Cross-section of an n-channel transistor with all terminals grounded.

Assuming this charge is W0 coulombs per square meter, the total charge per square meter near the source electrode is WT = - Cm Vgs + W0 colombs/meter2

where Cm = Iox / Tox is the capacitance/m2 of the gate insulator. The threshold voltage is then given by the gate voltage where WT goes to zero, or

W 0 W 0 Tox VT ! . ! Cm I ox

Defining X = 0 as the source and X = L as the drain and assuming a channel potential V(X), the charge per unit area in the channel at any point X is given by

W(X) = - Cm (VG V(X)) + W0 = - Cm (VG VT - V(X)),

Where (VG VT) is assumed greater than V(X) for all X (i.e., VD < VG VT). Since the device is symmetrical in the Z direction, this distribution may be immediately integrated over the dimension to give a charge per unit length in the X direction as

Q(X) = - CmW(VG VT - V(X)) = - C (VG VT - V(X)) coulomb/meter

Where  C I W / T is the capacitance per unit length in the X direction. ox ox The current flowing in the channels can now be obtained by Ohms law, i.e.,

I(X) = Q(X) v (X) =

Qn

dv( X ) C (VG VT - V(X)) dX

n

Where v(X) is the velocity of the electron, Q is the effective mobility of the electrons in the channel and is constant, dv(X)/dX is the electric field in the channel, and I(X) = IP is independent of X for low frequencies.

Integrating both sides with respect to X from 0 to L, we VG VT VD obtain

IDL ! Q n C

VG VT

(VG  VT  V ( X ) d (VG  VT  V ( X ))

Integrating and substituting C = Iox W/ Tox

Q n I ox W 2 I DS ! 2VP (VG  VT )  VD 2 LTox

The preceding analysis assumed that the channel was not pinched off at any point, i.e. that VG VT > VD as VD approaches a value VG VT .

I DS

Q n I ox W 2 ! (VG  VT ) ;VD ! VG  VT 2 LTox

n ox

The factor QnCox is often defined as the device-transconductan parameter, given as Q I

K d Q n C ox ! !

t ox

The operation of the p-channel transistor is essentially the same as that of the n-channel transistor, except that all voltage and current polarities are reversed. The volt-ampere characteristics in figure are for an ideal MOSFET. In reality, ID increases slightly with VDS in the saturation region. The cause of this is channel-length modulation, an effect analogous to base-width modulation in the BJT. As depicted in figure, if the actual characteristics are extended back into the second quadrant, they all meet at VDS = - 1/P. Because of the similarity with the Early effect in BJTs, the quantity 1/P is also referred to as the Early voltage. Typical values of P are in the range 0.01 to 0.03 V-1. To account for channellength modulation, the equation is modified by the factor (1 + P VDS) as given below W

ID ! k

(VGS  VT ) (1  PVDS )

The effect of the term (1 + P VDS) is usually negligible in digital circuits but can be important in analog circuits.

Enhancement NMOS output characteristics

Extension of output characteristics of NMOS transistor showing effect of channel-length modulation.

The parameters of figure can be determined by differentiating.

xI D 'W gm ! !k (VGS  Vt )(1  P VDS ) xVGS L

if PVDS << 1, this is often approximated as

W 'W gm ! k (VGS  Vt ) ! 2k ID L L
'

Like the JFET and unlike the bipolar transistor, the transconductance of the MOSFET depends on both bias current and the W/L ratio (also on the oxide thickness via k ' ). Similarly,

xVt xI D 'W g mb ! ! k (VGS  Vt )(1  P VDS ) L xVBS xVBS

Small-signal MOS transistor equivalent circuit

The major CMOS process steps

Using one dimensional analysis, the charge density, V, of the depletion region is given by V = q(-NA) Applying the point from of Gausss law, the electric field resulting from this charge is

E(x) =

V  qN A  qN A dx ! dx ! xC I I si I si

Where C is the constant of integration. The constant, C, is determined by evaluating E(x) at the edges of the depletion region (x = 0 at the Si-SiO2 interface; x = xd at the boundary of the depletion region in the bulk).

 qN A E (0) ! E0 ! 0C !C I si

 qN A E ( xd ) ! 0 ! xd  C I si

qN A C! xd I si
This gives an expression for E(x)

qN A E ( x) ! ( xd  x ) I si

Applying the relationship between potential and electric field yields

qN A dJ !  E ( x)dx !  I si ( xd  x)dx
Integrating both sides with appropriate limits of integration gives
JF 2 qN A xd qN A dJ !  I si ( xd  x)dx !  2I si ! JF  JS 0 JS 2 qN A xd ! JS  JF 2I si xd

For a p-type semiconductor, JF is given as J F ! Vt In( N A / ni )

and for an n-type semiconductor JF is given as J F ! Vt In( N D / ni ) The equation can be solved for xd assuming that |JS -JF| u 0 to get

2I si | J S  J F xd ! qN A

The immobile charge due to acceptor ions that been stripped of their mobile holes is given by Q !  qN A xd

2I si | J S  J F Q $ qN A qN A
VT ! J MS

| !  2qN AI si | J S  J F |
2

Qb  QSS   2J F   Cox Cox

! J MS

Qb 0 QSS Qb  Qb 0  2J F    Cox Cox Cox

The threshold voltage can be rewritten as

VT ! VT 0  K ( | 2J F  vSB |  | 2J F | )

where

VT 0 ! J MS

Qb 0 QSS  2J F   Cox Cox

and the body-factor, body-effect coefficient or bulk-threshold parameter K is defined as

K !

2qI si N A Cox