Fire and smoke dynamics, principles and characteristics Unit 1

Factors and Principles in the Establishment and Development of Fire

Lecturer Jason Farrell Profession Civil Engineer Specializing in Multi-storey Buildings and Interior Fit Out Contact Information
 Cell No. :  Email :

321 1227 jasonafarrell@hotmail.com

Factors and Principles in the Establishment and Development of Fire

Fire losses can be one of the greatest threats to an industrial organization in terms of
 loss of life  financial losses  loss of property and property damage

Not only do they have to ensure that the property is adequately protected to prevent catastrophic financial losses to the organization, but there is also the moral obligation to protect the workers and members of the community from the devastating effects that a fire can have upon the entire community.

The adverse financial effects can be felt by an organization long after the fire is extinguished.

Financial losses to an organization due to fire:

Loss of assets (buildings, equipment etc) Loss of revenue (sales and production) Loss of earnings due to downtime Loss of share value/investor confidence Cost of cleanup/reconstruction Costs attributed to loss of life/injury and damage to third parties Etc.

Fire protection and prevention involves

 Recognizing situations that may result in an

unwanted fire,
 evaluating the potential for an unwanted event, and  developing control measures that can be used to

eliminate or reduce fire risks to an acceptable level.

Fire safety engineering achieves this by

 evaluating buildings to determine fire risks,  designing fire-detection-and suppression

systems, and
 researching materials and consumer products

In order to prevent fires from occurring and to extinguish them successfully an

understanding of the chemical and physical characteristics of fire is important.

The chemistry of fire involves the ways in which fires can be started and sustained at the molecular level of the fuel source. The physical aspects of fire involve its thermal properties, methods of heat transfer, and method of extinguishment.

Because fire is a chemical reaction, it is important to understand not only which hazardous materials pose fire hazards in the workplace but also the by-products of the combustion process. By-products of fire can often be more hazardous than the hazardous material involved in the fire.

Fire is the result of a chemical reaction between oxygen (or an oxidizing agent) in the atmosphere and fuel which has been sufficiently heated to achieve its ignition temperature.

There are four elements essential to initiate and sustain fire:

Oxygen Fuel Ignition source or energy source Chemical chain reaction

Oxygen Air is the most common source of oxygen with, on average, 21 percent of air being oxygen.

Sources of oxygen can also include oxidizers. Oxidizers are substances that acquire electrons from a fuel in a chemical reaction and release oxygen during combustion. Examples of common oxidizers include elements of fluorine, chlorine, hydrogen peroxide, nitric acid, sulphuric acid, and hydrofluoric acid.

Fuel Most fires involve a fuel that contains carbon and hydrogen, such as wood, paper, or flammable and combustible liquids and gases

Other potential fuel sources are combustible metals, such as aluminium or magnesium.

For fire-extinguishment purposes, the fuels are classified as follows:

 Class A: carbon-based products such as wood and paper  Class B: flammable gases and liquids  Class C: combustible materials where electricity may be present  Class D: combustible metals, such as aluminium, magnesium,

titanium, and zirconium

 Class K: liquid cooking media (Lard, cooking oil etc.)

Each fuel classification also has a unique symbol. Fire extinguishers are an example of a piece of equipment that uses these fuelclassification symbols.

Ignition source or energy source The source of energy that heats the material to its ignition is the ignition source or energy source.

Some examples of ignition sources for fires in industrial occupancies include excessive electrical current, heating equipment, flames and sparks, and lightning.

Ignition temperature:

The minimum temperature of a material required to initiate or cause self-sustained combustion of the material. Some examples of ignition temperatures of common building materials include
   

plywood (3900C), gypsum board (5650C), carpet (4120C) asphalt shingles (3780C)

Ignition temperature can vary Oxygen in the air is the main influencing factor: the richer the oxygen levels, the lower the ignition temperature. The rate of heat rise, the duration of heating, and the size and shape of material also influence ignition material.

It should also be noted that spontaneous ignition can occur when the ignition source is slow oxidation with very limited heat loss that produces a temperature rise above the ignition temperature of the material. An example of spontaneous ignition in industrial occupancies are oil-soaked rags stored in 55-gal. waste drums.

Chemical Chain Reaction Fire is self-perpetuating.

The chemical chain reaction occurs within the material itself when the fuel is broken down by heat, producing chemically reactive free radicals, which then combine with the oxidizer. Once a fire is started, the heat from the flame keeps the fuel at the ignition temperature. As such it continues to burn as long as there is fuel and oxygen around it

The flame heats any surrounding fuel so it releases gases as well. When the flame ignites the gases, the fire spreads.

Fire cannot exist without all of these elements in place and in the right proportions. Fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron.

Combustion can be defined as an exothermic chemical reaction between some substance and oxygen Combustion or burning is the sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat and conversion of chemicals.

To truly understand combustion, we must also understand oxidation. Oxidation can be defined as the chemical combination of any substance with an oxidizer. With combustion, the energy that accompanies oxidation is commonly given off as heat and light.

It is important to note that solids do not combust but rather gases released from the solid due to the application of heat. The heat provided during combustion provides the necessary energy for atoms in one gaseous compound to break their bonds with each other and recombine with available oxygen atoms in the air to form new compounds plus more heat.

Only some compounds will readily break apart and recombine in this way, the various atoms have to be attracted to each other in the right manner. For example, when you boil water, it takes the gaseous form of steam, but this gas doesn't react with oxygen in the air

There are four major products of combustion: heat, smoke, light, and fire gases. These products of combustion are critical for fire purposes not only in terms of extinguishment but also in terms of life safety and building design. The primary loss of life in a fire is due to the toxic fire gases. (carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide)

The rates of combustion of gases, liquids, and solids vary depending on several factors.
 Chemical composition of the fuel  The state of matter of the fuel (solid, liquid, gas)  The piloted ignition temperature and the un-

piloted ignition temperature  Fuel heat production  Concentration of oxygen/oxidizing agents present

The chemical composition of a material will determine how combustible it is It is also an important factor in determining how much heat output will be produced by combustible materials and how quickly a fire will grow and spread Materials composed of carbon and hydrogen are the most flammable These include organic materials as well as hydrocarbons

The state of matter of a fuel can affect how readily it ignites and affect the rate of heat production The rates of combustion of gases, liquids, and solids vary depending on several factors

For solids: The rate of combustion varies primarily based on the size of the solid particles

Smaller particles having a higher rate of combustion Fuel's shape also affects burning speed. Thin pieces of fuel burn more quickly than larger pieces because a larger proportion of their mass is exposed to oxygen at any moment. The moisture content and continuity of the solid particles also play an important role in the growth and development of fire

For Liquids The physical state of the liquid - whether the combustion occurs in a still pool, flowing current, or spray or foam

Vapour pressure The pressure at which the liquid begins to evaporate

For flammable gases, the rate of combustion varies based on the extent to which the gas mixes with air prior to combustion and on the degree of motion and turbulence of the gases. The ignitability of a flammable gas is affected by how closely the molecules of the gas are in comparison to surrounding air molecules

Different flammable fuels catch fire at different temperatures It takes a certain amount of heat energy to change any particular material into a gas, and even more heat energy to trigger the reaction with oxygen.

The necessary heat level varies depending on the nature of the molecules that make up the fuel. A fuel's piloted ignition temperature is the heat level required to form a gas that will ignite when exposed to a spark. At the unpiloted ignition temperature, which is much higher, the fuel ignites without a spark.

Fuel's heat production depends on how much energy the gases release in the combustion reaction and how quickly the fuel burns. Both factors largely depend on the fuel's composition. Some compounds react with oxygen in such a way that there is a lot of "extra heat energy" left over. Others emit a smaller amount of energy.

Similarly, the fuel's reaction with oxygen may happen very quickly, or it may happen more slowly. Presence of a fire suppression agent (for example, water) may extract heat from a heat from a fire and limit further production

As was mentioned previously the oxygen present in the combustion affects the rate of fire growth and development Too little oxygen will stifle fire development Too much oxygen can prevent ignitable molecule from coming into contact with one another

There are numerous heat sources in the work environment capable of starting a fire or keeping it burning once it is started. The following is a description of heat sources. 1. Chemical heat. Heat of combustion is the heat that is released during a substance s complete oxidation. Calorific values of fuel are expressed in joules per gram of material.
2.

Spontaneous heating. Spontaneous heating is the process by which a material increases temperature without drawing heat from its surroundings. If allowed to heat to combustion temperatures, spontaneous ignition can take place.

3.

Heat of decomposition. Heat of decomposition is the heat released by the decomposition of compounds that have been formed. Acetylene is an example of a product that, once it starts to decompose, generates heat. Heat of solution. This is heat released when a substance is dissolved in a solution. Electrical heat. Also called resistance heating, this is heat generated due to the resistance electricity encounters when traveling through a conductor. Arcing. Arcing occurs when electrical energy jumps across a gap in the circuit carrying the electrical energy.

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Sparking. This takes place when a voltage discharge is too high for a low-energy output. Static electrical charge. This is an electrical charge that accumulates on the surfaces of two materials that have been brought together, then separated. Lightning. This is the discharge of an electrical charge from a cloud to an opposite charge (i.e., another cloud or the ground). Mechanical heat. This is the mechanical energy used to overcome the resistance to motion when two solids are rubbed together; it is also known as frictional heat. Nuclear heat. This is heat energy released from the nucleus of an atom.

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Materials and processes commonly found in the industrial workplace pose unique fire hazards. Fire risk is minimized by controlling potential fuel and oxidizer sources and proper handling and storage of ignitable materials Work procedures involving housekeeping and the control of ignition sources should also be taken into account as an integral part of the fire-protection program. Industrial fire prevention must address the specific processes and hazards associated with each activity

The most common cause for fire in a facility result from electrical failures These include short circuits, ground faults, or other electrical failures. Each year, thirty thousand fires are recorded in the United States, and investigations have found that many of those were initiated from electrical sources (Jones and Jones 2000, 15)

Examples of sources of electrical fires in the workplace include the following:

      

Misuse of chords Poor Maintenance Ground Failure Damaged insulation Sparking Circuit Overload Short Circuit Arching

FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS AND COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS

Flammable and combustible liquids pose a unique hazard in the workplace primarily because of the amount of fuel they can provide for a fire and the relatively low heat source necessary to ignite the material. Flammable and combustible liquids are classified as either flammable or combustible based upon their flash point.

Flammable liquids are any liquids having a flash point below 1000F Flammable liquids are known as Class I liquids. Class I liquids are divided into three classes as follows :
Class IA shall include liquids having flash points below 73F and having a boiling point below 100F. 2. Class IB shall include liquids having flash points below 73F and having a boiling point at or above 100F. 3. Class IC shall include liquids having flash points at or above 73F and below 100F.
1.

Combustible liquids typically will require some external heating to produce a sufficient concentration of vapours Combustible liquids are any liquid having a flash point at or above 100F and are divided into two classes.

Two Classes of Combustible Liquids:

 Class II liquids include those liquids with flash

points at or above 100F and below 140F

 Class III liquids include those liquids with flash

points at or above 140F.

Hydrogen is a nontoxic, colorless gas with no odor. It is flammable and may form mixtures with air that are flammable or explosive. Hydrogen may react violently if combined with oxidizers, such as air, oxygen, and halogens.

Hydrogen can be found in a variety of industries serving a number of useful purposes. It can be stored in containers such as cylinders or it may be part of a tank, piping, and manifold system. Hydrogen can be used in a gaseous form or stored under pressure in a liquefied form. Regardless of the state it is stored in, hydrogen poses an extreme fire hazard

Acetylene consists of 92.3 percent by weight of carbon and 7.7 percent by weight of hydrogen Acetylene is most often associated with its use as a fuel in welding and cutting operations

Oxygen is a non-flammable gas, meaning that it does not burn Introducing pure oxygen to greases and oils can result in spontaneous combustion equipment making up a bulk oxygen system should be cleaned in order to remove oil, grease, or other readily oxidizable materials

Ammonium nitrate can be in the form of crystals, flakes, grains, or prills, including fertilizer grade, dynamite grade, nitrous-oxide grade, technical grade, and other mixtures containing 60 percent or more ammonium nitrate ammonium nitrate in the workplace poses a hazard it poses as an oxidizing agent and an explosion hazard

Fire protection begins during the preplanning phase of any new building design or remodelling. Construction can affect fire and smoke spread, life safety, and the extent of fire damage that will occur within the building

Fire in buildings adds to the fire problem for the following reasons
The building itself may burn. The contents of the building may be ignited. Occupants of the building may be trapped by the fire. The building structure may make it difficult to attack the fire. 5. The building may collapse in whole or part during the fire. 6. The fire may extend beyond the original point of origin to other buildings. 7. Firefighters may be injured or killed.
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Buildings are constructed of a variety of building materials, each of which influences how that building will be affected during a fire situation All materials can be damaged by fire even if they do not burn because all structural materials used in building construction are adversely affected by the elevated temperatures caused by a fire

Steel

In commercial construction, steel is the most common material used Steel is non-combustible and does not contribute fuel to a fire. Structural steel does have three characteristics that affect its performance when exposed to a fire.

Steel Cont d Characteristics of steel affected by Fire

1. Steel conducts heat, thereby aiding heat transfer 2. The high coefficient of expansion of steel causes

it to expand when heated causing stress on the members 3. steel will lose its strength when subjected to high temperatures

Wood

Wood is combustible, and as it burns, it loses its structural integrity Fire-retardant treatments may delay ignition and retard combustion when applied to wood A common fire-retardant treatment of wood is to impregnate the wood with mineral salts This treatment will reduce the wood s flame spread, but the wood is still combustible.

Masonry and Brick

Masonry and brick products are quite fire resistant, but they can spall when subjected to elevated temperatures from a fire Spalling is a loss of the surface of the brick and other masonry products Hollow concrete blocks also generally retain their structural integrity when exposed to a fire but can crack at elevated temperatures

Reinforced Concrete As a general rule, reinforced concrete is very fire resistant

The type of aggregate used in this reinforced concrete, its moisture content, and the fire loading will determine the member s fire resistance When exposed to a fire, however, the concrete and steel bond can fail, which can result in failures of the reinforced member, as well as spalling and some loss of strength

Gypsum Gypsum products include such products as plasterboard and plaster, both of which have overall excellent fire-resistive properties

These properties exist because gypsum has a high portion of chemically combined water, and when it is exposed to a fire, the evaporation of this water requires a great deal of heat energy

The NFPA has developed a classification system for building types. All buildings and structures shall be classified according to their type of construction

Building Types

Type I buildings commonly called fire resistive, have structural members such as the frame, walls, floors, and roof that are all noncombustible with a minimum specified fireresistive rating. In general, these Type I buildings will withstand fire for several hours without structural failure.

Type II is a construction type in which the structural elements are made entirely of noncombustible or limited-combustible materials, hence the common name noncombustible. Although the building materials are noncombustible, they do not have a sufficient fire-resistance rating to be classified as fire resistant. When exposed to a fire, the structure will not burn or contribute fuel to a fire involving contents, but it can collapse due to structural steel failure.

Type III, which is commonly called ordinary construction, is a construction type where the exterior walls are noncombustible with a minimum two-hour fire resistance, but the interior is constructed of combustible materials. The interior construction is typically made of wood joist and studs; therefore, the entire interior is easily destroyed by fire

Type IV is a construction type in which structural members are basically of unprotected wood with large cross-sectional areas, hence the common name of plank, timber, or mill construction. Bearing walls, bearing portions of walls, and exterior walls must be noncombustible and have at least a two-hour rating

Type V construction is a construction type where exterior walls and structural members are primarily made of wood or other combustible materials. Type V construction provides the lowest degree of fire protection