A J @A H @A H@A pl + =H= A JA l | < {a} > |/|H| )@A I (x H) xp = 1 FKAI O(x) = pj pl

pl = O(a) =

4A? H@=H GKA H AI IK>CHKF @A (kx , ) )I I A A A J I @A H I H= ?AI A k @A F E E pl l l x 1 O AIJA F E E FKA@A JA AH I @A p H= ?AI |H| p F H J= J |H| = pl O? A IK>CHKF < {a} > H JEA A J= >E pl A A A J I < {a} >= H

!!

)2 1+)+1

) +7-42 5 .1 16 5

 #

- AH?E?E
 5A= K|k K = ANJA IE @A ?KAHF I ? K = k  ?AHH=@KH= = CA>H=E?= @A k  5A= a K O IA= p(x) A F E E E @A a A k[x] 5E r AI = K JEF E?E@=@ @A p(x)  E A A = @AI? F IE?E @A p(x) A K[x] (x a) =F=HA?A A AL=@ = r  A J ?AI J @=I =I H= ?AI @A p(x) A K JEA A K JEF E?E@=@ r +=H(k) = 0 r = 1

,A


p(x) = (x a1 )r1 (x al )rl A K[x] ? a1 . . . al =I H= ?AI @A p(x) A K[x] @A K JEF E?E@=@AI r1 . . . rl HAIFA?JEL= A JA 2 @A I J =H a1 = a O F H J= J r1 = r
A

-IJ= @AI? F IE?E @A p(x) AI L E@= J= >E @AI? F IE?E @A p(x) 

E = k(a1 . . . al ) K

A ?KAHF @A

8A= I GKA ?KHHA IE ANEIJA K = E AHIE I >HA k : E E J= GKA (a1 ) = a2 5E J= ? I= ?KHHEAH= p(x) = (x a1 )r1 (x al )rl = p (x) = (x (a1 ))r1 (x (al ))rl = (x a2 )r1 (x (a2 ))r2 (x (al ))rl JH= @AI? F IE?E A B=?J HAI E A= AI @A p(x) A E[x] @A>A IAH = EI = I= L A H@A @A I B=?J HAI A B=?J H (x a2 )r2 @A = FHE AH= @AI? F IE?E @A>A ? E ?E@EH ? A B=?J H (x a2 )r1 @A = KAL= @AI? F IE?E r1 = r2 + AIJ FH >=H = I  @A A AH?E?E *KI?= I

KAIJH= IEJK=?E

AI

 $
K

+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

K=k

2HE AH

ANJA @=

I E ? KIE

 = a2 : k(a) K

>JA A

K E

k(a) a 2

K=k

KI= @ A + H =HE F @A I ANJA @AH = E AHIE @A k(a) AC= I = : E K ANJA IE @A a2

a2 = J @= = ANJA IE

= CA>H=E?= E

!!

)2 1+)+1

) +7-42 5 .1 16 5
K E

 %

k(a)

K=k

ANJEA @A = E ? KIE (E) E

O =@A

I (a) = (a2 )

E? FH > A = AI ?

=IACKH=H GKA

E = k(a1 . . . al ) (E) = k( (a1 ) . . . (al ))

3K L= HAI JEA A (a1 ) . . . (al )

p(x) = (x a1 )r1 (x al )rl p(x) = p (x) = (x (a1 ))r1 (x (al ))rl A K[x] (a1 ) . . . (al ) I =I H= ?AI @A p(x) A K (E) = k( (a1 ) . . . (al )) = k(a1 . . . al ) = E
)I
E

2 H

J= J

r1 = r2  @A

EI

r1 = rj j = 1 . . . l 
-I @A?EH IE p(x) k[x] AI EHHA@K?E> A @A

0=O GKA FH >=H GKA A ?=H=?JAH IJE?= 0 r = 1 CH=@ 1 JEA A H= ?AI HAFAJE@=I

p(x) = xn + an1 xn1 + + ao k[x] EHHA@K?E> A Dp(x) = nxn1 + (n 1)an1 xn2 + + a1 k[x]
5E a k AI H= HAFAJE@= @A p(x) A J ?AI J= >E CH(p(x)) GKA ? JH=@E?A GKA p(x) IA= A F E AI H= @A Dp(x) FKAI CH(Dp(x)) < E E @A a

 &

+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

-A F

@A K F E

E EHHA@K?E> A ?
=x
p(x) q (x) 2

H= ?AI
- J ?AI

JEF AI
J =H k = Z2 (x) = JEA A H= ?K=@H=@= A k  AI

5A= K A A A J
p(x) /p(x), q (x) q (x)

= CA>H=E? I >HA Z2 = F2 O k = Z2 ()  - A F ?

Z2 [x], q (x) = 0

@A?EH x J=H GKA 6 A -NJA @=

IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH ? IA F E

p(x), q (x) Z2 [x] 

?K=@H=@=

+=Hk = 2  IK IK>?KAHF FHE E p(x) = x2 k[x] I k = E = k(b) ?

AI Z2  O JEA A K A A A J IE H=

p(x) AI EHHA@K?E> A
I A ?=H=?JAH IJE?=

b H=

@A p(x)

b2 = 0 A E b2 = p(x) = x2 b2 A E[x] 2AH AIJ= 2 p(x) = x2 b2 = (x b)2 b AI K = H= @ > A @A p(x)

>IAHL=?E
5E +=Hk = p H I

k k AI K j x xp =@EJEL E OA?JEL 5E =@A I k AI

= BK ?E

H I

@A ?KAHF I (y + z )p = y p + z p AI K

EJ AI I >HAOA?JEL

- F=HJE?K =H IE k AI pj IE = A k  A k 4AJ A

EJ O +=Hk = p J @ A A A J @A k JEA A H= AI @A ?KAHF I

IE =  O J= >E

I = JA H = @A ANJA IE

6A HA =
=I IECKEA JAI FH FEA@=@AI @A K = ANJA IE  K AI ?KAHF @A @AI? ? A ?EA JAI A k F IE?E = CA>H=E?= K|k I AGKEL= A JAI E I EHHA@K?E> AI = IA @AI? F A

I >HA k @A K = B= E E= @A F E

6 @ F E E EHHA@K?E> A p(x) k[x] GKA JEA A K = H= ? F AJ= A JA A B=?J HAI E A= AI A K[x]

a K

! 5A= k K = ?AHH=@KH= = CA>H=E?= @A k GKA ? JEA A = K  F H A A F E AHIE : K k I >HA k AI K =KJ H I @A K

k= K  ?K= GKEAH

,A
2. 1.
5A= F = B= E E= @A J @ I I F E E I EHHA@K?E> AI p(x) k[x] GKA JEA A K = H= a K 2. @E?A GKA ?=@= F E E @A AIJ= B= E E= IA @AI? F A A B=?J HAI E A= AI A K[x] 5KI H= ?AI CA AH= K I >HA k FKAI J @ a K AI H= @A = C F E E EHHA@K?E> A A k[x] IK F E E E A k[x]

3. 2.

!!

)2 1+)+1

) +7-42 5 .1 16 5
K

 '

5A= p(x) k[x] EHHA@K?E> A ? K = H= a K 5=>A A B=?J HAI E A= AI p(x) = (x a1 ) (x an ) A?AIEJ= I FH >=H GKA a1 . . . an

I GKA A k[x] p(x) IA @AI? A Kk

=I H= ?AI @A p(x) AIJ

+ K =HCK A J O= KI=@ = JAI IA FKA@A ANJA @AH = E ? KIE k k = K H I :Kk a2 : k(a) k J= GKA a2 (a) = a2 O KAC AIJA = K

H I

K k(a) a 2 k

AI K = ANJA IE @A a2 (a) = a2 (a) = a2 a2 K  EI F=H= a3 . . . an  1.) 3.)

FAH 3. @E?A GKA (K) = K F H

J= J

K AI ?KAHF @A @AI? F IE?E @A {f (x)} B= E E= @A F E K IA CA AH= I >HA k ? =I H= ?AI @A I f

2H >A I A J ?AI GKA IE a1 . . . an I =I H= ?AI @A K K f (x) = (x a1 ) (x an ) A K[x] k + IE@AHA I K[x] k[x] p(x) p (x)

E I EHHA@K?E> AI A J

?AI

@A AIJ I f A J

?AI (a1 ) . . . (an )

!
f (x) K

+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

k f (x)

k f (x)

f (x) = (x a1 ) (x an ) A K[x]
f (x) = (x (a1 )) (x (an )) A k[x]

6A A I @ I @AI? F IE?E AI @A EI F E i j J= GKA (ai ) = aj K (K) K 6A A IA J ?AI A IECKEA JA @E=CH= =

K inm. k

E A k[x] I

ECK= AI I= L

H@A

K|

algebraica

AHIE

I >HA k K|k = CA>H=E?= F H K A AH?E?E = JAHE H AI =KJ

H I

,A

E?E
= CA>H=E?= ? AIJ=I JHAI FH FEA@=@AI AGKEL= A JAI IA @E?A

7 = ANJA IE

H =

>IAHL=?E
4A? H@A I =I JHAI FH FEA@=@AI AGKEL= A JAI GKA ?=H=?JAHE = = K = ANJA IE H = = - = FH FEA@=@  = B= E E= @A F E E I EHHA@K?E> AI FKA@A J =HIA ? K = B= E E= @A F E E I ?K= GKEAH= E A = BH=IA
F E E I EHHA@K?E> AI FKA@A IAH HAA F = =@= F H
F E E I

!! > A

)2 1+)+1 = FH FEA@=@

) +7-42 5 .1 16 5 IA FKA@A A E E =H = F= =>H= EHHA@K?E> A ,A IK AA F

! @A

5A= a k O q (x) k[x] J= GKA AIJA JE JA C= H= ?AI A K 5A= p(x) = (x a)q (x) p(x) k[x]  ALE@A JA A JA AI EHHA@K?E> A p(x) JEA A K = H= a K O IA @AI? F A A B=?J HAI E A= AI A k[x]

-A F
6 @= ANJA IE

K|k @A CH=@ 2  E A [K : k] = 2  AI

H =

,A
5A= p(x) k[x] EHHA@K?E> A ? IK F E E E I >HA k ) H = I GKA CH(p(x)) = 2 = CK = H=

a K 5KF

C=

I GKA a / k

IE@AHA

k k(a)
CH=@ @A F . E .

K
I k(a) = K

k(a) = k[x]/(p(x)) =@A

[K : k] = [K : k(a)][k(a) : k] [k(a) : k] = 2
1

-A F
@A K = ANJA IE GKA AI H = K = ANJA IE @A Q 5A= p(x) = x4 2 Q[x] + IE@AHA I Q[4 2] = Q(4 2) ? LA= I GKA AIJA F E E AI EHHA@K?E> A A Q[x] p(x) = (x 4 2)(x +4 2)(x i4 2)(x + i4 2) A C[x] -I B ?E LAH GKA E C FH @K?J @A AIJ I ?K=JH A Q[x] p(x) AI A F E E B=?J HAI  AN?AFJ @A I ?K=JH K J I AIJ 4 4 >HA Q IE A >=HC p ( x ) JEA A K = H= 2 A Q [ 2] R FAH =I E @A 4 2 I @ I IECKEA JAI i4 2 i4 2 J=H GKA Q Q[ 2] Q[4 2] ) >=I ANJA IE AI A = ?=@A = Q( 2)|3 O Q(4 2)|3(2) I @A CH=@ F H J= J H = AI 5E A >=HC Q(4 2)|3 AI + JE KA I? A AIJK@E @A ANJA IE AI @A E AHIE AI -A F

!
K

+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

k(a) b L

EI

@E=CH= =

K ext. algebraica

L ext. algebraicamente cerrada de (k)

isom. de cuerpos

(k)

J=H GKA @=@ GKA K|k AI ANJA IE = CA>H=E?= A J ?AI (k) AI ANJA IE = CA>H=E?= @A (k) = (k) F H J= J (k)
+ =KIKH= = CA>H=E?= @A (k) @A JH @A L )I L IA FKA@A HAA F = =H  O = CA>H=E?= (k) L 5KF @HA 3K IK?A@A IE JA A IA FEAH@A E IA C= = ANJA IE AI @A  F H = ? =KIKH= IA GKA IECKA GKA L = (k) AI ? =I = JAHE HAI

I @ I IEJK=?E

!!

)2 1+)+1

) +7-42 5 .1 16 5

!!

(k)

(k)

-1

2 H A ? H =HE A EI H I 1 : (k) (k) IA ANJEA @A = K EI H I : L L  @=@ GKA L =@A I @A IAH = CA>H=E?= A JA ?AHH=@ AI = CA>H=E? I >HA (k) O L =@A I @A IAH = CA>H=E? I >HA (k)= AI = CA>H=E?= A JA ?AHH=@  5E @A E I I IECKEA JAI ? K J I AHIE AHIE ANJA IE ANJA IE @A @A AI K = >EOA??E AH -NJ( ) = { : K L/ AI K = E -NJ( ) = { : K L / AI K = E 5A @A@K?A A J ?AI GKA = BK ?E

: -NJ( ) -NJ( ) =

- K ?=I IE F A K = k(a) a = CA>H=E? I >HA k @A ANJA IE AI @A

k(a)

3K IA FKA@A @A?EH I >HA A

k = id k

5E p(x) AI A F E E E @A a @A A = F H ?=@= H= b @A p (x) D=O K = O I K = ANJA IE b : k(a) k O AIJ=I I J @=I =I ANJA IE AI @A GKA D=O 2 H J= J JEA A J= J=I ANJA IE AI ? A AH @A H= ?AI @EIJE J=I A JHA IE @A p(x) 5=>A I GKA J @=I =I H= ?AI @A p(x) JEA A K JEF E?E@=@ r F H J= J IE =I H= ?AI @EIJE J=I @A r p(x) I b1 . . . bl p(x) = [(x a1 ) (x an )] F H J= J CH(p(x)) = r l = n AH @A ANJA IE AI AI n

!"

+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

,A

E?E
I CH=@ @A IAF=H=>E E@=@ @A = ANJA IE k(a)|k = AH @A ANJA IE I [k(a) : k]s [k(a) : k] J=H GKA [k(a) : k]s /[k(a) : k] E?E IA CA AH= E = F=H= ?K= GKEAH ANJA IE AI @A

= = ) J= -IJ= @A

K|k

2H F
5A= k K E K = ?=@A = @A ANJA IE  [E : k]s = [K : k]s [E : K]s 5E K AI K = ANJA IE EJ= [K : k]s [K : k]s AI = CA>H=E?=I - J ?AI

,A
2H >A 6A A I = F=HJEH @A  EJ= K = k(a1 . . . an ) ?

K ANJA IE

a1 . . . an = CA>H=E? I I >HA k

I = IECKEA JA ?=@A = @A AIJ I F=I I =F E?=

H @A

k k(a1 ) k(a1 an1 )(an ) = K

- ?=@= K I GKA [k(a) : k]s /[k(a) : k] >JA A I

[k(a1 ) : k]s @ELEI

[k(a1 ) : k] [k(a1 . . . an ) : k(a1 . . . an1 )]

[k(a1 . . . an ) : k(a1 . . . an1 )]s @ELEI

K JEF E?= @ O KI= @ 

H @A

[K : k]s @ELEI
,A IJHA

H @A

[K : k]

I
E

ij K i L = (k) k

!!

)2 1+)+1

) +7-42 5 .1 16 5

!#

5A= -NJ( ) = {i }iI = B= E E= @A J @=I =I ANJA IE AI @A = H I I @A K A L [K : k]s = |-NJ( )| = |I | 2=H= ?=@= i I IA= -NJ(i ) = {ij }j Ji = B= E E= @A ANJA IE AI @A i = E AHIE AI @A E A L (i I ) [E : K]s = |-NJ(i )| = |Ji | - J ?AI = = @ -NJE ( ) = = B= E E= @A J @=I =I ANJA IE AI F IE> AI @A = K H I @A E A L HAIK J= -NJE ( ) = {ij : i I, j Ji } O |-NJE ( )| = [E : k]s = | Ji | = |Ji | = |I |[E : K]s = [K :

k]s [E : k]s

iI

iI

,A

E?E
EJ= K|k IA @E?A IAF=H=> A IIE [K : k]s = [K : k]

7 = ANJA IE

5E E|k AI K = ANJA IE = CA>H=E?= @A k K A A A J a E IA @E?A IAF=H=> A I >HA k IIE k(a)|k AI K = ANJA IE IAF=H=> A IIE A F E E E @A a A k[x] JEA A H= ?AI HAFAJE@=I 7 F E E f (x) k[x] IA @E?A IAF=H=> A IIE f (x) ?KAHF @A @AI? F IE?E
JEA A H= ?AI HAFAJE@=I A IK

5E K|k AI K = ANJA IE = CA>H=E?=  EJ= E EJ= @A?E I GKA AI IAF=H=> A IE J @= IK>ANJA IE EJ= AI IAF=H=> A  E A IE IK>?KAHF k F K F|k AI IAF=H=> A

2H FEA@=@AI IE F AI
 5E k K E AI K = ?=@A = @A ANJA IE O K|k I IAF=H=> AI AI EJ=I A J ?AI E|k AI IAF=H=> A E|K A J ?AI IE a E AI

5E k K E AI K = ?=@A = @A ANJA IE IAF=H=> A I >HA k J= >E AI I >HA K

AI = CA>H=E?=I

,A
2=H= @A ,A IJHA IJH=H  I E A K[x] A J ?AI pK (x) KI=H IECKEA JA

[E : k]s = [E : K]s [K : k]s

[E : k] = [E : K] [K : k]

5E pk (x) AI A F E E E @A a A k[x] O pK (x) AI IK F E E pK (x)/pk (x) A K[x] F H J= J IE pk (x) JEA A H= ?AI HAFAJE@=I J= F ?

2H F
7 = ANJA IE = CA>H=E?= K|k AI IAF=H=> A IIE J @= a K AI IAF=H=> A I >HA k

!$

+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

,A
) k(a) AI ANJA IE IAF=H=> A )
5A= F|k K = IK>ANJA IE EJ= @A K|k 6A A I = IECKEA JA ?=@A = - J ?AI F = k(a1 . . . an ) ? EJ= IE >HA k F H J= J F H @A E?E @A K|k IAF=H=> A @A>A IAH

a1 . . . an K

k k(a1 ) k(a1 , a2 ) . . . F
)F E?= @ =I @ I FH FEA@=@AI = JAHE HAI IA ? ? KOA

2H F
 5A= K = k(a : ) ANJA IE @A k F H = B= E E= {a } @A A A A J I = CA>H=E? I - J ?AI K|k AI IAF=H=> A a IAF=H=> A 5E k K E AI K = ?=@A = @A ANJA IE E|K O K|k I IAF=H=> AI = @A IJH=?E GKA@= @A A AH?E?E AI = CA>H=E?=I A J ?AI E|k AI IAF=H=> A

>IAHL=?E
- ?KAHF I @A ?=H=?JAH IJE?= 0 IF E E I EHHA@K?E> AI JEA A H= ?AI IE F AI  F H J= J J @= ANJA IE = CA>H=E?= A ?=H=?JAH IJE?= 0 AI IAF=H=> A HAFAJE@=I

-A F
-NJA IE H =
CA AH=@= F H K = ANJA IE EJ= A?AI=HE= A JA EJ= K|k H = 5A= K|k K = ANJA IE

K K=k

!!

)2 1+)+1

) +7-42 5 .1 16 5

!%

2H >=H GKA A ?KAHF E IK>?KAHF @A K CA AH=@ F H { (K)/ E AHIE @A K A K I >HA k} AI K = ANJA IE EJ= @A K H = I >HA k O = A H F IE> A 6A A I

K E=K=k

5E ANEIJA J= E AIJA @A>A ? JA AH = (K) : K K E AHIE I >HA k - ABA?J IE : K K AI E AHIE I >HA k @A>A F @AH ANJA @AHIA = : E K E AHIE I >HA k O F H = H = E@=@ @A E|k (E) = E (K) = (K) (E) = E J=H GKA J= AI E AHIE AI : K K I >HA k I K AH EJ 0=O [K : k]s [K : k] < 5A= 1 . . . r J= AI E AHIE AI 5A= E A ?KAHF I FAGKA GKA ? JEA A = 1 (K) . . . r (K) IK>?KAHF @A K  5E E|k AI H = >KI?= I

,A

E?E

5A= K1 , K2 @ I IK>?KAHF I @A K ?KAHF L - ? FKAIJ @A K1 O K2 GKA IA = J= K1 K2  K1 K2  AI A IK>?KAHF I FAGKA @A L GKA ? JEA A = K1 O = K2 -IJA IK>?KAHF AI

K1 K2 =

2 2 xi yi /xi , x j xi yi

K1 , yi , yj K2 ,

xi yi = 0

K1 K2 = K1 (K2 ) = K2 (K1 ) O K1 K2 Kn = Kn ( K3 (K2 K1 ) )

- A ?=I @A A A F

E = 1 (K) r (K)

2H >=HA

I KAC GKA E|k AI ANJA IE

EJ=

!&
E

+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

K E=k

5A= : E E K = E

AHIE

I >HA k

(E) = ( 1 (K) r (K)) = (1 (K)) (2 (K)) (r (K)) = 1 (K) 2 (K) r (K)

K 1 E E

1
AI E AHIE I >HA k AI = C

+ AI E OA?JEL= i = j i = j |{ i /i = 1 . . . r}| = r F H J= J { i /i = 1 . . . r} = {i /i = 1 . . . r} 1 (K) 2 (K) r (K) = 1 (K) r (K) = E 5 A J HAIJ= LAH GKA IE K1 |k O K2 |k I @ I ANJA IE AI EJ=I @A k, ? k, K1 , K2 L ?KAHF ?AI K1 K2 |k AI ANJA IE EJ= [K1 K2 : k] = [K1 K2 : K1 ] [K2 : k] -IFAH=H = I GKA
EJ

[K1 K2 : K1 ] [K1 : k] 1) 5E K1 = k(a) K1 K2 = k(a)K2 = K2 (k(a)) = K2 (a)

CH(q (x)),q (x)K2 [x] CH(p(x))

KAC

[K2 (a) : K2 ] [k(a) : k] q (x)/p(x) 2) [K2 (a) : K2 ] [k(a) : k] [K2 (a1 , a2 ) : K2 ] = [K2 (a1 , a2 ) : K2 (a2 )][K2 (a2 ) : K2 ] [k(a1 a2 ) : k(a2 )][k(a2 ) : k] = [k(a1 a2 ) : k]
2 H )I J= J

[K1 K2 : k] [K1 : k][K2 : k] [1 (K) . . . r (K) : k] [K : k]r

F HAA F

!!

)2 1+)+1

) +7-42 5 .1 16 5

!'

,A

E?E

5A= K|k ANJA IE @A ?KAHF I 7 A A A J a K IA @E?A FHE EJEL F=H= K|k IIE K = k(a) - J= ?=I K|k IA = = ANJA IE FHE EJEL=

6A HA = @A A A A J FHE EJEL
5A= K|k ANJA IE = CA>H=E?=

 K|k AI FHE EJEL= IIE ANEIJA K AH EJ @A

?KAHF I E JAH A@E I F=H= = ANJA IE -I @A?EH |{F?KAHF /k F K}| < 5E = ANJA IE

K|k AI

EJ= IAF=H=> A A J

?AI AI FHE EJEL=

,A
+=I K EJ IEA FHA JEA A FHE EJEL I AI CHKF EJ AI ? ? E? a K \ {0} J= GKA K \ {0} = E? D= FH >=H AI GKA J @= ANJA IE + IE@AHA I (K \ {0}, ) {an : n N} K = k(a) +=I K ,A IJHA EJ I FHE AH  5A= p(x) k[x] A F E E E @A a E E @A a

)
= A A A J FHE EJEL K = k(a) 5E F AI ?KAHF E JAH A@E A F A J ?AI K = F(a) 5A= pF (x) F[x] A F E

kF A J

?AI ?

pF (x) IA = K = A a pF (x)/p(x)
 F H J= J I @A IJH= @

p(x) JEA A K AH EJ @A @ELEI HAI  A IK IK ?KAHF @A @AI? F IE?E IE FH >= I GKA F O F ?KAHF I E JAH A@E I pF (x) = pF (x) AIJ=H = 

8A= I GKA pF (x) @AJAH E = F 5A= F A ?KAHF ? IJHKE@ = F=HJEH @A k =CHAC= @ I ? A ?EA JAI @A F E E pF (x) F[x] >LE= A JA k F F FH >=HA I GKA A HA= E@=@ F = F + F IA ? IJHKOA = F=HJEH @A I ? A ?EA JAI @A pF (x) A J ?AI pF (x) F [x] =@A I pF (a) = 0 2AH J= >E pF (x) AI EHHA@K?E> A A F [x] F H J= J pF (x) AI A F E E E @A a A F [x] pF (x) = pF (x) )@A I F(a) = K = F (a) KAC

[K : F] = CH(pF (x)) = CH(pF (x)) = [K : F ] [K : F ] = [K : F][F : F ] [F : F ] = 1 F = F

" )I IE pF (x) AI A F E I ? A ?EA JAI @A pF (x)

+)2 67 E = ? A ?EA JAI A F[x] A J

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

?AI F AIJ CA AH=@ I >HA k F H

)
5E D=O K =C AH EJ @A ?KAHF I E JAH A@E I K = k(a) EJ K = k(a1 . . . an ) A n GKA (n N) IE K = k(a1 . . . an ) A J ?AI K = k(a) F=H=

[K : k]

2H >=HA =C a

I F H E @K??E

2=I ? =LA AI ?

n = 2  F=I E @K?JEL 

k(a1 . . . an+1 ) = k(a1 . . . an )(an+1 )

0 1 k(a1 . . . an ) = k(a )

k(a1 . . . an+1 ) = k(a1 . . . an )(an+1 ) = k(a an+1 ) = k(a )  n = 2  n=2

3KAHA I FH >=H GKA K = k(a1 , a2 ) = K = k(a) = C EJ k E EJ AH E EJ @A A A A J I 1 , 2 k

aK

)GK KI=HA

IKE

2=H= A k IA= a = a1 + a2 O IA= F = k(a ) = k(a1 + a2 ) -NEIJA K AH EJ @A IK>?KAHF I F O K 1 = 2 J= GKA F1 = F2 = F

a1 + 1 a2 F a1 + 2 a2 F
HAIJ= @

(1 2 )a2 F a2 F a1 = (a1 + 2 a2 ) 1 a2 a1 F
=0k F F

a1 , a2 F K F K
2H >A I EJ= IAF=H=> A [K : k]s = [K : k] = n
K i K=k k

K |k

0=O n E

AHIE

AI @EIJE J=I A JHA IE 1 . . . n : K K = k I >HA k IJH=?E = JAHE H >=IJ= FH >=H = FH FEA@=@ F=H= K = k(a1 , a2 ) O KAC

1CK= GKA A = @A =F E?=H E @K??E

!"

6- 4 ) ,- /)

15 E IECKEA JA

"

5A= f (x) K[x] A F E

f ( x) =
1ij n

((a1 + xa2 )i (a1 + xa2 )j ) K[x]

f (x) = 0 A K[x]
+

i < j i = j i (a1 ) = j (a1 ) i (a2 ) = j (a2 )

EJ @A

2 H J= J ?=@= B=?J H @A f (x) AI @EIJE J @A 0 f (x) JEA A I K AH H= ?AI A K ? k K AI E EJ D=>H = A I K k J= GKA f () = 0 2=H= AIJA : i (a1 + a2 ) = j (a1 + a2 ) F=H= i < j
a

{i (a)}n i=1

n A A A J I @EIJE J I A K
E E @A a pi (x) = p(x)

5E p(x) k[x] AI A F E

? p(a) = 0 p(i (a)) = pi (i (a)) = 0 KAC n A A A J I @EIJE J I 1 (a) . . . n (a) CH(p(x)) n [K : k] = n k(a) K

p(x) JEA A ?

H= ?AI =

I=

- AH?E?E

- ?

JH=H

I ?KAHF I E JAH A@E I @A Q[ 2, 3]|3

! " 6A H = @A /= EI
5A= K|k K = ANJA IE O IAF=H=> A @A ?KAHF I = CA>H=E?= = ANJA IE IA @E?A @A /= EI IIE AI H =

- /HKF @A /= EI @A K = ANJA IE K K/ AI =KJ H I I >HA k}

K|k AI F H @A
H I

E?E

G = /= (K|k ) = { :
A ?KAHF @A G AI

,=@ K ?KAHF K O G K CHKF @A =KJ KG = {x K/ (x) = x, G}

I @A K

"

+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

! "  6A HA = BK @= A J= @A = JA H = @A /= EI
5A= K|k K = ANJA IE EJ= @A /= EI - J ?AI = BK ?E GKA J = IK>CHKF I @A CHKF G = /= (K|k ) O A JHAC= ?KAHF I E JAH A@E I k F K @=@= F H H(IK>CHKF @A G) KH = F AI K = >EOA??E @A?HA?EA JA  E A H1 H2 KH1 KH2 

H IK>CHKF @A G

= ANJA IE

K|KH AI @A /= EI O /= (K|KH ) = H =@A

I |H| = [K : KH ]

2 H JH= F=HJA H G KH |k AI @A /= EI O IA JEA A K = >EOA??E A JHA IK>CHKF I H = AI H @A G O IK>ANJA IE AI @A /= EI F|k @A K|k )@A I ?K= @ H G G/H = /= (KH |k )

[ ]

|KH
IJH=H A JA HA = @A I K = =F E?=?E @A

) JAI @A @A

6A HA = BK @= A J= @A
R=C

CA>H=

,A
)F=HJA @A = JA H = @A CA>H= GKA KJE E =HA I A = @A FH FEA@=@AI IECKEA JAI  @A =JKH= A = J F CE?= @A R   6 @ r 0 A R JEA A AN=?J= A JA K = H= = IKF{q Q/q 0, q 2 r} 6 @ F E IJH=?E A?AIEJ=HA I =I @ I ABA?J

?K=@H=@= 0 A A I K = H=

R
A R

E p(x) R[x] @A CH=@ E F=H JEA A = E?

ao xn

p(x) = xn + an1 xn1 + + ao

5E x = 0 p(x) = xn 1 +
an1 x

n E F=H
? BK ?E

+ +

p(x)

p(x)

x p AI ?
JE K= x R J=

2 H J= J x1 , x2 R J= GKA p(x1 ) < 0 p(x2 ) > 0 O ? GKA p(x) = 0 J=H GKA @A  IA @A@K?A GKA J @ z C JEA A H= 5E z = a + bi A J ;F H C + J= J ?AI z = (x + yi)2 ?
+

?K=@H=@= A C
a+ a2 +b2 2

x + yi =

+ iIC (b)

a+ a2 +b2 2

?K= GKEAH A?K=?E JEA A ANJA IE

@A IACK @ CH=@ = ? A ?EA JAI A C JEA A IKI H= ?AI A AI @A CH=@ 2 O AIJ AGKEL= A = FH >=H GKA J @=

IA?KA ?E= C

2H >=H GKA R = C AGKEL= A = FH >=H GKA C = C ANJA IE EJ= E|+ AI C

!"

6- 4 ) ,- /)

15 EJ= @A C - J ?AI E AI K = ANJA IE EJ= @A R

"!

5A= E K = ANJA IE

+ = ?=H=?JAH IJE?= @A J @ I AIJ I ?KAHF I AI 0 J @=I =I NJA IE AI I FAH E|4 F @H = IAH H = F H J= J E|R F @H = IAH /= EI

IAF=H=> AI

7I= @ K A AH?E?E = JAHE H F @A I ANJA @AH E = =

ANJA IE H = CA AH=@= F H E K = 1 (E) r (E) ? 1 . . . r =I E LAHIE AI @A E A E I >HA R

K|4 AI @A /= EI G = /= (K|4 )
 2H >=HA

F H

J= J

F @A

I =F E?=H A JA HA = BK @= A J=

= A

I GKA |G| = 2m F=H= = C

m
?

5A= P G K 2 IK>CHKF @A 5O M |P| = 2r ? |G| = 2r l ?KAHF @A P F = KP = {x K/ (x) = x, P} 6 B @A /= EI KAC

l E F=H 5A= F A

K|F AI @A /= EI P = /= (K|F ) |P| = [K : F]

[K: ] [K:F]

[F : R] =

4 =

2r l 2r

=l

,A@K?EHA

I KI= @

GKA F = R

5A= a F O p(x) IK F E E E A R[x] CH(p(x)) = [R(a) : R]/[F : R] E F=H CH(p(x)) AI E F=H p(x) JEA A = CK = H= A R 2AH p(x) AI EHHA@K?E> A A R p(x) = x a  CH=@  a R l = 1 [K : R] = 2r J= @ GKA K AI ANJA IE + IE@AHA IK? @A E O F H @A C J= J

4] = 2 r 1 @A C IA JEA A [K : C] = [K: [+:4]

ANJA IE

) IAH R C K K|+ AI @A /= EI

5A= G = /= (K|+ ) |G| = [K : C] = 2r1 G AI K 2 CHKF O JA @H IK>CHKF I  H = AI A G  @A J @ I I H@A AI E JAH A@E I - F=HJE?K =H H G J= GKA |H| = 2r2  = A I GKA r = 1 O K = C  5A= L = KH 2r2 = |H| = [K : L] [L : C] = GKA FKA@A IAH 2r1 = 1 K = C FKAI F H 
[K: ] [K:L]

+ =

2r1 2r2

=2
AI @A H@A

JEA A ANJA IE

F H

J= J

,A

IJH=?E

@A JA HA = BK @= A J= @A /= EI

A =
5A= K|k ANJA IE  KG = k 5E H AI IK>CHKF @A G O F = KH A J ?AI K|F AI ANJA IE @A /= EI @A /= EI O G = /= (K|k )

""

+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

,A


G = { : K K/ =KJ
G

H I

JG (x) = x x k} 2H >A I = JH= E ? KIE A k[x] a k k(a) = k [k(a) : k] = CH(p(x)) = 1 F H J= J D=O GKA FH >=H GKA p(x)

K = {x K/ (x) = x, G}
2 H @A E?E
G

@A G k KG E

5A= a K O p(x) IK F E + K|k AI IAF=H=> A JEA A K = I = H= a 2 H ?=@= H=

p(x) JEA A H= ?AI IE F AI

b K @A p(x) ! ANJA IE

@A = E ? KIE

k K = b : k(a) K
>LE= A JA @A K I >HA k E A E?=

K|k(a) AI = CA>H=E?= F H J= >E IAH K = ANJA IE K|k AI G

H = (K) = K

J= J b IA FKA@A ANJA @AH = : K K @A = E ? KIE k K 6A A IA J ?AI : K K =KJ H I

a KG (a) = a FAH @=@ GKA ANJEA @A = b (a) = b (a) = b b = a = H= @A p(x) AI a O F H IAH @A K JEFE?E@=@ 1 ? ? KE I GKA p(x) JEA A I K = H= k F K
2=H= = 3KAHA I @A IJH=H GKA F|k AI H = O IAF=H=> A  @A /= EI 

= IAF=H=>E E@=@ @A F|k IA @AIFHA @A @A = IAF=H=>E E@=@ @A K|k H = E@=@ @A K|F

K F K

5E : K K AI E F|k F @H = IAH

AHIE

I >HA F

AI I >HA k (K) = K F H

J= J

K|F AI

H =

H = 

!"

6- 4 ) ,- /)

15

"#

+ H =HE
5A= K|k ANJA IE AI @A /= EI O G = /= (K|k ) ,A = I I IECKEA JAI ? K J I O BK ?E

C = {F/ k F K ?KAHF E JAH A@E } A = {H/HIK>CHKF @A G} : C A F /= (K|F ) : C C AI E@C )I : A C H KH AI E OA?JEL= O AI I >HAOA?JEL=

,A
5A= F C F H @A A = = JAHE H )F E?= @  @A A =  = = ANJA IE

K|F AI @A /= EI 5A= H = /= (K|F )  H = (F)  K|F KH = F  ( (F)) = F 

- AH?E?E
5A= K|k ANJA IE @A /= EI O G = /= (K|k ) KH1 , F2 = KH2 - J ?AI  H1 H2 F1 F2 5A= H = H1 H2 O F = KH A J ?AI F = F1 F2 ?AI F = F1 F2 5A= H1 , H2 @ I IK>CHKF I @A G O F1 =

! 5E H = H1 H2 =< H1 H2 > O F = KH A J

A =
5A= K|k K = ANJA IE - J ?AI = ANJA IE = CA>H=E?= O IAF=H=> A J= GKA n 1, n N (a K)[k(a) : k] n K|k AI EJ= ? [K : k] n

,A
5A= r = =N{r/r = [k(a) : k] F=H= = C

a K} 5A= a K J= GKA [k(a) : k] = r

5KF C= I GKA k(a) = K 5A= b K \ k(a) 6 A I k(a, b) = k(a)(b) ANJA IE EJ= @A k IAF=H=> A JEA A A A A J I FHE EJEL I E A c k(a, b) K JG k(a, b) = k(c) 2AH k(a) k(a, b)  E ? KIE AIJHE?J= r = [k(a) : k] < [k(a, b) : k] = [k(c) : k] F H J= J K = k(a) [K : k] = r n

"$

+)2 67

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

6A HA = @A )HJE
5A= K K ?KAHF AI @A /= EI ? 5A= G K CHKF EJ @A =KJ H I /= (K|k ) = G [K : k] = |G| = n I @A K 5A= KG = k - J ?AI K|k

,A
5A= a K 5A= 1 . . . r K = ?= JE@=@ =NE = @A A A A J I @A G J= GKA 1 (a) . . . r (a) I J @ I @EIJE J I @A 0 J=H GKA = E@A JE@=@ AI K @A AIJ I r A A A J I 5A= p(x) = (x 1 (a)) (x r (a))

p(a) = 0

2=H= ?=@= G p (x) = (x 1 (a)) (x r (a)) F H J= J I A A A J I @A G @A = E L=HE= JAI I ? A ?EA JAI @A p(x) E A AIJ A k = KG F H J= J a AI = CA>H=E? I >HA k K|k AI = CA>H=E?= )@A I p(x) JEA A H= ?AI @EIJE J=I A K F H J= J q (x) A F E E GKA @ELE@A = p(x) JEA A H= ?AI IE F AI a AI IAF=H=> A K|k AI IAF=H=> A E @A a

2 H JE p(x) JEA A r H= ?AI A AH @A H= ?AI @A q (x) AI r CH(q (x)) r n [k(a) : k] n 2 H A A = K|k AI K = ANJA IE EJ= ? [K : k] n .= J= FH >=H G = /= (K|k ), [K : k] = |G| = n = E ? KIE

G /= (K|k ) AI @EHA?J=
J= J

n = |G| |/= (K|k )| = [K : k]s = [K : k] n F H

G = /= (K|k ) O [K : k] = n

+ H =HE
A C C F /= (K|F ) E@ H KH
2 H A JA HA = @A )HJE /= (K|KH ) = H  = ? F IE?E GKA B= J=>=  IE@AHA I = 2=H= JAH E =H @A FH >=H A JA HA = BK @= A J= @A = JA H = @A /= EI ? IECKEA JA IEJK=?E

isom.

k = (k)

!"

6- 4 ) ,- /)

15

"%

K|k ANJA IE

@A /= EI K |k AI @A /= EI

cuerpo intermedio

F = (F)

3K HA =?E

D=O A JHA /= (F|k ) O /= (F |k )

isom.

k = (k)

/= (F|k ) = /= (F |k ) +=I GKA I E JAHAI=H

/= (K|F ) = /= (K |F ) 1

"&
K

+)2 67
K

6- 4 ) ,- +7-42 5

/= (K|F ) 1 = /= (K|F )
5E K|k AI @A /= EI O F ?KAHF E JAH A@E FH FEA@=@ ? AIJ=I ? IE@AH=?E AI IA FHKA>= = IECKEA JA

2H F
5E K|k AI @A /= EI F ?KAHF E JAH A@E G = /= (K|k ) H = /= (K|F ) A J @A /= EI H G O A AIJA ?=I = HAIJHE??E G |F : F F AI K AFE G A /= (F|k ) ? H IK ? A O F|k AI @A /= EI G/H = /= (F|k ) ?AI F|k AI H I @A