AME 436

Energy and Propulsion

Lecture 6
Unsteady-flow (reciprocating) engines 1: Basic operating principles, design & performance parameters

Outline
Classification of unsteady-flow engines Basic operating principles
Premixed-charge (gasoline) 4-stroke Premixed-charge (gasoline) 2-stroke Premixed-charge (gasoline) rotary or Wankel Nonpremixed-charge (Diesel) 4-stroke Nonpremixed-charge (Diesel) 2-stroke Compression ratio, displacement, bore, stroke, etc. Power, torque, work, Mean Effective Pressure Thermal efficiency Volumetric efficiency Emissions

Design and performance parameters

2 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

Classification of unsteady-flow engines

Most important distinction: premixed-charge vs. nonpremixed-charge Premixed-charge: frequently called Otto cycle, gasoline or spark ignition engine but most important distinction is that the fuel and air are mixed before or during the compression process and a premixed flame is ignited (usually by a spark, occasionally by a glow plug (e.g. model airplane engines), occasionally homogeneous ignition (Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI), under development) Nonpremixed-charge: frequently called Diesel or compression ignition but key point is that only air is compressed (not fuel-air mixture) & fuel is injected into combustion chamber after air is compressed Either premixed or nonpremixed-charge can be 2-stroke or 4stroke, and can be piston/cylinder type or rotary (Wankel) type 3 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

Classification of unsteady-flow engines

Why is premixed-charge vs. nonpremixed-charge the most important distinction? Because it affects
Choice of fuels and ignition system Choice of compression ratio (gasoline - lower, diesel - higher) Tradeoff between maximum power (gasoline) and efficiency (diesel) Relative amounts of pollutant formation (gasoline engines have lower NOx & particulates; diesels have lower CO & UHC)

4 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

Classification of unsteady-flow engines

Spark plug Flame front Fuel injector Fuel spray flame

Fuel + air mixture

Air only

Premixed charge (gasoline)

Non-premixed charge (Diesel)

5 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

4-stroke premixed-charge piston engine

Animation: http://auto.howstuffworks.com/engine3.htm

Intake (piston Exhaust (piston Compression Expansion (piston moving down, (piston moving up, moving down, both moving up, intake intake valve open, valve closed, exhaust both valves closed) valves closed) Note: ideally combustion occurs in zero time when piston is at the top of its travel between the compression exhaust valve valve open) and expansion strokes closed)

6 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

4-stroke premixed-charge engine

http://auto.howstuffworks.com/engine1.htm

7 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

2-stroke premixed-charge engine

Most designs have fuel-air mixture flowing first INTO CRANKCASE (?) Fuel-air mixture must contain lubricating oil On down-stroke of piston Exhaust ports are exposed & exhaust gas flows out, crankcase is pressurized Reed valve prevents fuel-air mixture from flowing back out intake manifold Intake ports are exposed, fresh fuelair mixture flows into intake ports On up-stroke of piston Intake & exhaust ports are covered Fuel-air mixture is compressed in cylinder Spark & combustion occurs near top of piston travel Work output occurs during 1st half of down-stroke

8 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

2-stroke premixed-charge engine

http://science.howstuffworks.com/two-stroke2.htm

9 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

2-stroke premixed-charge engine

2-strokes gives 2x as much power since only 1 crankshaft revolution needed for 1 complete cycle (vs. 2 revolutions for 4-strokes) Since intake & exhaust ports are open at same time, some fuel-air mixture flows directly out exhaust & some exhaust gas gets mixed with fresh gas Since oil must be mixed with fuel, oil gets burned As a result of these factors, thermal efficiency is lower, emissions are higher, and performance is near-optimal for a narrower range of engine speeds compared to 4stroke engines

10 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

Rotary or Wankel engine

Uses non-cylindrical combustion chamber Provides one complete cycle per engine revolution without short circuit flow of 2-strokes (but still need some oil injected at the rotor apexes) Simpler, fewer moving parts, higher RPM possible Very fuel-flexible - can incorporate catalyst in combustion chamber since fresh gas is moved into chamber rather than being continually exposed to it (as in piston engine) - same design can use gasoline, Diesel, methanol, etc. Very difficult to seal BOTH vertices and flat sides of rotor! Seal longevity a problem also Large surface area to volume ratio means more heat losses

11 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

http://static.howstuffworks.com/flash/rotary-engine-exploded.swf

Rotary or Wankel engine

Source: http://auto.howstuffworks.com/rotary-engine4.htm

12 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

Rotary or Wankel engine

http://auto.howstuffworks.com/rotary-engine4.htm

13 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

4-stroke Diesel engine

Conceptually similar to 4-stroke gasoline, but only air is compressed (not fuel-air mixture) and fuel is injected into combustion chamber after air is compressed

http://auto.howstuffworks.com/diesel2.htm

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2-stroke Diesel engine

Used in large engines, e.g. locomotives More differences between 2-stroke gasoline vs. diesel engines than 4-stroke gasoline vs. diesel
Air comes in directly through intake ports, not via crankcase Must be turbocharged or supercharged to provide pressure to force air into cylinder No oil mixed with air - crankcase has lubrication like 4-stroke Exhaust valves rather than ports - not necessary to have intake & exhaust paths open at same time Because only air, not fuel/air mixture enters through intake ports, short circuit of intake gas out to exhaust not a problem Because of the previous 3 points, 2-stroke diesels have far fewer environmental problems than 2-stroke gasoline engines

15 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

2-stroke Diesel engine

Why cant gasoline engines use concept similar to 2-stroke Diesel? They can in principle but fuel must be injected & fuel+air fully mixed after the intake ports are covered but before spark is fired Also, difficult to control ratio of fuel/air/exhaust residual precisely since relative amounts of exhaust & air leaving exhaust ports varies from cycle to cycle (due to turbulence) - ratio of fuel to (air + exhaust) critical to premixed-charge engine performance (combustion in non-premixed charge engines always occurs at stoichiometric surfaces in overall lean mixtures anyway, so not an issue for non-premixed charge engines) Some companies have tried to make 2-stroke premixed-charge engines operating this way, e.g. http://www.orbeng.com.au/, but these engines have found only limited application

16 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

Engine design & performance parameters

See Heywood Chapter 2 for more details Compression ratio (rc) m mdoe a uye lm x cnv i l ru mi V+ V r =c d c mmdoe iiuye lm n cnv ml r u i V c
Vd = displacement volume = volume of cylinder swept by piston (this is what auto manufacturers report, e.g. 5.7 liter engine means 5.7 liters is combined displacement volume of ALL cylinders Vc = clearance volume = volume of cylinder NOT swept by piston

Bore (B) = cylinder diameter Stroke (L) = distance between maximum excursions of piston Displacment volume of 1 cylinder = B2L/4; if B = L (typical), 5.7 liter, 8-cylinder engine, B = 9.7 cm Power = Angular speed (N) x Torque ( ) = 2N
Pow ( ro i se ne r h ) p Ntsm (on it rlorn ei p u v ee u , R P M fps ) x (ou i on n o) t d 5 5 5 5

17 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

Classification of unsteady-flow engines

Clearance volume

Bore

Displacement volume

Stroke

Piston at bottom of travel

Piston at top of travel

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Engine design & performance parameters

Engine performance is specified in both in terms of power and engine torque - which is more important?
Wheel torque = engine torque x gear ratio tells you whether you can climb the hill Gear ratio in transmission typically 3:1 or 4:1 in 1st gear, 1:1 in highest gear; gear ratio in differential typically 3:1 Power tells you how fast you can climb the hill Torque can be increased by transmission (e.g. 2:1 gear ratio ideally multiplies torque by 2) Power cant be increased by transmission; in fact because of friction and other losses, power will decrease in transmission Power really tells how fast you can accelerate or how fast you can climb a hill, but power to torque ratio ~ N tells you what gear ratios youll need to do the job

Ratio of engine revolutions to wheel revolutions varies from 12:1 in lowest gear to 3:1 in highest gear

19 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

Engine design & performance parameters

Indicated work - work done for one cycle as determined by the cylinder P-V diagram = work acting on piston face Note: its called indicated power because historically (before oscilloscopes) the P and V were recorded by a pen moving in the x direction as V changed and moving in the y direction as P changed. The P-V plot was recorded on a card and the area inside the P-V was the indicated work (usually measured by cutting out the P-V and weighting that part of the card!) Net indicated work = Wi,net = PdV over whole cycle = net area inside P-V diagram Indicated work consists of 2 parts
Gross indicated work Wi,gross - work done during power cycle Pumping work Wi,p - work done during intake/exhaust pumping cycle Wi.net = Wi,gross - Wi,pump

Indicated power = Wi,xN/n, where x could be net, gross, pumping and n = 2 for 4-stroke engine, n = 1 for 2 stroke engine (since 4-stroke needs 2 complete revolutions of engine for one complete thermodynamic cycle as seen on P-V diagram whereas 2-stroke needs only 1 revolution) 20
AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

Engine design & performance parameters

Animation: gross & net indicated work, pumping work

Ne t Girndic ossat ed indi cwoe (+) at r d kw ork (-)Pumping work

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Engine design & performance parameters

Brake work (Wb) or brake power (Pb) = work power that appears at the shaft at the back of the engine Historically called brake because a mechanical brake [like that on your car wheels] was used in laboratory to simulate the road load that would be placed on an engine in a vehicle) Whats the difference between brake and indicated work or power? FRICTION
Gross Indicated work = brake work + friction work (Wf) Wi,g = Wb + Wf Note that this definition of friction work includes not only the rubbing friction but also the pumping work; I prefer Wi,g = Wb + Wf + Wp which separates rubbing friction (which cannot be seen on a P-V diagram) from pumping friction (which IS seen on the P-V) The latter definition makes friction the difference between your actual (brake) work/power output and the work seen on the P-V Note the friction work also includes work/power needed to drive the cooling fan, water pump, oil pump, generator, air conditioner, Moral - know which definition youre using

22 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

Engine design & performance parameters

Mechanical efficiency = (brake power) / (indicated power) measure of importance of friction loss Thermal efficiency ( th) = (what you get / what you pay for) = (power ouput) / (fuel heating value input) Prutbeidtd o our o ia) wt (a r c ep kne t h R mQ fl u e Specific fuel consumption (sfc) = (mdotfuel)/(Power) m m fl u e fl u e ic s f ;s b f c ideo nt pe i dw c r a bew r pe ao k r units usually pounds of fuel per horsepower-hour (yuk!) 5 Note also 5 ; ,b t ,i h t h (f Q ic R s) (s) Q b f c R

23 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

Engine design & performance parameters

Volumetric efficiency ( v) = (mass of air actually drawn into cylinder) / (mass of air that ideally could be drawn into cylinder) mr) m ( eud ae s

a i r

irVN a d /n

where air is at ambient conditions = Pambient/RTambient Volumetric efficiency indicates how well the engine breathes - what lowers v below 100%?

Will be > 100% with turbocharging or supercharging See figure on p. 217 of Heywood for good summary of all these effects

Pressure drops in intake system (e.g. throttling) & intake valves Temperature rise due to heating of air as it flows through intake system Volume occupied by fuel Non-ideal valve timing Choking (air flow reaching speed of sound) in part of intake system having smallest area (passing intake valves)

24 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

Engine design & performance parameters

Mean effective pressure (MEP)

Wkprc c o e yle r Dp cm tvlu e is lae e o m n ( okprc c ) W e yle/m r MP E ( is lae e tvlu e/m Dp cm o m n ) MP E

= cycle V d

d PV

(Pwr )n/N (Pwr )n oe oe = V VN d d

=intake ( okprc c ) W e yle/m r

Power could be brake, indicated, friction or pumping power, leading to BMEP, IMEP, FMEP, PMEP Note Power = Torque x 2N, thus

Tu oe r q

( E )V) M (d P 5 n

MEP can be interpreted as the first moment of pressure with respect to cylinder volume, or average pressure, with volume as the weighting function for the averaging process

25 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

Engine design & performance parameters

MEP is useful for 2 reasons
Since its proportional to power or work, we can add and subtract pressures just like we would power or work (More important) It normalizes out the effects of engine size (Vd), speed (N) and 2-stroke vs. 4-stroke (n), so it provides a way of comparing different engines and operating conditions

Typical 4-stroke engine, IMEP 120 lb/in2 9 atm - how to get more? Turbocharge - increase Pintake above 1 atm, more fuel & air stuffed into cylinder, more heat release, more power

26 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

Engine design & performance parameters

Pumping power = (pumping work)(N)/n = ( P)( V)(N)/n = (Pexhaust - Pintake)VdN/n but PMEP = (pumping power)n/(VdN), thus PMEP = (Pexhaust - Pintake) (wasnt that easy?) (this assumes pumping loop is a rectangle) Estimate of IMEP

R (th,i,gmfuel Q )n (G ssin ic te p wr) n ro d a d o e IM P g E = Vd N Vd N (th,i,gmair [ f /(5 f )]Q )n th,i,g (vair,am ient Vd N/n)Q n f R b R = = Vd N Vd N 5f Pmient f IM P g th,i,gv fQR Pmient E a b a b =th,i,gvQ (5 f ) = R T b P take R amient T b P take R amient 5 f in in

Typical engine at wide-open throttle (Pintake = Pambient): th,i,g 35%, v 90%, f 0.064 (at stoichiometric), QR = 4.3 x 107 J/kg, R = 287 J/kg-K, Tintake = 300K IMEPg / Pintake 10.1 In reality, we have to be more careful about accounting for the exhaust residual and the fact that its properties are very different from the fresh 27 gas, but this Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles AME 436 - doesnt change the results much

Engine design & performance parameters

Emissions performance usually reported in grams of pollutant emitted per brake horsepower-hour (yuk!) or grams per kilowatt hour (slightly less yuk), e.g.

Bsc N reei O a pf k ic

(S B N O

)= Bpe rew a or k

mx N O

One can also think of this as (mass/time) / (energy/time) = mass / energy = grams of pollutant per Joule of work done but Environmental Protection Agency standards (for passenger vehicles) are in terms of grams per mile, not brake power hour, thus smaller cars can have larger BSNOx (or BSCO, BSHC, etc.) because (presumably) less horsepower (thus less fuel) is needed to move the car a certain number of miles in a certain time Larger vehicles (and stationary engines for power generation) are regulated based on brake specific emissions directly

28 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

Example #1
How much power does a 5.7 liter (= 0.0057 m3) Hemi 4-stroke (n = 2) gasoline engine at 6000 RPM (N = 100/sec) with thermal efficiency th = 30% = 0.30 and volumetric efficiency v = 90% = 0.90 generate?

51 .1 kg 5 5 .5 kg 5 5 5 5 55 mair =vairVd N/n = (55 5 ( .11 ) .5 51 m 1 = ) m sec 5 sec 55kg .5 5 51 5 5 J .11 .5 5 1 5 mair f P w =th o er Q = (55 sec .5 ) R 5f + 5 .55 +55 5 kg h p 5 =55 5 .55 W =5 h 5p 5 5W 5 5

29 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

Example #2
In a laboratory test of a 4-stroke engine with Vd = 3.05 liters at N = 3000 RPM the following performance data are measured: net IMEP 107.9 lbf/in2, 70.32 brake horsepower, fuel flow rate 16.66 kg/hr, air flow rate 269.6 kg/hr. The fuel is C8H18 (QR = 4.3 x 107 J/kg.) The ambient air temperature is 295K. The intake pressure gauge is broken, so the intake pressure is not known. Determine: a) BMEP 55 ( ) 1 t p .5 p ( 1t W ( rkPe B eo r a w ) n (5 h )51a /h ) BE = M P = VN 5 ltr ( 5 5ltr )5 /m ) m 5c) .1 m/ 5ie ( 5 i ( i/ 5 1 ie 5 5 5 n n 5 s e d
=5 5 /m =5 a .5 5 5 5 N 5 .1 1 t m

b) Friction MEP FMEP = IMEP BMEP IMEP = (107.9 lb/in2)(4.448N/lb)(in/0.0254m)2 = 7.44 x 105 N/m2 FMEP = 7.44 x 105 N/m2 6.88 x 105 N/m2 = 5.6 x 104 N/m2 = 0.55 atm c) Equivalence ratio C8H18 + 12.5(O2 + 3.77N2) 8 CO2 + 9 H2O + 12.5(3.77) N2 Stoichiometric fuel/air: (8(12)+18(1))/[12.5((32)+3.77(28))] = 0.0663 Actual fuel/air: (16.66 kg/hr)/(269.6 kg/hr) = 0.06179 Equivalence ratio = 0.06179/0.0663 = 0.932

30 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

Example #2 (continued)
d) Brake thermal efficiency 5 h) 1t p 5 p 1t 5 W a BP rew ao ke r ( .5(1 /h) k = = = .5 5 5 5 be r a 5 R mQ 5 k /h (r/5 e (. J g 5g 5 5c 5 5 5 ( .5 r)h 5s )55/k) fl u e e) Indicated torque

I d a dtoqe nicte r u =

5 5 lb 5 f 1 .1 1 1 .5 r m /5 r 5 (5.5 /in5(51 f )(in/51 m) (5 lites )( 5 5lites ) ) .1 N/lb 5

=( MP ) V ) I E ( d /5 n

=5 .5m( f /5 5 ) 5 5 /m =5 .5 lb 5 N lb .5 N ( .5 ft ) 5 ft f 5 5 5 5 f) Is this engine throttled, turbocharged or neither? Explain. (Hint: compute the volumetric efficiency.)
v
mr ) m (eud ae s a i r rVN a d /n i 5 g/h (r/5 e 5 .5 5 5 (5 k r)h 5sc) = ( .1 5 .1r ) 55ltr ) 5 /mm 5k 1 g/m) 1 (m/ 5ie (5 i) i/ (5lt ie 5 5 5 nn 5 ( 5) /5 5 s e c

5 ) (5

= .5< rtld 5 5 t oe 5 5 ht

31 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles

Summary - engine design & performance parameters Many mechanical implementations of unsteady-flow engines exist, but all are based on a thermodynamic cycle consisting of compression, combustion, expansion The factor that affects engine design and performance more than any other is whether the engine is premixed-charge or nonpremixed-charge Many measures of engine performance are employed - be careful!
Work and power - indicated vs. brake Efficiencies - thermal vs. volumetric Mean Effective Pressure - brake, indicated, pumping, friction

32 AME 436 - Spring 2011 - Lecture 6 - Unsteady flow engines I: principles