Elementary Tutorial

Prepared by Dr. An Tran

in collaboration with Professor P. R. Heyliger

Department of Civil Engineering
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado
June 2003
Fundamentals of Linear Vibrations
Developed as part of the Research Experiences of Undergraduates Program on
Studies of Vibration and Sound , sponsored by National Science Foundation and
Army Research Office (Award # EEC-0241979). This support is gratefully acknowledged.
Fundamentals of Linear Vibrations
1. Single Degree-of-Freedom Systems
2. Two Degree-of-Freedom Systems
3. Multi-DOF Systems
4. Continuous Systems
Single Degree-of-Freedom Systems
1. A spring-mass system
General solution for any simple oscillator
General approach
Examples
2. Equivalent springs
Spring in series and in parallel
Examples
3. Energy Methods
Strain energy & kinetic energy
Work-energy statement
Conservation of energy and example
A spring-mass system
General solution for any simple oscillator:
Governing equation of motion:
0 = + kx x m` `
) sin( ) cos( ) ( t
v
t x t x
n
n
o
n o
e
e
e + =
2
n
o 2
o
n
n
n
o o o

v
x amplitude C ;
2

T
1
Hz) or c. (cycles/se frequency f
vibration of period T ;
T
2
) (rads/sec. frequency natural
m
k

(sec.) time t ; x velocity initial v nt; displaceme initial x

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = = = = =
= = = =
= = = =

`
where:
Any simple oscillator
General approach:

1. Select coordinate system
2. Apply small displacement
3. Draw FBD
4. Apply Newtons Laws:
) (
) (
u
`
`
I
dt
d
M
x m
dt
d
F
= E
= E
Simple oscillator Example 1
2 2
ml md I
inertia of moment mass I
cg
= + =
=
u u
u
` `
` `
I K
I M
=
= E
0
2
= + u u K ml
` `
2
ml
K

n
=
+
Simple oscillator Example 2
|
.
|

\
|
=
= + =
l
a
m
k

ml md I I
n
cg
2 2
u u
u
` `
` `
2
) ( ml a a k
I M
o o
=
= E
0
2 2
= + u u ka ml
` `
+
(unstable) ,
l
a
As
m
k
,
l
a
When its: lim Note
n
n
0 0
1

= =
Simple oscillator Example 3
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
+ =
= =
= =
} }
l
b
m
k

ml m
m
ml
md I I
ml l A
Adx x dm r I
n
cg o
cg
l
3
3 2 12
12 12
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
2 2
2 /
0

u u
u
` `
` `
3
) (
2
ml
b b k
I M
o o
=
= E
0
3
2
2
= + u u kb
ml
` `
+
Simple oscillator Example 4
L ma
GJ
L
JG
K : stiffness Equivalent
T
L
JG
JG
TL
ma
I : table From
n
2
2
2
2
2
=
=
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
e
u u
u
u
` `
` `
I T
I M
z
=
= E
0
2
2
= + u u
L
GJ ma
` `
+
Equivalent springs
Springs in series:
same force - flexibilities add
Springs in parallel:
same displacement - stiffnesses add
2 1
k k k
eq
+ =
A = A + =
A + A =
eq
k k k
k k P
) (
2 1
2 1
P f P f f
P
k k
eq
= + =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = A + A = A
) (
1 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
f f f
eq
+ =
Equivalent springs Example 1
0 = + x K x m
eq
` `
0
3 12
3
2
3
1
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + x
L
EI
L
EI
x m` `
Equivalent springs Example 2
) a (
ml
Wl ka

n n
n
e e =

=
2
2
2
u u u
u
` `
` `
2
ml l W a ) a k (
I M
o o
= +
= E
0
2 2
= + ) Wl ka ( ml u u
` `
+
Consider:
ka
2
> Wl e
n
2
is positive - vibration is stable
ka
2
= Wl statics - stays in stable equilibrium
ka
2
< Wl unstable - collapses
Equivalent springs Example 3
0
2
2
= +
=
= E
u u
u u
u
sin mgl ml
ml sin Wl
I M
o o
` `
` `
` `
0 = + u u sin
l
g
` `
l
g

l
g
n
=
= + 0 u u
` `
+
We cannot define e
n

since we have sinu term

If u < < 1, sinu ~ u :
Energy methods
Strain energy U:
energy in spring = work done
Kinetic energy T:
Conservation of energy:
work done = energy stored
A = A = P k U
2
1
2
1
2
T energy kinetic of increment
done work of Increment
=
= = =
=
dT ) r r m d( dt) r ( ) r (m
r d F
,
`
,
`
,
`
,
` `
,
,
2
1
r r m T
,
`
,
` =
2
1
Work-Energy principles
Work done = Change in kinetic energy
Conservation of energy for conservative systems
E = total energy = T + U = constant
1 2
2
1
2
1
T T dT r d F
T
T
r
r
= =
} }
,
,
,
,
Energy methods Example
0
0
= +
=
x x m x kx
) E (
dt
d
` ` ` `
0 = + kx x m` `
2 2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
x m kx T U E
x m T
kx U
`
`
+ = + =
=
=
Same as vector mechanics
Work-energy principles have many
uses, but one of the most useful is
to derive the equations of motion.
Conservation of energy: E = const.
Two Degree-of-Freedom Systems
1. Model problem
Matrix form of governing equation
Special case: Undamped free vibrations
Examples
2. Transformation of coordinates
Inertially & elastically coupled/uncoupled
General approach: Modal equations
Example
3. Response to harmonic forces
Model equation
Special case: Undamped system
Two-DOF model problem
Matrix form of governing equation:
)
`

=
)
`

+
+
)
`

+
+
)
`

2
1
2
1
2 2
2 2 1
2
1
2 2
2 2 1
2
1
2
1
) ( ) (
0
0
P
P
x
x
k k
k k k
x
x
c c
c c c
x
x
m
m
`
`
` `
` `
where:
[M] = mass matrix; [C] = damping matrix;
[K] = stiffness matrix; {P} = force vector
Note: Matrices have positive diagonals and are symmetric.
Undamped free vibrations
Zero damping matrix [C] and force vector {P}
) cos(
2
1
2
1
| e
)
`

=
)
`

t
A
A
x
x
Assumed general solutions:
Characteristic polynomial (for det[ ]=0):
0
2 1
2 1
2
2
2
1
2 1
4
= +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+

m m
k k
m
k
m
k k
e e

(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+

+
+
= =
2
1
2 1
2 1
2
2
2
1
2 1
2
2
1
2 1
2
2
1
2
1
4
2
1
m m
k k
m
k
m
k k
m
k
m
k k
e
Eigenvalues (characteristic values):
Characteristic equation:
)
`

=
)
`

+
0
0
) (
) (
2
1
2
2 2 2
2
2
1 2 1
A
A
m k k
k m k k
e
e
Undamped free vibrations
Special case when k
1
=k
2
=k and m
1
=m
2
=m
Eigenvalues and frequencies:
period l fundamenta
frequency l fundamenta
= =
= =

T
m
k
.
2
618 0
1
m
k
)
`

=
)
`

=
618 . 2
3819 . 0
2
1
2
1
2
1
e
e

Two mode shapes (relative participation of each mass in the motion):

1
618 . 1 2
2
1
2
=

=
k
m k
A
A e
shape mode 1
st
1
618 . 0
2
1
2

=

=
e m k
k
A
A
shape mode 2
nd
The two eigenvectors are orthogonal:
)
`

=
)
`

618 . 1
1
) 1 (
2
) 1 (
1
A
A
)
`

=
)
`

618 . 0
1
) 2 (
2
) 2 (
1
A
A
Eigenvector (1) =
Eigenvector (2) =
Undamped free vibrations (UFV)
For any set of initial conditions:

We know {A}
(1)
and {A}
(2)
, e
1
and e
2

Must find C
1
, C
2
, |
1
, and |
2
Need 4 I.C.s
{ } ) cos( ) cos(
) (
) (
2 2
) 2 (
2
) 2 (
1
2 1 1
) 1 (
2
) 1 (
1
1
2
1
| e | e +
)
`

+ +
)
`

=
)
`

= t
A
A
C t
A
A
C
t x
t x
x
Single-DOF:
For two-DOF:
) cos( ) ( | e + = t C t x
n
UFV Example 1
{ } ) cos(
618 . 0
0 . 1
) cos(
618 . 1
0 . 1
2 2 1 1
2
1
t C t C
x
x
x e e
)
`

+
)
`

=
)
`

=
Given:
No phase angle since initial velocity is 0:
{ } { } { }
)
`

= =
618 . 1
0 . 1
0 o
o
x x and `
{ }
)
`

+
)
`

=
)
`

=
618 . 0
0 . 1
618 . 1
0 . 1
618 . 1
0 . 1
2 1
C C x
o
o
From the initial displacement:
1
1
2 1
2
; 0 ;
e
t
o
=
= =
T
C C
UFV Example 2
{ } ) cos(
618 . 0
1
) 171 . 0 ( ) cos(
618 . 1
1
) 171 . 1 (
2 1
t t x e o e o
)
`

+
)
`

=
Now both modes are involved:
Solve for C
1
and C
2
:
{ } { } { }
)
`

= =
2
1
0 o
o
x x and `
{ }
)
`

=
)
`

+
)
`

=
)
`

=
2
1
2 1
618 . 0 618 . 1
1 1
618 . 0
1
618 . 1
1
2
1
C
C
C C x
o
o
From the given initial displacement:
)
`

=
)
`

=
)
`

171 . 0
171 . 1
2
1
1 618 . 1
1 618 . 0
618 . 1 618 . 0
1
2
1
o
C
C
Hence,
or
Note: More contribution from mode 1
) cos( ) 618 . 0 ( 171 . 0 ) cos( ) 618 . 1 ( 171 . 1 ) (
) cos( ) 1 ( 171 . 0 ) cos( ) 1 ( 171 . 1 ) (
2 1 2
2 1 1
t t t x
t t t x
e o e o
e o e o
=
=
Transformation of coordinates
Introduce a new pair of coordinates that represents spring stretch:
)
`

=
)
`

+
+
)
`

0
0 ) (
0
0
2
1
2 2
2 2 1
2
1
2
1
x
x
k k
k k k
x
x
m
m
` `
` `
UFV model problem:
inertially uncoupled
elastically coupled
z
1
(t) = x
1
(t) = stretch of spring 1
z
2
(t) = x
2
(t) - x
1
(t) = stretch of spring 2
or x
1
(t) = z
1
(t) x
2
(t) = z
1
(t) + z
2
(t)
Substituting maintains symmetry:
)
`

=
)
`

+
)
`

+
0
0
0
0 ) (
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 2
2 2 1
z
z
k
k
z
z
m m
m m m
` `
` `
inertially coupled elastically uncoupled
Transformation of coordinates
We have found that we can select coordinates so that:
1) Inertially coupled, elastically uncoupled, or
2) Inertially uncoupled, elastically coupled.
Big question: Can we select coordinates so that both are uncoupled?
Notes in natural coordinates:
The eigenvectors are orthogonal w.r.t [M]:


The modal vectors are orthogonal w.r.t [K]:


Algebraic eigenvalue problem:

{ } { }
)
`

=
)
`

=
)
`

=
)
`

=
618 . 0
1
618 . 1
1
: vectors) (modal rs Eigenvecto
) 2 (
2
) 2 (
1
2
) 1 (
2
) 1 (
1
1
A
A
u
A
A
u
{ } | |{ }
{ } | |{ } 0
0
1 2
2 1
=
=
u M u
u M u
T
T
{ } | |{ }
{ } | |{ } 0
0
1 2
2 1
=
=
u K u
u K u
T
T
| |{ } | |{ } | |{ } | |{ }
2 2 2 1 1 1
u M u K u M u K = =
Transformation of coordinates
Governing equation:
Modal equations:
Solve for these using initial conditions then substitute into (**).
| |{ } | |{ } 0 = + x K x M ` `
{ } { } { }
) ( ) (
) (
) (
) ( ) (
2
22
12
1
21
11
2
1
2 2 1 1
t q
u
u
t q
u
u
t x
t x
t q u t q u x
)
`

+
)
`

=
)
`

+ = (**)
General approach for solution
We were calling A - Change to u to match Meirovitch
{ }
{ }
)

= +
= +
0 ) ( ) ( (*)
0 ) ( ) ( (*)
2
2
2 2 2
1
2
1 1 1
t q t q u
t q t q u
T
T
e
e
` `
` `
| | { } { } ( ) | | { } { } ( ) 0 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1
= + + + t q u t q u K t q u t q u M ` ` ` ` (*)
Substitution:
Let
or
Known solutions
Transformation - Example
{ } ) cos( ) 171 . 0 (
618 . 0
1
) cos( 171 . 1
618 . 1
1
2 1
t t x e o e o
)
`

+
)
`

=
2) Transformation:
)
`

=
)
`

=
)
`

=
)
`

=
618 . 0
1
; 618 . 1
618 . 1
1
; 618 . 0
22
12
2
21
11
1
u
u
u
u
e e and
1) Solve eigenvalue problem:

=
=
)
`

=
)
`

)
`

+
)
`

=
)
`

) cos( ) 0 ( ) (
) cos( ) 0 ( ) (
171 . 0
171 . 1
) 0 (
) 0 (
) 0 (
618 . 0
1
) 0 (
618 . 1
1
2
1
2 2 2
1 1 1
2
1
2 1
t q t q
t q t q
q
q
q q
e
e
o
o
and
So
As we had before.
More general procedure: Modal analysis do a bit later.
Model problem with:
{ } { }
)
`

=
)
`

=
0
0
2
1
o o
x x ` and o
{ } { } { }

= +
= +
+ =
0 ) ( ) (
0 ) ( ) (
) ( ) (
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2 1 1
t q t q
t q t q
t q u t q u x
e
e
` `
` `
and
Response to harmonic forces
Model equation:
[M], [C], and [K] are full but symmetric.
| |{ } | |{ } | |{ } { }
t i
e
F
F
t F x K x C x M
e
)
`

= = + +
2
1
) ( ` ` `
{F}
not function of time
Assume:
{ } { }
t i
e
i X
i X
i X x
e
e
e
e
)
`

= =
) (
) (
) (
2
1
Substituting gives:
| | | | | | ( ){ } { } F i X K C i M = + + ) (
2
e e e
| | matrix impedance 2x2 = ) ( e i Z
| | | | { } | | { } F i Z i X i Z i Z
1 1
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (

= e e e e
{ }
)
`

=
)
`

=
2
1
11 12
12 22
2
12 22 11 2
1
1
F
F
z z
z z
z z z X
X
X
_

Hence:
( ) 2 1
2
, j i, k c i m z
ij ij ij ij
= + + =
: ) (i of function are z All
ij
e
Special case: Undamped system
Zero damping matrix [C]
Entries of impedance matrix [Z]:
For our model problem (k
1
=k
2
=k and m
1
=m
2
=m), let F
2
=0:
2
12
2
2 22
2
1 11
2
2
1 11 1 12
2
2
12
2
2 22
2
1 11
2 12 1
2
2 22
1
) )( (
) (
;
) )( (
) (
k m k m k
F m k F k
X
k m k m k
F k F m k
X

+
=


=
e e
e
e e
e
Notes:
1) Denominator originally (-)(-) = (+).
As it passes through e
1
, changes sign.
2) The plots give both amplitude
and phase angle (either 0
o
or 180
o
)
Substituting for X
1
and X
2
:
12 12
2
2 22 22
2
1 11 11
) ( ; ) ( ; ) ( k z m k z m k z = = = e e e e e
) ( ) (
;
) ( ) (
) (
2
2
2 2
1
2 2
1
2
2
2
2 2
1
2 2
1
2
1
e e e e e e e e
e

=

=
m
F k
X
m
F m k
X
Multi-DOF Systems
1. Model Equation
Notes on matrices
Undamped free vibration: the eigenvalue problem
Normalization of modal matrix [U]
2. General solution procedure
Initial conditions
Applied harmonic force
Multi-DOF model equation
Model equation:
Notes on matrices:
They are square and symmetric.



[M] is positive definite (since T is always positive)
[K] is positive semi-definite:
all positive eigenvalues, except for some potentially 0-eigenvalues which
occur during a rigid-body motion.
If restrained/tied down positive-definite. All positive.

| |{ } | |{ } | |{ } { } Q = + + x K x C x M ` ` `
1) Vector mechanics (Newton or D Alembert)
2) Hamilton's principles
3) Lagrange's equations
We derive using:
Multi-DOF systems are so similar to two-DOF.
{ } | |{ }
{ } | |{ } x K x U
x M x T
T
T
2
1
2
1
=
=
: spring in energy Strain
: energy Kinetic ` `
UFV: the eigenvalue problem
Matrix eigenvalue problem
Equation of motion:
{ } { }
t i t i
e A e A t f t f u q
e e
+ = =
2 1
) ( ) (
| |{ } | |{ } { } 0 = + q K q M
` `
Substitution of

in terms of the generalized D.O.F. q
i


leads to

| |{ } | |{ } u M u K
2
e =
For more than 2x2, we usually solve using computational techniques.

Total motion for any problem is a linear combination of the natural
modes contained in {u} (i.e. the eigenvectors).
Normalization of modal matrix [U]
Do this a row at a time to form [U].
This is a common technique
for us to use after we have solved
the eigenvalue problem.
We know that:

| |{ } { } | |{ }
ij j
T
i j i
C u M u u M u o = =
{ }

=
1
k
u

=
=
=
=
j i
j i

ij
if
if
delta Kronecker
: where
0
1
So far, we pick our
eigenvectors to look like:
Instead, let us try to pick
so that:
{ } { }

= =
1
o o
k new k
u u
{ } | |{ } { } | |{ } 1
2
= =
k
T
k new k
T
new k
u M u u M u o
Then:
| | | || | | | I U M U
T
= | | | || | | | O = U K U
T
and
| |
(
(
(
(
(

= O
2
2
2
2
1
. . 0
. . . .
. . 0
0 . 0
n
e
e
e
: where
Let the 1
st

entry be 1
General solution procedure
For all 3 problems:

1. Form [K]{u} = e
2
[M]{u} (nxn system)
Solve for all e
2
and {u} [U].
2. Normalize the eigenvectors w.r.t. mass matrix (optional).
Consider the cases of:

1. Initial excitation
2. Harmonic applied force
3. Arbitrary applied force
{ } { }
o o
q q and `
Initial conditions
2n constants that we need to determine by 2n conditions
General solution for any D.O.F.:
Alternative: modal analysis
{ } { } { } { } ) cos( ) cos( ) cos( ) (
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 n n n n
t C u t C u t C u t q | e | e | e + + + =
Displacement vectors:
{ } { }
i o i o
q q ` and on
{ } | |{ }
{ } { } { } { } ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 1 1
t u t u t u t q
U q
n n
q q q
q
+ + + =
=

UFV model equation: | |{ } | |{ } { }

| | | || |{ } | | | || |{ } { }
{ } | |{ } { } 0
0
0
= O +
= +
= +
q q` `
` `
` `
U K U U M U
q K q M
T T
n modal equations:

= +
= +
= +
0
0
0
2
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
n n n
q e q
q e q
q e q
` `
.
` `
` `
Need initial conditions on q,
not q.
Initial conditions - Modal analysis
Using displacement vectors: { } | |{ }
| | | | { } | | | || |{ } U M U q M U
U q
T T
=
= q
As a result, initial conditions:
Since the solution of
{ } | | | | { }
{ } | | | | { }

=
=
o
T
o
o
T
o
q M U
q M U
` `
) sin(
) (
) cos( ) ( ) (
) sin(
) (
) cos( ) ( ) (
1
1
1
1 1 1
t t t
t t t
n
n
n o
n n o n
o
o
e
e
q
e q q
e
e
q
e q q
`
.
`
+ =
+ =
And then solve
hence we can easily solve for
{ } | | | | { } q M U
T
= or
0
2
= + q e q` ` is:
) sin( ) cos( ) (
) cos(
t t t
t C
o
o
e
e
q
e q q
| e
`
+ =
or
{ } | |{ } U q =
Applied harmonic force
Driving force {Q} = {Q
o
}cos(et)
Equation of motion:
{ } | |{ }
| |
{ } unknown
known U
U q =
| |{ } | |{ } { } Q = + q K q M ` `
Substitution of
leads to

| | | || |{ } | | | || |{ } | | { } { } N t Q U U K U U M U
o
T T T
= = + ) cos(e ` `
{ } { }
requency driving f
t Q Q
o
=
= ) cos(e
and
Hence,

{ } { }
{ } { }
.
) cos(
) cos(
2 2
2
2
2
2 2
1
1
1
etc
t
Q u
t
Q u
o
T
o
T
e
e e
q
e
e e
q

=
then

{ } | |{ } U q =
Continuous Systems
1. The axial bar
Displacement field
Energy approach
Equation of motion
2. Examples
General solution - Free vibration
Initial conditions
Applied force
Motion of the base
3. Ritz method Free vibration
Approximate solution
One-term Ritz approximation
Two-term Ritz approximation
The axial bar
Main objectives:
1. Use Hamiltons Principle to derive the equations of motion.
2. Use HP to construct variational methods of solution.
A = cross-sectional area = uniform
E = modulus of elasticity (MOE)
u = axial displacement
= mass per volume
Displacement field: u(x, y, z) = u(x, t)
v(x, y, z) = 0
w(x, y, z) = 0
Energy approach
( )
( ) ( )
} } }
} }
+
)
`

c
c

|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
=
)
`

c
c
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
L
t
t
t
t
L
L
t
t
L
dx u u A dt u
x
u
E A dx u
x
u
E A
x
u u dx A
t
dt dx u
x x
u
E A u u dx A
0 0
0
0
2
1
2
1
2
1
0
0
o o o o
o o
` `
` `
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
u m
x
u
x
u
E ) (E
x x
` = =
= = =
c
c
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
= = = =
energy kinetic T
U energy strain energy potential V
density energy strain U
o
For the axial bar:
Hamiltons principle:
( ) dt u
x
u
E A dx u
x
u
E A
x
u A
t
t
t
L
L
} }
)
`

c
c

|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
=
2
1
0
0
0 o o `
}
=
2
1
) ( 0
t
t
dt V T o o
2
2
1
u (Adx) ` =
}
=
V
o
dV U
2
2
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
x
u E
Axial bar - Equation of motion
2
2
2
2
2
x
u
t
u
c
c
=
c
c
o
Hamiltons principle leads to:
If area A = constant
( ) 0 =
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
+
c
c

x
u
E A
x
u A
t
`
Since x and t are independent, must have both sides equal to a constant.
Separation of variables: ) ( ) ( ) , ( t T x X t x u =
) sin( ) cos(
0
2
t p B t p A T
T p T
+ =
= +
` `
( )
( ) ( ) o o
o
x p D x p C X
X p X
sin cos
0
2
+ =
= + ' '
Hence
| | ( ) ( ) | |

=
+ + =
1
sin cos ) sin( ) cos( ) , (
i
i i i i i i i i
x p D x p C t p B t p A t x u o o
(

=
3
2
2
L
M
L
F
E

o : where
( ) ( )
2
2 2 2 2
2
contant p -
T
dt T d
X
dx X d
= = = o
Fixed-free bar General solution
0 cos 0 =
|
.
|

\
|
=
o
L p
D
i
i
or solution) (trivial Either
= wave speed

o
E
=
For any time dependent problem:

=
(

|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
. , 5 , 3 , 1
2
sin
2
cos
2
sin ) , (
i
i i
L
t i
B
L
t i
A
L
x i
t x u
o t o t t
Free vibration:
| | ( ) ( ) | |

=
+ + =
1
sin cos ) sin( ) cos( ) , (
i
i i i i i i i i
x p D x p C t p B t p A t x u o o
EBC:
NBC:
0 ) 0 ( = u
0 0 =
c
c
=
c
c
= = L x L x
x
u
x
u
E A
General solution:
EBC
| |

=
= + =
1
0 ) sin( ) cos( ) , 0 (
i
i i i i i
t p B t p A C t u
( ) | |

=
=
= + =
c
c
1
0 ) sin( ) cos( cos
i
i i i i i
i i
L x
t p B t p A L p
p D
x
u
o
o
0 =
i
C

2
5
2
3
2
t t t
o
or or =
L p
i
) , 5 , 3 , 1 (
2
. = = i
L
i
p
i
o t
NBC
Fixed-free bar Free vibration

t
e
E
L
i
n
2
=
are the eigenfunctions
|
.
|

\
|
L
x i
2
sin
t
For free vibration:
General solution:
Hence
) cos( ) ( ) , ( t x A t x u
n
e =
are the frequencies (eigenvalues)
2
2
2
2
2
x
u
t
u
c
c
=
c
c
o
) , 5 , 3 , 1 ( . = i
Fixed-free bar Initial conditions
or

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
. , 3 , 1
2
2
) 1 (
2
2
cos
2
sin
1
) 1 (
) ( 8
) , (
i
i
o
L
t i
L
x i
i
L L
t x u
o t t
t
Give entire bar an initial stretch.
Release and compute u(x, t).
0 ) 0 , (
0
=
c
c
|
.
|

\
|

=
= t
o
t
u
x
L
L L
x u and
Initial conditions:
Initial velocity:
Initial displacement:
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
c
c

=
=
0
2
sin
2
, 3 , 1
0
. i
i t
L
x i
B
L
i
t
u t o t
0 =
i
B
2 2
sin
2
sin
2
sin
2
sin
, 3 , 1
0 0
, 3 , 1
L
A dx
L
x i
L
x i
A dx
L
x i
x
L
L L
L
x i
A x
L
L L
i
i
L
i
L
o
i
i
o
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|

} }

=
.
.
t t t
t
) , 3 , 1 ( ) 1 (
) ( 8
2
sin
) ( 2
2
) 1 (
2 2
0
2
. =

=
|
.
|

\
|

=

}
i
i
L L
dx
L
x i
x
L
L L
A
i
o
L
o
i
t
t
Hence
Fixed-free bar Applied force
or
( ) t
x L
E A
F
t x u
o
e
o
e
o
e
e
o
sin sin sec ) , (
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Now, B.Cs:

=
c
c
=
=
) sin(
0 ) , 0 (
t F
x
u
E A
t u
o L x
e
From
B.C. at x = 0:
B.C. at x = L:
= 0 ) , 0 ( t u 0
1
= A
|
.
|

\
|
=
o
e
e
o L
E A
F
A
o
sec
2
Hence
2
2
2
2
2
x
u
t
u
c
c
=
c
c
o
) sin( ) ( ) , ( t x X t x u
n
e =
we assume:
Substituting:
( ) t
x
A
x
A t x u e
o
e
o
e
sin sin cos ) , (
2 1 (

|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
) sin( ) sin( cos
2
t F t
L
L
A E A
x
u
E A
o L x
e e
e
o
e
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
c
c
=
Fixed-free bar Motion of the base
= = ) sin( ) sin( ) , 0 (
1
t U t A t u
o
e e
2
2
2
2
2
x
u
t
u
c
c
=
c
c
o
Using our approach from before:
Resonance at:
( ) t
x L x
U t x u
o
e
o
e
o
e
o
e
sin sin tan cos ) , (
(

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
o
U A =
1
|
.
|

\
|
=
o
eL
U A
o
tan
2
Hence
( ) t
x
A
x
A t x u e
o
e
o
e
sin sin cos ) , (
2 1
(

|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
( ) =
(

|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
c
c
=
0 sin cos sin
2
t
L
A
L U
x
u
o
L x
e
o
e
o
e
o
e
o
e
0 =
c
c
= L x
x
u
E A
From
B.C. at x = 0:
B.C. at x = L:
or . ,
2
3
,
2
t t
o
e
=
L
. ,
2
3
,
2
etc
L L
t o t o
e =
Ritz method Free vibration
Start with Hamiltons principle after I.B.P. in time:
Seek an approximate solution to u(x, t):
In time: harmonic function cos(et) (e = e
n
)
In space: X(x) = a
1
|
1
(x)
where: a
1
= constant to be determined
|
1
(x) = known function of position
( ) ( ) dt dx u
x x
u
E A u u A
t
t
t
L
} }
)
`

c
c
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
=
2
1
0
0 o o `
|
1
(x) must satisfy the following:
1. Satisfy the homogeneous form of the EBC.
u(0) = 0 in this case.
2. Be sufficiently differentiable as required by HP.
One-term Ritz approximation 1
Ritz estimate is higher than the exact
Only get one frequency
If we pick a different basis/trial/approximation function |
1
,
we would get a different result.
) cos( ) cos( ) (
) cos( ) cos( ) ( ) , ( ) (
1
1 1 1 1
t x t x u
t x a t x a t x u x x
e e | o
e e | |
= =
= = =
: e approximat Also
: Pick
| | dt t dx E A x x A a
t
t
L
) ( cos ) 1 )( 1 ( ) )( ( 0
2
0
2
1
2
1
e e
} }
)
`

= Substituting:
2
2 2
2
3
2
3 3
3
o

e e
L
E
L
L E A
L A
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
L L
RITZ
o
o e 732 . 1
3
= =
L L
EXACT
o
o
t
e 571 . 1
2
= =
1
0
1
0
2 2
a dx E A a dx x A
L L
(

=
(

} }
e
Hence
| |{ } | |{ } ( ) a K a M =
2
e : form matrix in
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
L
x
EXACT
2
sin
1
t
|
x
RITZ
=
1
|
One-term Ritz approximation 2
Both mode shape and natural frequency are exact.
But all other functions we pick will never give us a
frequency lower than the exact.
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
L
x
x
2
sin ) (
1
t
| : pick we if What
( ) ( )
dt t dx
L
x
L
E A
L
x
A a
dt dx u
x x
u
E A u u A
t
t
t
L
t
t
L
) ( cos
2
cos
2 2
sin 0
0
2
0
2
2
2 2
1
0
2
1
2
1
e
t t t
e
o o
} }
} }

(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
)
`

c
c
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
= `
Substituting:
EXACT RITZ
L
E
L
e o
t

t
e = = =
2 2
Hence
( )
( ) ) cos( 2 sin ) cos( ) (
) cos( 2 sin ) cos( ) ( ) , (
1
1 1 1
t L x t x u
t L x a t x a t x u
e t e | o
e t e |
= =
= =
: e approximat Also
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
L
x
L dx
d
2
cos
2
1
t t |
Two-term Ritz approximation
2
2 1
) ( x a x a x X + = : Let
| | dt dx x a a E A x x a x a A
t
t
L
} }
)
`

+ + =
2
1
0
2 1
2
2 1
2
) 1 ( ) 2 ( ) ( 0 e
where:
:
1
x u = =| o e approximat If
x a a
dx
dX
2 1
2 + =
:
2
x u = o e approximat If | | dt dx x x a a E A x x a x a A
t
t
L
} }
)
`

+ + =
2
1
0
2 1
2 2
2 1
2
) 2 ( ) 2 ( ) ( 0 e
)
`

=
)
`

2
1
22 21
12 11
2
1
22 21
12 11 2
a
a
K K
K K
E
a
a
M M
M M

= =
= = =
= =
}
}
}
5
) )( (
4
) )( (
3
) )( (
5
0
2 2
22
4
0
2
21 12
3
0
11
L
dx x x M
L
dx x x M M
L
dx x x M
L
L
L
In matrix form:

= =
= = =
= =
}
}
}
3
4
) 2 )( 2 (
) 1 )( 2 (
) 1 )( 1 (
3
0
22
2
0
21 12
0
11
L
dx x x K
L dx x K K
L dx K
L
L
L
Two-term Ritz approximation (cont.)

o e
E
= =
2 2
and
= = + L a a L a L 4526 . 0 0 ) 3785 . 0 1713 . 0 (
2 2 1
2
o
)
`

=
)
`

0
0
) 5 3 4 ( ) 4 (
) 4 ( ) 3 (
2
1
5 3 2 4 2 2
4 2 2 3 2
a
a
L L L L
L L L L
o o
o o
leads to
Solving characteristic polynomial (for det[ ]=0) yields 2 frequencies:
L L
RITZ RITZ
o e o e 67 . 5 ) ( 5767 . 1 ) (
2 1
= = and
Substitution of:
L L
EXACT EXACT
o e o e 7123 . 4 ) ( 5708 . 1 ) (
2 1
= = and
Mode 1:
Let a
1
= 1:
L x x x X
2
1
4526 . 0 ) ( =
: 1 shape Mode
= = L a a L a L 38 . 1 0 ) 10 . 5 043 . 7 (
2 2 1
2 2
o
Mode 2:
L x x x X
2
2
38 . 1 ) ( =
: 2 shape Mode