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Managing Ecosystems

-Wolves were killed & livestock replaced them - keystone predator: controlled bison, elk, & deer populations -hunters, ranchers & miners protested reintroducing wolves to Yellowstone - both positive & negative effects from wolves in the park

Current extinction rate is 100 10,000 times greater than before humans

Biodiversity

Increase Factors
Middle stages of succession Moderate environmental disturbance

Decrease Factors
Extreme environmental conditions Large environmental disturbance Intense environmental stress Severe shortages of key resources Nonnative species introduction Geographic isolation

Destroyed in USA: 95% forests 98% tallgrass prairie 99% CA grassland 85% redwoods

Small changes in environmental conditions Physically diverse habitat Evolution

Importance of Biodiversity


Intrinsic (Existence) Value




They are important because they exist (regardless of use to humans) Use values Nonuse values:
Existence value knowing it exists  Aesthetic its pretty  Bequest protect for the future


Instrumental Value
 

Arctic Circle 60 30N NORTH AMERICA Atlantic Ocean SOUTH AMERICA 30W EUROPE ASIA

Tropic of Cancer Pacific Ocean 0 150 120 90 Tropic of Capricorn 30S

AFRICA 0

Pacific Ocean 60E 90 150 Indian AUSTRALIA Ocean

60 ANTARCTICA Critical and endangered Projected Status of Biodiversity 19982018 Threatened

Antarctic Circle

Stable or intact

The Species Approach

The Ecosystem Approach

Goal
Protect species from premature extinction

Goal
Protect populations of species in their natural habitats

Strategies
Identify endangered species Protect their critical habitats

Strategy
Preserve sufficient areas of habitats in different biomes and aquatic systems

Ways to preserve or restore ecosystems

Tactics
Legally protect endangered species Manage habitat Propagate endangered species in captivity Reintroduce species into suitable habitats

Tactics
Protect habitat areas through private purchase or government action Eliminate or reduce populations of alien species from protected areas Manage protected areas to sustain native species Restore degraded ecosystems

Conservation biology


Emergency response to slow down the damage




Identify hot spots:


Species-rich  Endangered animals


Based on Aldo Leopolds principles:




Something is right when it tends to maintain the earths life support systems for us & other species.

Public Lands


US government manages 35% of the land in the USA (it belongs to the people)

Public Lands


National Forest Service


  

(US Forest Service) Allows logging, mining, grazing, hunting, fishing Conservation of soil, watershed & wildlife

National Resource Lands (BLM)




Mostly mining, oil & gas extraction & grazing

Public Lands


National Wildlife Refuges


 

(USFWS) Protect habitats & breeding areas to regulate hunted species Open to many activities

National Park System


 

(National Park Service) Parks out west, battlefields, memorials, historic sights & more Only camping, hiking, fishing & boating in the parks

Public Lands


National Wilderness Preservation System


  

660 areas Most protected lands (no roads) Inside of other types of public lands

National parks and preserves

National forests

(and Xs) National wildlife refuges

National parks and preserves

National forests

(and Xs) National wildlife refuges

Public Lands


Who gets access to mineral & ecological wealth on protected lands?




Paying subsidies to developers

Should miners pay royalties?




Should they pay to restore land?

Forest Management


Old-growth, second-growth & tree plantations Which type of management is typical in tree farms?


Even-aged fast growing, single species

What are advantages of uneven-aged management?




Diversity, long-term sustainability, multiple use forest

Weak trees removed

Clear cut 30

25 Years of growth

Seedlings planted 15 10 5

Rotation in a tree plantation

Forest Management


How does the building of a road affect a forest?




Erosion, soil loss, habitat fragmentation, exposure to nonnative pests, access for people, no longer qualify as wilderness in USA

Forest Management


What are pros & cons of  Selective cutting




Diversity, regeneration, erosion resistant, multiple use Affects surrounding trees, less canopy=warmer To, drier, more erosion

Shelterwood cutting  Removes mature trees in stages Seed-tree cutting  Few trees are left = regeneration Clear-cutting  All trees removed Strip cutting  Regenerates from nearby trees, multiple use

Cleared plots for grazing Cleared plots for agriculture

Highway

Building a road

Selective Cutting

Shelterwood Cutting

Seed-Tree Cutting

Clear-Cutting

Uncut

Cut

Cut

Cut 1 year ago

Uncut

35 years ago 610 years ago

Strip Cutting

Trade-Offs Clear-Cutting Forests Advantages Disadvantages

Higher timber yields Maximum economic return in shortest time Can reforest with genetically improved fast-growing trees Short time to establish new stand of trees Needs less skill and planning Best way to harvest tree plantations Good for tree species needing full or moderate sunlight for growth

Reduces biodiversity Disrupts ecosystem processes Destroys and fragments some wildlife habitats Leaves moderate to large openings Increases soil erosion Increases sediment water pollution and flooding when done on steep slopes Eliminates most recreational value for several decades

Deforestation


Where are of the remaining old growth forests?




Russia, Canada, Brazil, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea

Many of these forests are at risk for logging, what protects forests the most?


Inaccessibility

What is the economic value of income from the earths ecological services?


$36 trillion not including nonrenewable resources or natural capital

If the environment is so valuable, why is it being damaged?


 

Short-term profit Subsidies for development

Should wood prices include ecological costs?

Natural Capital Degradation Deforestation

Decreased soil fertility from erosion Runoff of eroded soil into aquatic systems Premature extinction of species with specialized niches Loss of habitat for migratory species such as birds and butterflies Regional climate change from extensive clearing Releases CO2 into atmosphere from burning and tree decay Accelerates flooding

What needs to be done to create sustainable forestry?


 

 

Include economic value of forests Balance rate of forest renewal with destruction Identify hot spots Evaluate timber grown sustainably

Solutions Sustainable Forestry


Grow more timber on long rotations Rely more on selective cutting and strip cutting No clear-cutting, seed-tree, or shelterwood cutting on steeply sloped land No fragmentation of remaining large blocks of forest Sharply reduce road building into uncut forest areas Leave most standing dead trees and fallen timber for wildlife habitat and nutrient recycling Certify timber grown by sustainable methods Include ecological services of trees and forests in estimating economic value

Forest fires are part of a natural cycle Surface fire

Crown fire Selective cutting increases the chance of bigger fires

Trade-Offs Logging in U.S. National Forests Advantages


Helps meet countrys timber needs

Disadvantages
Provides only 4% of timber needs Ample private forest land to meet timber needs Has little effect on timber and paper prices Damages nearby rivers and fisheries Recreation in national forests provides more local jobs and income for local communities than logging Decreases recreational opportunities

Cut areas grow back

Keeps lumber and paper prices down

Provides jobs in nearby communities

Promotes economic growth in nearby communities

Foxglove
Digitalis purpurea, Europe Digitalis for heart failure

Pacific yew
Taxus brevifolia, Pacific Northwest Ovarian cancer

Cinchona
Cinchona ledogeriana, South America Quinine for malaria treatment

Neem tree
Azadirachta indica, India Treatment of many diseases, insecticide, Spermicide Matures in 5-7 years Grows in poor soil in semi-arid climates Provides fuelwood, lumber & lamp oil What are other sources for making paper besides trees?

Figure 11-19 Forests Sustaining Tropical Prevention Page 213


Protect most diverse and endangered areas Educate settlers about sustainable agriculture and forestry Phase out subsidies that encourage unsustainable forest use Add subsidies that encourage sustainable forest use Protect forests with debt-for-nature swaps, conservation easements, and conservation concessions Certify sustainably grown timber Reduce illegal cutting Reduce poverty Slow population growth

Solutions

Restoration

Reforestation

Rehabilitation of degraded areas

Concentrate farming and ranching on already-cleared areas

Nicaragua Guanacastle Arenal Costa Rica

Caribbean Sea Llanuras de Tortuguero La Amistad

Bajo Tempisqu e Cordillera Volcanica Central Pacifico Central Pacific Ocean Peninsula Osa Panama

Costa Ricas Megareserves -protect 80% of biodiversity 500,000 species $1 billion/year in tourism Fear of developers due to increased tourism

Protecting Land


Nature Conservancy
  

Uses donations to buy key lands Gives tax benefits for placing use restrictions on land Gives tax deductions for land donations

Smaller, connected reserves are sometimes better than large reserves Bioreserves
  

MAB Man and the Biosphere Program (UNESCO) Protected core 2 less-protected buffer zones

Biosphere Reserve

Core area

Buffer zone 1 Buffer zone 2

Tourism and education center

Human settlements

Research station

Figure 11-24 Page 219

Biodiversity Hot Spots -these 25 spots contain 2/3 of worlds biodiversity


-in danger of disruption

USA
 

4.8% of land in USA is protected Only 1.8% is in lower 48 Only 4 of 413 wilderness areas are more than 4,000 km2 (recommended size by US Wilderness Society) 400,000 km2 of national forests waiting for wilderness protection


no longer protected while waiting

Solutions National Parks


Integrate plans for managing parks and nearby federal lands Add new parkland near threatened parks Buy private land inside parks Locate visitor parking outside parks and use shuttle buses for entering and touring heavily used parks Increase funds for park maintenance and repairs Survey wildlife in parks Raise entry fees for visitors and use funds for park management and maintenance Limit number of visitors to crowded park rangers Increase number and pay of park rangers Encourage volunteers to give visitor lectures and tours Seek private donations for park maitenance and repairs

Restoration
    

Restoration to original condition Rehabilitation create functional


ecosystem

Remediation

chemical cleanup (brownfields abandoned industrial plants)

Replacement new type of


ecosystem (tree farm)

Create Artificial Ecosystems


artificial wetlands

What Can You Do? Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity

Plant trees and take care of them. Recycle paper and buy recycled paper products. Buy wood and wood products made from trees that have been grown sustainably. Help rehabilitate or restore a degraded area of forest or grassland near your home. When building a home, save all the trees and as much natural vegetation and soil as possible. Landscape your yard with a diversity of plants natural to the area instead of having a monoculture lawn.

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