PIPELINE OPERATION

Navid Mostoufi
Properties of Fluids
Fluids are materials that deform by any tangential
form and the deformation is continuous.

Fluids are divided into gases and liquids.

Gases are compressible but liquids are practically
incompressible.

Liquids have specific volume but gases will fill out
any volume.
n
F
F
n
F
t
= Pressure ] [Pa P Stress Normal
A
F
n
=
] [
2
m
N
Stree Shear
A
F
t
t =
= Shear Stress
mm Hg 100 For example,
Hg mm 100 P
Hg mm 100 760 P
gage
abs
=
=
gage atm abs
P P P + =
. .
101325 Pa
1 atm
14.7 psi
PA
A
P
relative
=0
P
relative
> 0
P
relative
< 0
PB
B
Fluid density:
For liquids:
water
G S

= . .
For gases
air
gas
air
gas

M
M
RT PM
RT PM
G S = = =
/
/
. .

or
3
m
Kg
V
m
=
3
cm
g
or
2
ft
Lb
For liquids usually SG
20/20
or SG
20/4
is reported
Density of liquids decreases with temperature.
The exception is water for which the density
reaches its maximum at 4C.

Viscosity

V
F
H
moving
stationary
t =
A
F
In general:

dy
dv
t =
Unit of viscosity

s Pa
s m
Kg
m
s N
m
s m
m
N
.
.
.
/
2
2
= = =
=

In CGS system

( ) Cp p 100 = =

H
V
s Pa P . 1 . 0 1 =
s Pa cP . 10 1
3
=
In British system:
2
ft
s . lb
=
Viscosity of water at 20 C is 1 cP
t
Deformation rate
Bingham plastic
Pseudoplastic
Dilatant
Newtonian
Vapour Pressure

At the surface of the liquid, some molecules have
enough energy to overcome the intramolecular forces,
thus emerge the liquid surface and enter vapour
phase.

This is the reason for having vapour pressure for
liquids.
Cavitation

In the flow of liquids, there may be points in which
the pressure is less than the vapour pressure of the
liquid at the flow temperature. In such a situation,
small bubbles form at this point. This phenomenon
is called cavitation.

This is an undesired situation because when these
bubbles go to another point with a higher pressure,
they suddenly disappear which results in a pressure
impulse that could be destructive.
Fluid Statics
( )
x
y
z
P
a
x
P
a
y
P
a g
z

c
=

c
= +

c
P P P
dP dx dy dz
x y x
c c c
= + +
c c c
( )dz g a dy a dx a dP
z y x
+ =
Main equation of the static fluid
gdz dP a a a
z y x
= = = = 0
Stationary fluid:
In other words, the change in pressure is only in
the direction of gravitation.
Assuming constant density, integration results:
z g P A = A
Constant =
= + z g P

Constant
z
g
P
+

or
or
Z
g
P
+

is called piezometric head

gh P h = = 0
at P=0 if
Manometer

Manometer is an instrument that measures the pressure
through height of a liquid.
( )
gh P
z z g P P
gz P gz P
1 2 2 1
2 2 1 1
= A
=
+ = +
gh P 0 P
1 2
= =
: if
h
1
2
When the pressure to be measured is high, a
liquid with higher density could be used.
=
Hg

( )
( )
( ) ( )
gH gh
z z g z z g P P
z z g P P
z z g P P
2 2
2 3 2 1 2 1 3 1
2 3 2 3 2
1 2 1 2 1

+ =
+ =
=
=
o H
2

13.6
5
4
3
2
1
water
20cm
2cm
13cm
Oil
SG=0.9
SG=1.6
Air SG=0.0
Example:
Solution
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) Pa
z z g
z z g z z g z z g
P P P P P P P P P P
w
w w w
343 13 . 0 81 . 9 1000 91 . 0
22 . 0 81 . 9 1000 6 . 1 2 . 0 81 . 9 1000
9 . 0
0 6 . 1
) (
4 5
3 4 2 3 1 2
5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 5 1
= +
+ =
+
+ + =
+ + + =

Flow of Fluid
This happens when shear stress force is negligible
compared to other forces. In such condition, it is enough
to set viscosity to zero in the equations of motion.

In reality, all fluids are viscous. However, in some cases,
such as external flows or flow over surfaces, the effect of
viscosity could be neglected.
Inviscid flow
In inviscid flow, viscosity has no or negligible effect on flow.
Viscous flow

Effect of viscosity could not be neglected in
such flow.

For example, in flow of fluid in the pipes and
in boundary layer the effect of viscosity has to
taken into account.

Reason: The fluid sticks to the surface
because it is viscous.

There is energy loss in viscous flow.
Viscous flow could be either laminar or turbulent.
In laminar flow, the fluid does not mix with
neighboring layers.
In turbulent flow, fluid particles have random motion
and pressure and velocity change randomly.
There are 3 important parameter for
determining the flow:

Length: Larger, results in turbulence (i.e., pipe diameter
or boundary layer thickness)

Velocity: Higher velocity results in turbulence.

Kinematic viscosity: Lower kinematic viscosity results in
turbulence.
v
VL
= Re
If Re is low the flow is laminar.
If Re is high the flow is turbulent.
For example, for flow in pipes, if Re<2100, the flow is laminar.
If Re is close to the limit, the flow is transient.
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
h
g
P
g 2
V
h
g
P
g 2
V
+

+ = +

+
Sum of the 3 terms is called Total Head

h
g
P
+

Piezometric head
2
2
V
P + Stagnation Pressure
P
Bernoulli Equation
Static pressure
v
2
2
V
P +
2
2
V

P
Measurement of fluid velocity using Pitot tube
( )
1 2 1
2 1
2
1
P P
2
V
g
P
g
P
g 2
V

+
1
2
v
Where can we use Bernoullis equation?

-External flows in which viscosity could be neglected.
-Determining the height of water jet out of firefighting
hose.
-Calculating the force exerted on a window by wind.

-Internal flows of short distance
-Pressure drop when cross section is changed.
Differential Form of
Equations of Motion
0 =
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
V
y
V
x
V
z
V
y
V
x
V
t
z
y
x
z y x


Total derivative:
0 =
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
z
V
y
V
x
V
Dt
D
z
y
x

0 . = V +
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
V
Dt
D
k
z
j
y
i
x

Equation of Continuity
Euler Equation

When the flow is inviscid, the viscous forces
are neglected (
ij
=0)
g P
Dt
DV
+ V =
In 3 directions:

z
z
y
y
x
x
g
z
P
Dt
DV
g
y
P
Dt
DV
g
x
P
Dt
DV
+
c
c
=
+
c
c
=
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+ +
c
c
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+ +
c
c
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+ +
c
c
=
2
z
2
2
z
2
2
z
2
z
z
2
y
2
2
y
2
2
y
2
y
y
2
z
2
2
x
2
2
x
2
x
x
z
V
y
V
x
V
g
z
P
Dt
DV
z
V
y
V
x
V
g
y
P
Dt
DV
z
V
y
V
x
V
g
x
P
Dt
DV
In vector form:
g V P
Dt
DV
+ V + V =
2
Navier-Stokes Equations

If fluid is:
-Newtonian (such as air, water, oil)
-Isotropic
-incompressible (V.V=0)
Integral Form of
Equations of Motion
Constant density
2 2 1 1
v A v A =
Single input, single output, constant velocity
2 2 2 1 1 1
v A v A =
Conservation of Mass
} }
+
c
c
=
. .
^
. .
. 0
s c v c
vdA n dV
t

Example: Water flows with a constant velocity of 3 m/s into

a nozzle as shown in the figure. What is the velocity of the
fluid at the outlet? Calculate the volumetric flow rate.
s m
v A Q
/ 0236 . 0
4 / 1 . 0 3
3
2
1 1
=
=
=
t
s m
A
A
v v
v A v A
/ 75
4 / 02 . 0
4 / 1 . 0
3
2
2
2
1
1 2
2 2 1 1
=

= =
=
t
t
Example: Water flows through an equipment
as shown below. Determine the rate of
accumulation of water in the equipment.
3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1
. .
^
. .
0
. 0
v A v A v A
dt
dm
vdA n dV
t
s c v c

+ + =
+
c
c
=
} }
s kg
dt
dm
dt
dm
/ 3 . 30
01 . 0 1000 20 12 04 . 0 1000 0
2
=
+ + = t
For Steady Uniform Flow
- Flow is constant with tim
- Single input, single output
- Constant properties at input and output
losses gz
p v
A v gz
p v
A v W
s
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
-
1
1
1
2
1
1 1 1 2
2
2
2
2
2 2 2
2 2

Equation of Energy
- In calculation of pump/turbine work or
heat exchanged during the flow
- Relating pressure and velocity when
effect of viscosity is not negligible
f
s
h z z
g
p
g
p
g
v v
g m
W
+ + +

=
-
-
1 2
1
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1 1 1 2 2 2
A v A v m = =
-
g
v
K
g
u u
g m
Q
h
f
2
2
1 2
=

+ =
-
-
- Neglecting energy loss
- No work given to (taken from) the fluid
- Incompressible flow

Equation of energy reduces to equation of
Bernoulli:
1
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
2 2
z
g
p
g
v
z
g
p
g
v
+ + = + +

Multi input/output
3 1 3
3
2
3
1
1
2
1
2 1 2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
2 2
2 2

+ + + = + +
+ + + = + +
f
f
h z
g
p
g
v
z
g
p
g
v
h z
g
p
g
v
z
g
p
g
v


Existence of pump and/or turbine
( ) ( )
( )
f T P
f T P
P T
P T s
h h h z z
g
v v
g
p p
h z
g
p
g
v
h z
g
p
g
v
h
h h
g m
W W
g m
W
= +

+ + + + = + + +
=

=
-
- -
-
-
1 2
2
1
2
2 1 2
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
2 2

Example: Water flows from a reservoir through a pipe
of 0.8 m diameter to the river with a turbine on the flow.
If the level of water in the reservoir is 30 m higher than
the river, flow of water is 3 m
3
/s and efficiency of the
turbine is 80%, calculate the power of turbine. Assume
that the friction loss of the pipe is K=2.
s m
A
Q
V / 968 . 5
4 / 8 . 0
3
2
=

= =
t
g
v
K z
g
p
g
v
h z
g
p
g
v
h
T P
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
+ + + + = + + +

0
0
0
0
0 0
kW W
Q gh W
m h
h
T T
T
T
T
622 622000
8 . 0 3 4 . 26 81 . 9 1000
4 . 26
81 . 9 2
968 . 5
2 30
2
= =
=
=
=

+ =
-
q
Example: Determine the flow rate of the water in the
venturi tub shown below. Neglect all losses.
D
1
=10 cm, D
2
=5 cm.
m
g
p p
g gz p z g p
p p
b a
12 . 15
2 . 1 6 . 13 ) 2 . 1 (
2 1
2 1
=

+ + = + +
=

1 2
2 2 1 1
4V V
A V A V
=
=
( )
s m V
g
V V
z z
g
p p
g
V V
/ 45 . 4
0 12 . 15
2
16
2
0
1
2
1
2
1
1 2
1 2
2
1
2
2
=
+

=
+

Equation of Energy:
s kg
Q m
s m
V A Q
/ 35 035 . 0 1000
/ 035 . 0 45 . 4 1 . 0
4
3 2
1 1
= =
=
= =
=
-

t
2
1 1 1
2
2 2 2
v A v A F =

Steady-state, single input and output

Mass balance:
2 2 2 1 1 1
v A v A m = =
-
So:
( )
1 2
v v m F =
-

Momentum Equation
Example: Water with a flow of 0.01 m
3
/s
passes through a bend as shown blow.
Calculate the forces experienced by each
support. Neglect the shear forces on the wall.
s m
A
Q
v
s m
A
Q
v
/ 96 . 7
04 . 0
4
01 . 0
/ 99 . 1
08 . 0
4
01 . 0
2
2
2
2
1
1
=

= =
=

= =
t
t
Calculating P
1
( ) ( ) Pa v v p
g
p
g
v
g
p
g
v
29700 99 . 1 96 . 7
2
1000
2
2 2
2 2 2
1
2
2 1
2
2
1 1
2
1
= = =
+ = +

Calculating Rx from
momentum equation
In x-direction:
( )
( )
N R
R
v v m R A p
x
x
x x x
169
99 . 1 0 01 . 0 1000 08 . 0
4
29700
2
1 2 1 1
=
=
=
-
t
( )
N R
v v m R
y
y y y
6 . 79 ) 0 96 . 7 ( 01 . 0 1000
1 2
= =
=
-
Calculating Ry from
momentum equation
In y-direction:
Flow in
Pipes
( )
(
(

|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
A
=
A
=
2
2
2 2
1
4 4 R
r
L
P R
R r
L
P
V
z

Laminar flow:
Solution of Navier-Stokes equation
max .
2
1
z z
V V =
( )
|
.
|

\
|
A
= = =
L
P R
r V V
z Z
4
0
2
max ,
( )
|
.
|

\
|
A
= = =
}
L
P R
R
rdr r V
A
Q
V
z
R
z
t
t
8
2
2
2
0
Definition of friction factor
g
V
D
L
f
g
p
h
f
2
.
2
=
A
=

Darcy-Weisbach equation for laminar flow

Re
64 64
= =
VD
f

Power-law velocity distribution
10 9 7 6
10 2 10 10 10 4 Re
6 6 5 3
n
>
Usually n=7
n
R
r
V
V
1
max
1
|
.
|

\
|
=
Turbulent Flow:
Moody Diagram
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
f
D
f Re
523 . 2
7 . 3
/
ln 86 . 0
1 c
g
V
D
L
f h
f
2
2
=
3 type of problems:
Q D, , ,c v
D h
f
, , , c v
Q h
f
, , , c v
Known Required

h
f

Q

D
First type of problem could be easily solved without
iteration. Problems type 2 and 3 need iterative
calculation.
2 5
8 3
2 5
8 3
10 / 10
10 3 Re 10
03 . 0
2 . 5
4 . 9
75 . 4
2
25 . 1
5 . 0
2
5 . 0
5
10 / 10
10 3 Re 10
2
9 . 0
5
2
55 . 0
2100 Re
17 . 3
7 . 3
/
ln 965 . 0
62 . 4
7 . 3
/
ln 07 . 1


< <
< <
3
< <
< <

(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
>
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
D
f f
f
f
D
f
gh
L
Q
gh
LQ
D
h gD
L D
L
h gD
Q
Q
D D
D g
L Q
h
c
c
v c
v c
v c
The units could be wither British or SI
Swamee & Jane equations for solving pipe flow
problems without iteration
Minor Losses

The main losses in pipes are due to friction. In the
connections and fittings, there are losses due to change
in velocity and flow direction which result in pressure
drop. These losses are called minor losses.
g 2
V
K h
2
f
=
Globe Valve
Angle Valve
Sometimes it is common to use equivalent length
instead of loss factor K.
f
D
K L
g 2
V
D
Le
f
g 2
V
K
e
2 2
=
=
For example, pressure loss of a discharge to
atmosphere (K=1) of a 20 cm diameter pipe with a
friction factor of 0.02 is equivalent to the pressure
loss of 10 m of this pipe.
For a piping system whose length is about 10 times its
diameter, minor losses are the main source of pressure
drop.

For a piping system whose length is about 50 times its
diameter, the share of minor losses is pressure drop is
comparable to the length of the pipe.

For a piping system whose length is about 100 times its
diameter, the main source of pressure drop is the length
of the pipe and minor losses could be neglected.
Pumping of Fluids

Pumping is required for overcoming pressure loss in
transferring liquid.

It is also necessary for transferring the liquid to a higher
level.
f p 1 2
2
1
2
2 1 2
h h Z Z
g 2
V V
g
P P
= +

Head of a pump could be obtained from the equation of energy.

p
s

p
d

z
d

Z
s

Discharge Head
fd d
2
d d
d
h Z
g 2
V
g
P
h + +

=
Total Head
( ) ( )
fs fd s d
2
s
2
d s d
s d p
h h Z Z
g 2
V V
g
P P
h h h
+ + +
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
=
Suction Head
fs s
2
s s
s
h Z
g 2
V
g
P
h + +

=
NPSH have to be always positive. This means that the liquid
pressure in the suction of the pump has to be greater than the
vapour pressure of the pumping liquid for the liquid not to be
vaporized in the pump, thus, preventing cavitation.

Since h
fs
increases with liquid flow, NPSH reduces with
increasing the flow rate.
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)
g
P
h
h Z
g
V
g
P P
NPSH
v
s
fs s
v s

=
+ +

=
2
2
4
Q
NPSH
NPSHR
NPSHA
NPSHA should be at least 2-3 m higher than NPSHR. For
large pumps, this difference could be even higher.
Pump Curve
Operating point of the pump
Operating point
OP with controller
Design
Q
H
S

H
P

Normal
Pump Power
Q . gH Q . P P
P
= A =
Theory
P
P
P
P
Q gH P
P
q

=
q
=
Considering motor
efficiency.
M P
P
M
P
M
Q gH P
P
q q

=
q
=
Pumping efficiency is
around 70%.
Serial Pumps
Parallel pumps
Centrifugal pumps
Centrifugal pumps
Centrifugal pumps
Axial flow pumps
Impellers
Impellers
Mixed flow impeller
Positive displacement pumps
Positive displacement pumps
Positive displacement pumps
Pigging
Cleaning the pipeline.
Dewatering the line (condensate)
Separating products
Inline inspection
Pigging
Pigs
Pigs
Pigs
Pigs
Pig Launcher
Pig Receiver