Active Microwave Circuit

1
Prof. Mohamed Essaaidi

Active Microwave Circuits
Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master
Abdelmalek Essaadi University
2
Outline
Introdution
Noise in microwave systems
Detectors and Mixers
PIN diode switches
PIN diode phase shifter
Microwave sources
3
INTRODUCTION
Any useful microwave system will require some
nonlinear and active components. Such devices include
diodes, transistors, and tubes, which can be used for
detection, mixing, amplification, frequency multiplication,
switching, and as sources.
Active circuits design is a broad and rapidly evolving
field, so we can only present some of the basic concepts
and principles here.
4
Noise :
the randommotions of charges
charge carriers in devices and materials.
Such motions can be caused by any of several mechanisms, leading to various
sources of noise:
Thermal noise is the most basic type of noise, being caused by thermal vibration
of bound charges. Also known as Johnson or Nyquist noise.
Shot noise is due to random fluctuations of charge carriers in an electron tube or
solid-state device.
NOISE IN MICROWAVE SYSTEMS
5
Flicker noise occurs in solid-state components and vacuum tubes. Flicker
noise power varies inversely with frequency, and so is often called 1/f-
noise.
Plasma noise is caused by random motion of charges in an ionized gas,
such as a plasma, the ionosphere, or sparking electrical contacts.
Quantum noise results from the quantized nature of charge carriers and
photons; often insignificant relative to other noise sources.
6
Noise Power and Equivalent Noise Temperature
Noise power (due to thermal noise)
The electrons in random motion, with a kinetic energy that is proportional to
the temperature.
These random motions produce small random voltage fluctuations at the
resistor terminals.
7
Plancks black body radiation law, rms voltage across a resistor
R is:
hf << kT at
microwave frequencies
/
4
1
n
hf kT
hfBR
V
e
=
Fig 1. A random voltage generated by a noisy resistor

8
Note:
This noise power is independent of frequency, and is referred to as a
``white`` noise source.
A noisy resistor can be replaced with a Thevenin equivalent circuit
consisting of noiseless resistor and a generator with a voltage given by Fig 1
.
Fig2. Equivalent circuit of noisy resistor delivering maximum power to a load
resistor through an ideal bandpass.
9
The maximum power delivered from the noisy resistor is:
If an arbitrary source of noise (thermal or nonthermal) is white, it can be
modeled as an equivalent thermal noise source, and characterized with an
equivalent noise temperature.
Fig3.The equivalent noise
temperature Te, of an arbitary
white noise source.
10
Active noise sources use a diode or tube to provide a calibrated
noise power output, and are useful for test and measurement
applications.
Active noise generators can be characterized by an equivalent
noise temperature, but a more common measure of noise power
for such components is the excess noise ratio (ENR) defined as :
0 0
0 0
( ) 10log 10log
n n
P P T T
ENR dB
p T

= =
11
Measurement of Noise Temperature by the Y-Factor Method.
In principle, the equivalent noise temperature of a component can be
determined by measuring the output power when a matched load at 0K is
connected at the input of the component.
If two loads at significantly different temperatures are available, then the
Y-factor method can be applied.
Fig.4.the Y-factor method for measuring the equivalent noise temperature of an amplifier.
12
The output power is:
Define the Y-factor as:
The equivalent noise temperature is:
1 1
2 2
e
e
P GkT B GkT B
P GkT B GkT B
= +
= +
1 1
2 2
1
e
e
T T P
Y
P T T
+
= = >
+
1 2
1
e
T YT
T
Y

13
Noise Figure.
NF is a measure of the degradation in the signal-to-noise ratio between the
input and the output of the component.
The signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio of desired signal power to undesired noise
power.
Noiseless network: the signal-to-noise ratio will be unchanged.
Noisy network: the output signal-to-noise ratio will be reduced.
The noise figure is a measure of this reduction and is defined as :
14
A figure of merit to measure the degradation of SNR of a system:
The input noise power is
The output noise power is
The output signal power is
The noise figure is:
Noise figure is defined for a matched input source, and for a noise source that
consists of a resistor at temperature
0
0 0
( )
1 1
i e e
i
S kGB T T T
F
kT B GS T
+
= = + >
0
290 T k =
)
0 0 e
N kGB T T = +
0 i
S GS =
0 i
N kT B =
15
Noise Figure of a Cascaded System.
Using Noise Temperatures, the Noise power at the output of
first stage is:
Since for noise figure calculations. The noise power
at the output of the second stage is :
1 1 0 1 1
=
e
N GkT B GkT B +
0
=
i
N kT B
0 2 1 2 2
=G
e
N N G kT B +
1 2 0 1 2
1
1
=G
e e
G kB T T T
G

+ +

' '
16
For the equivalent system we have
The noise temperature of the cascade system is
The Noise figure of the cascade system is
For an arbitrary number of stages:
)
0 1 2 0
=G
cas
N G kB T T +
e1 2
1
1
=T
cas e
T T
G
+
)
1 2
1
1
=F 1
cas
F F
G
+
3 2
1
1 1 2
1 1
=F ......
cas
F F
F
G GG

+ + +
2 3
e1
1 1 2
=T ........
e e
T T
T
G GG
+ + +
17
Diode Characteristics
A diode is basically a nonlinear resistor, with a DC V-I characteristic that
can be expressed as:
The diode voltage be
A Taylor series about Vo as follows:
The first derivative can be evaluated as
The second derivative is:
) )
1
V
s
I V I e
E
=
0
V V v = +
Fig(5).V-I characteristics of a diode
DETECTORS AND MIXERS
18
Then I(V) can be rewritten as the sum of the DC bias current I
o
, and an
AC current i:
A typical equivalent circuit for a diode is:
Fig.6. Equivalent AC circuit model for a diode.
19
Rectifier Application
A diode to convert a fraction of an RF input signal to DC power.
Voltage across the diode
Diode current
A Current sensitivity measure of the change in DC output current for a
given input RF power.
Current sensitivity
Voltage sensitivity
20
Detector application
The nonlinearity of diode demodulate an amplitude modulated RF carrier.
Diode current
Output spectrum
21
Mixer
A mixer uses the nonlinearity of diode to generate an output
spectrum consisting of the sum and difference frequencies of two
input signals.
Down-converter
Up-converter
22
Single-Ended Mixer
The diode current will consist of a constant DC bias term, and RF and LO signals
of frequencies, due to the term which is linear in v. The v
2
term will give rise to the
following output current:
23
The 2w
r
and 2w
0
terms will be filtered out
The most important terms are of the w
r
-w
0
and w
r
+w
0
type
In an up-converter w
0
+w
i
is the upper sideband and w
0
-w
i
is the lower
sideband
Conversion loss is defined as,
Mixer design involves matching all three ports
Noise characteristics of mixer can be critical
Good isolation between RF and LO ports
24
Balanced Mixer
Combines two or more identical single-ended mixers with a 3 dB hybrid
junction (90% or180%).
Can also give cancellation of AM noise from the local oscillator.
Photograph of a
microstrip circuit
25
Balanced mixer
circuit
The RF and LO voltages at the input of the hybrid can be expressed as:
The quadratic term of the diode V-I characteristic will give rise to the desired
mixer products, so we will consider only this term and assume identical diodes
so that diode current can be represented as:
26
After low-pass filtering, the remaining terms will be DC, noise, and IF
frequency terms:
Combining these currents gives the IF output as:
27
Other Types of Mixers:
There are several other mixer circuits that can be used to enhance or reduce
various modulation products and harmonics some of these are briefly described
below.
A circuits that is often used for subharmonically pumped mixers for millimeter
wave applications uses a back-to-back pair of diodes.
Antiparallel diode mixer
LO frequency is of usual LO frequency.
28
Double- balanced mixer
Can suppress even harmonics of both the LO and RF signals.
Better isolation between ports.
Requires 4 diodes; more LO power.
29
PIN DIODE SWITCHES
The PIN diode finds wide usage
in RF, UHF and microwave
circuits. It is fundamentally a
device whose impedance, at these
frequencies, is controlled by its DC
excitation. A unique feature of the
PIN diode is its ability to control
large amounts of RF power with
much lower levels of DC.
PIN Diode Fundamentals
30
PIN DIODE SWITCHES
When the diode is forward biased charge carriers are injected to the I-region
They do not immediately recombine
Finite quantity of charge remains stored which lowers the I-region resistivity
to a value , and leads to a low impedance state.
Forward Bias Model
f
R
f
R
31
PIN DIODE SWITCHES
The switching speed in any application depends on the driver circuit, as
well as the PIN diode. (Switching speeds of 10 ns or less are typical).
When the PIN diode is at reverse bias there is no stored charge in the I
region and the diode appears as a capacitor , and leads to a relatively high
diode impedance.
j
C
Reverse Bias Model
32
Single-pole switches
The bias signal must be applied to the diode with RF chokes and DC blocks to isolate
it from the RF signal.
Switches are used extensively in microwave systems, for directing signal or
power Flow between other components.
PIN diodes can be used to construct an electronic switching element easily
integrated with planar circuitry and capable of high-speed operation.
PIN DIODE SWITCHES
33
Ideally,a switch would have zero insertion loss in the ON state, and infinite attenuation in the OFF state
Equivalent circuits for the series (a) and shunt (b) switches
PIN DIODE SWITCHES
34
Several single-throw switches can be combined to form a variety Of multiple-throw
configuration.
SPDT PIN diode switchs
In operation, one diode is forward in the low impedance state, with the other
diode biased in the high impedance state
PIN DIODE SWITCHES
35
Application
When switched into the transmit state each diode becomes forward biased. The
series diode appears as a low impedance to the signal heading toward the antenna
and the shunt diode effectively shorts the receivers antenna terminals to prevent
overloading.
In the receive condition the diodes are at zero or reverse bias and present
essentially a low capacitance, which creates a direct low insertion loss path
between the antenna and receiver.
36
Sveral types of microwave phase shifters can be constructed with PIN diodes switching
elements.
Diode phase shifters are easy to Integrate and have high speed.
SLPS is the most straighforward type, using two transmission lines of different length.
Switched line
The differential phase shift between the two paths is given by:
Phase shift of 180, 90, 45
degrees.
PIN DIODE PHASE SHIFTER
Swithed-line phase shifter
37
Loaded-line phase shifter
For small amount of phase
shift Less than 45 degrees
The disadvantage is the insersion loss that is inherently present, due to the reflection
from the shunt load. And increasing b to obtain a large entails a greater IL
N (
38
The reflections from the shunt loads susceptance can be reduced by using two
shunt loads separated by a length of line.
/ 4 P
Then the partial reflection from the second load will be 180 out of phase
with the partial reflection from the first load, leading to a cancelation .
39
The susceptance, B, can be implemented with a lumped inductor or capacitor,
or with a stub, and switched between two states with an SPST diode switch.
The maximum phase shift obtainable from a loaded line section is limited by
both bandwidth and diode power handling considerations. The above factors
limit the maximum phase shift angle in practical circuits to about 45
40
Reflective Phase Shifter
Power equally divided between two ports
Both diodes biased in the same state
Phase shift is obtained from the diodes being on or off
41
The relationship between maximum phase shift, transmitted power, and PIN
diode ratings is as follows:
In comparison to the loaded line phase shifter, the hybrid design can handle
up to twice the peak power when using the same diodes.
42
MICROWAVE SOURCES
Overview of Microwave Sources
A source of microwave power is obviously essential for any microwave system.
Communication and radar systems generally use a relatively high-power source
for the transmitter, and one or more low-power sources for local oscillator and
down conversion functions in the receiver.
Test and measurement systems usually require a low-power microwave source,
often tunable over a wide banwidth. And the microwave oven, that common of all
microwave systems, requires a singlefrequency high-power source.
At present, these requirements are met with a variety of solid-state and microwave
tube Sources.
43
Generally the division is between solid-state sources for low power and frequency,
And tubes for high power and/or high frequencies.
MICROWAVE SOURCES
Vacuum tube
44
Solid State Sources
Solid state have the advantages of small size, low cost, and compatibility with microwave integrated
circuits, and so are usually preferred whenever they can meet
the necessary power and frequency requirements.
Solid-state microwave sources can be categorized as two-terminal devices
(diodes), or three-terminal devices (transistor oscillators).
The most common diode sources are the GUNN diode and the IMPATT diode,
both of which directly convert a DC bias to RF power in the frequency range of
about 2 to 100Ghz.
The GUNN diode is a transferred-electron device that uses a bulk semiconductor
(GaAs or InP), as opposed to a pn junction. This effect leads to to a negative resistance
Characteristic that can be employed with an external resonator to produce a stable oscillator.
MICROWAVE SOURCES
45
The IMPATT diode uses a reversed-biased pn junction to generate microwave
power. When coupled with a high-Q resonator and biased at an appropriate
Operating point, a negative-resistance effect can be achieved at the RF operating
Frequency, and oscillation will occur.
IMPATT sources are generally more noisy than sources using GUNN diodes, but
are capable of higher powers and higher DC to RF conversion efficiencies.
Transistor oscillator sources generally have lower frequency and power capabilities
when compared to GUNN and IMPATT sources, but do offer several advantages
Over diodes.
MICROWAVE SOURCES
46
Microwave Tubes
Microwave tubes are essential for generation of a very high powers (10kw to
10Mw) and for the higher millimeter wave frequencies (100GHz and higher).
Several of microwave tubes are not actually sources by themselves, but are high-
power amplifiers. Such tubes are used in conjunction with lower power sources
(solid-state sources) in transmitter systems.
There is a wide variety of tube geometries, as well as a wide variety of principles
on which tube operation is based, but all tubes have several common features. All
tubes involve the interaction of an electron with an electromagnetic field, inside a
glass or metal vacuum envelope.
MICROWAVE SOURCES
47
Microwave tubes can be grouped into two categories, depending on the type of
electron beam-field interaction.
In linear beam or `O type tubes the electron beam traverses the length of the tube,
and is parallel to the electric field.
In the crossed or `m field type tubes the focusing field is perpendicular to the
accelerating electric field.
Microwave tubes can also be classified as either oscillators or amplifiers.
MICROWAVE SOURCES
48
Active microwave circuits had and still having
an important role in the development of many
communication, medical, industrial and
Measurement systems
Concluding Remarks

Active Microwave Circuit

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1

Prof. Mohamed Essaaidi

Fig 1. A random voltage generated by a noisy resistor

NOISE IN MICROWAVE SYSTEMS

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