Automotive electronics

Use of electronics in automobile

• To improve fuel economy
• To reduce exhaust emission
 Current trend in automobile
1. Electronic engine control for minimizing exhaust
emissions and maximizing fuel economy
2. Instrumentation for measuring vehicle performance
parameters and for diagnosis of on-board system
malfunctions
3. Driveline control
4. Vehicle motion control
5. Safety and convenience
6. Entertainment/communication/navigation
AUTOMOBILE PHYSICAL CONFIGURATION
These systems include the following:
1. Engine
2. Drivetrain (transmission, differential, axle)
3. Suspension
4. Steering
5. Brakes
6. Instrumentation
7. Electrical/electronic
8. Motion control
9. Safety
10. Comfort/convenience
11. Entertainment/communication/navigation
ENGINE
Engine block
Cylinder Head
The 4-Stroke Cycle
Engine operation
ENGINE CONTROL
Intake Manifold and
Fuel Metering
 Spark Plug
Configuration
Schematic of the
Ignition Circuit
Spark Pulse Generation
SUSPENSION
Shock Absorber
Assembly
STEERING SYSTEM
Engine terms
Power
Power is a measurement of an engine’s ability to
perform useful work. Brake power, which is
measured with an engine dynamometer, is the actual power
developed by the engine minus losses due to internal friction.
BSFC
BSFC is a measurement of an engine’s fuel economy. It is the
ratio of fuel flow to the brake power output of the engine
BSFC = rf/pb
Torque
Engine torque is the twisting action produced on the
crankshaft by the cylinder pressure pushing on the piston
during the power stroke.
 Volumetric Efficiency
Volumetric efficiency actually describes how well the engine
functions as an air pump, drawing air and fuel into the various
cylinders. It depends on various engine design parameters such
as piston size, piston stroke, and number of cylinders and is
strongly influenced by camshaft design.

Thermal Efficiency
Thermal efficiency expresses the mechanical energy that is
delivered to the vehicle relative to the energy content of the fuel.

Calibration
The definition of engine calibration is the setting of the air/fuel
ratio and ignition timing for the engine.
ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL
Inputs to Controllers
1.Throttle position sensor
(TPS)
2. Mass air flow rate (MAF)
3. Engine temperature (coolant
temperature) (CT)
4. Engine speed (RPM) and
angular position
5. Exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR) valve position
6. Exhaust gas oxygen (EGO)
concentration Outputs from
Outputs from Controllers
1. Fuel metering control
2. Ignition control
3. Ignition timing
4. Exhaust gas
recirculation control
Electronic Distributor less
Ignition System
 Sensors and
actuators
Sensors: Sensors
S provide measurements of
important plant variables in a format suitable for the
digital microcontroller.
Ex:Throttle position sensor (TPS), directly regulates
the air flow into the engine, thereby controlling
output power.
Autuators:Actuators are electrically operated
devices that regulate inputs to the plant that directly
control its output.
Ex: Fuel injectors are electrically driven actuators
that regulate the flow of fuel into an engine for
engine control applications.
 TYPES OF SENSORS
• 1. Mass air flow (MAF) rate
• 2. Exhaust gas oxygen concentration (possibly heated)
• 3. Throttle plate angular position
• 4. Crankshaft angular position/RPM
• 5. Coolant temperature
• 6. Intake air temperature
• 7. Manifold absolute pressure (MAP)
• 8. Differential exhaust gas pressure
• 9. Vehicle speed
• 10. Transmission gear selector position
 AIR FLOW RATE SENSOR

 In the MAF, the hot-wire, or sensing, element

is replaced by a hot-film structure (Thermister)
mounted on a substrate. On the air inlet side is
mounted a honeycomb flow straightener that
“smooths” the air flow.
 The film element is electrically heated to a
constant temperature above that of the inlet air.
The Wheatstone bridge consists of three fixed
resistors R1, R2, and R3 and a hot-film element
having resistance RHW. With no air flow the
resistors R1, R2, and R3 are chosen such that
voltage va and vb are equal (i.e., the bridge is said
to be balanced).

As air flows across the hot film, heat is carried

away from the film by the moving air. The amount
of heat carried away varies in proportion to the
mass flow rate of the air. The heat lost by the film
to the air tends to cause the resistance of the film to
vary, which un balances the bridge circuit, thereby
producing an input voltage to the amplifier

The output of the amplifier is connected to the

bridge circuit and provides the power for this
circuit. The amplified voltage changes the
resistance in such a way as to maintain a fixed hot-
film temperature relative to the inlet temperature.
• voltage-to-frequency (v/f ) converter is used to convert the analog voltage
in to digital signal This circuit is a variable-frequency oscillator whose
frequency f is proportional to the input voltage (in this case, the amplifier
output voltage).

• The variable-frequency output voltage (vf ) is applied through an electronic

gate, which is essentially an electrically operated switch. Control circuitry
(also part of the sensor solid-state electronics) repeatedly closes the switch
for a fixed interval t. Then it opens it for another fixed interval. During the
first interval the variable-frequency signal from the v/f circuit is connected
to the binary counter (BC)

B=ft
B = BC count
f = frequency of v/f
t = duration of closure of electronic gate

• After the engine controller reads the count, the BC is reset to zero to be
ready for the next sample
 Indirect Measurement of Mass Air
Flow (speed-density method)
This method computes an estimate of
mass air flow from measurements of
manifold absolute pressure (MAP), RPM,
and inlet air temperature.

Strain Gauge MAP Sensor

Manifold pressure applied to the
diaphragm causes it to deflect. The
resistance of the sensing resistors
changes in proportion to the applied
manifold pressure by a phenomenon that
is known as piezoresistivity.
The resistors in the strain gauge
MAP sensor are connected in a
wheatstone bridge circuit.
Output voltage of the circuit
varies as the resistance varies in
response to manifold pressure
variations.
 ENGINE CRANKSHAFT
ANGULAR POSITION SENSOR

Crankshaft angular position is an important

variable in automotive control systems,
particularly
for controlling ignition timing and fuel injection
timing.
The crankshaft angular position is the angle between the reference line and the mark on
the flywheel .Imagine that the flywheel is rotated so that the mark is directly on the
reference line. This is an angular position of zero degrees. For our purposes, assume that
this angular position corresponds to the No. 1 cylinder at TDC (top dead center). As the
crankshaft rotates, this angle increases from zero to 360° in one revolution.

one full engine cycle from intake through exhaust requires two complete revolutions of
the crankshaft. That is, one complete engine cycle corresponds to the crankshaft angular
position going from zero to 720°.

 During each cycle, it is important to measure the crankshaft position with reference to
TDC for each cylinder. This information is used by the electronic engine controller to set
ignition timing and, in most cases, to set the fuel injector pulse timing.
 TYPES
• MECHANICAL
Magnetic Reluctance Position Sensor
Hall-Effect Position Sensor

• OPTICAL
Optical Crankshaft Position Sensor
MAGNETIC RELUCTANCE POSITION SENSOR
• In the magnetic reluctance position sensor, a coil
wrapped around the magnet senses the changing
intensity of the magnetic field as the tabs of a ferrous
disk pass between the poles of the magnet.
• The voltage generated by the magnetic reluctance
position sensor is determined by the strength of the
magnetic flux. When a tab on the steel disk passes
through the gap, the flow of the magnetic flux
changes significantly.
• The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is inversely proportional
to the magnetic permeability of the material along the path.
The magnetic permeability of steel is a few thousand times
larger than air; therefore, the reluctance of steel is much lower
than air.

• Note that when one of the tabs of the steel disk is located
between the pole pieces of the magnet, a large part of the gap
between the pole pieces is filled by the steel. Since the steel
has a lower reluctance than air, the “flow” of magnetic flux
increases to a relatively large value.

• when a tab is not between the magnet pole pieces, the gap is
filled by air only. This creates a high-reluctance circuit for
which the magnetic flux is relatively small. Thus, the
magnitude of the magnetic flux that “flows” through the
magnetic circuit depends on the position of the tab, which, in
turn, depends on the crankshaft angular position.
 Output Voltage Waveform From The Magnetic Reluctance
Position Sensor Coil

The voltage induced in the sensing coil varies with

the rate of change of the magnetic flux. When the tab
is centered between the poles of the magnet, the
voltage is zero because the flux is not changing

coil voltage, Vo, begins to increase from zero as a

tab begins to pass between the pole pieces, reaches a
maximum, then falls to zero when the tab is exactly
between the pole pieces . (Note that although the value
of magnetic flux is maximum at this point, the rate of
change of magnetic flux is zero; therefore, the induced
voltage in the sensing coil is zero.) Then it increases
with the opposite polarity, reaches a maximum, and
falls to zero as the tab passes out of the gap between
the pole pieces
Disadvantages:
Lack of output when the engine isn’t running.
 Hall-Effect Position Sensor
The Hall element is a thin slab of semiconductor material that is placed
between the magnets so it can sense the magnetic flux variations as the tab
passes. A constant current is passed through the semiconductor in one
direction, and a voltage is Generated that varies with the strength of the
magnetic flux. This effect—the generation of a voltage that is dependent on
a magnetic field—is called the Hall effect.
Vo is proportional to the magnetic flux density, it reaches
maximum when any of the tabs is symmetrically located
between the magnet pole pieces (corresponding to TDC of a
cylinder).

.
 Waveform of Hall Element Output
Voltage for Position Sensor

Advantages: Hall-effect sensor produces the same output voltage

waveform regardless of engine speed, the engine timing can be set when
the engine is not running
 Shielded-Field Sensor
When one of the tabs passes between the magnet and the sensor element, the low
reluctance of the tab and disk provides a path for the magnetic flux that
bypasses the Hall-effect sensor element, and the sensor output drops to near
zero. The waveform is just opposite to hall effect sensor.
 Optical Crankshaft Position Sensor
In the optical crankshaft position sensor, a
disk coupled to the crankshaft has holes to
pass light between the LED and the
phototransistor. An output pulse is
generated as each hole passes the LED.

The hole in the disk allows transmission of

light through the light pipes from the light-
emitting diode (LED) source to the
phototransistor used as a light sensor. Light
would not be transmitted from source to
sensor when there is no hole because the
solid disk blocks the light.
Advantages:
• It can sense position without the engine
running and that the pulse amplitude is
constant with variation in speed.
Disadvantages:
• optical sensors must be protected from dirt and
oil; otherwise, it will not work properly.
 Throttle Angle Sensor

The throttle plate is linked mechanically

to the accelerator pedal. When the
driver depresses the accelerator pedal,
this linkage causes the throttle plate
angle to increase, allowing more air to
enter the engine and thereby increasing
engine power.
• The voltage at the contact point of the movable
contact is proportional to the angle (a) from the
ground contact to the movable contact. Thus,
v(a) =ka
where v(a) is the voltage at the contact point
k is a constant
a is the angle of the contact point from the ground
connection
Disadvantages:
• For digital engine control, the voltage v(a) must be
converted to digital format using an analog-to-digital
converter.
 Exhaust Gas Oxygen Sensor
(lambda sensor)
• The amount of oxygen in the exhaust gas is
used as an indirect measurement of the air/fuel
ratio.
λ = air/fuel
air/fuel at stoichiometry
λ =1(air/fuel at stoichiometry)
λ >1(air–fuel mixture is too lean)
λ <1(air–fuel mixture is too rich)
 Types

Based on the use of active oxides of two types of

materials.
• Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2)
• Titanium dioxide (TiO2).
The zirconium dioxide EGO sensor
uses
zirconium dioxide sandwiched between
two platinum electrodes. One electrode
is exposed to exhaust gas and the
other is exposed to normal air for
reference.

The inside electrode is exposed to air,

and the outside electrode is exposed to
exhaust gas through a porous
protective overcoat.
• An ion is an electrically charged atom. Oxygen
ions have two excess electrons and each electron
has a negative charge; thus, oxygen ions are
negatively charged. The ZrO2 has a tendency to
attract the oxygen ions, which accumulate on the
ZrO2 surface just inside the platinum electrodes.

• The platinum plate on the air reference side of the

ZrO2 is exposed to a much higher Concentration
of oxygen ions than the exhaust gas side.
• The polarity of this voltage is positive on the exhaust gas side
and negative on the air reference side of the ZrO2. The
magnitude of this voltage depends on the concentration of
oxygen in the exhaust gas and on the sensor temperature.

• The quantity of oxygen in the exhaust gas is represented by

the oxygen partial pressure

• Rich mixture varies over the range of 10-16 to 10-32 of

atmospheric pressure and lean mixture is roughly 10-2
atmosphere

• Rich mixture -low oxygen concentration and higher EGO

sensor output(1V)

• lean mixture-exhaust gas oxygen concentration is relatively

high and low EGO sensor output voltage(0.1V)
Desirable EGO Characteristics
1. Abrupt change in voltage at stoichiometry
2. Rapid switching of output voltage in response
to exhaust gas oxygen changes
3. Large difference in sensor output voltage
between rich and lean mixture conditions
4. Stable voltages with respect to exhaust
temperature
Switching Characteristics
Temperature affects
switching times and
output voltage
Hysteresis is the difference in the
switching
point of the output voltage with respect
to
stoichiometry as a mixture passes from
lean to rich, as contrasted to a mixture
that passes from rich to lean.

The sensor output doesn’t change at

exactly the same point for increasing
air/fuel ratio as for decreasing air/fuel
ratio. This phenomenon is called
hysteresis.
 Typical Voltage Switching Characteristics of EGO Sensor

The switching times are roughly 0.1

second at 350°C, whereas at 800°C
they are about 0.05 second.

The EGO sensor should not be used

for control at temperatures below
about 300°C because the difference
between rich and lean voltages
decreases rapidly with temperature in
this region.
 Heated EGO Sensors

• This sensor is electrically heated from start-up until it

yields an output signal of sufficient magnitude to be
useful in closed-loop control.
• Electrical power from the car battery is applied at
start-up, which quickly warms the sensor to usable
temperatures.
• This heating potentially shortens the time interval
until closed-loop operation is possible, thereby
minimizing the time during warm-up that the air/fuel
ratio deviates from stoichiometry and correspondingly
reduces undesirable exhaust gas emissions.
 Knock Sensors
This sensor is employed in closed-loop
ignition timing to prevent undesirable knock
• Rapid rise in cylinder pressure during
combustion.
• Excessive spark advance.
Some engine knock sensors use rods within a
magnetic field to detect the presence of knock.
Other use vibration sensitive crystals or
semiconductors
• Magnetostriction is a phenomenon whereby the
magnetic properties of a material depend on stress
(due to an applied force). When sensing knock, the
magnetostrictive rods, which are in a
magnetic field, change the flux field in the coil
due to knock-induced forces. This change in flux
produces a voltage change in the coil. This voltage
is used to sense excessive knock
 Surprise test-1
1.What is the primary purpose of fuel control?
a. to minimize fuel economy
b. to eliminate exhaust emissions
c. to optimize catalytic converter efficiency
d. to maximize engine torque

2.What does exhaust gas recirculation do?

a. improves fuel economy
b. reduces NOx emission
c. increases engine torque
d. provides air for the catalytic converter
3.The Hall effect is
a. the resonance of a long, narrow corridor
b. the flow of air through the intake manifold
c. zero crossing error in camshaft position measurements
d. a phenomenon occurring in semiconductor materials in
which a voltage is generated that is proportional to the
strength of a magnetic field

4.The resistance of a thermistor

a. varies inversely with temperature
b. varies directly with temperature
c. is always 100,000ohms
d. none of the above
5.Piezoresistivity is
a. a property of certain semiconductors in which
resistivity varies with strain
b. a resistance property of insulators
c. metal bonding pads
d. an Italian resistor

6.What engine quantities are measured to determine

spark advance for an electronic ignition system?
a. manifold pressure, RPM, and temperature
b. coolant temperature and mass air flow
c. manifold position and crankshaft position
d. none of the above
7.Brake power of an engine is
a. the power required to decelerate the car
b. an electronic system for stopping the car
c. the difference between indicated power and power
losses in the engine
d. none of the above

8.Which of the following are examples of a plant?

a. automotive drivetrain
b. high-temperature oven
c. an airplane navigation system
d. all of the above
9.What does signal processing do?
a. converts a mechanical input to an electrical output
b. converts an electrical input to a mechanical output
c. reduces the effects of noise and other disturbances on
the measured quantity
d. all of the above
10.The air–fuel ratio is
a. the rate at which combustible products enter the engine
b. the ratio of the mass of air to the mass of fuel in a
cylinder before ignition
c. the ratio of gasoline to air in the exhaust pipe
d. intake air and fuel velocity ratio
 Actuators
• An actuator is a device that receives an
electrical input (e.g., from the engine
controller) and produces a mechanical or
thermal (or other)
output.
Examples
Electric motors, solenoids, and piezoelectric
force generators.
 Schematic Drawing of a Solenoid
When a current passes through the coil, a
magnetic field is created that tends to pull
the movable element toward the steel
frame. When the magnetic field, which is
proportional to the current, is sufficient to
Overcome the force at the spring holding
the movable element, then it begins to
move toward the frame. As this element
moves, the size of the gap is reduced,
causing an increase in the strength of the
magnetic field. This increase causes the
movable element to accelerate toward the
frame until it reaches the stop.
This abrupt motion of the movable element is
essentially in the form of a mechanical
switching action such that the solenoid tends
to be either in its rest position (as held by the
spring) or against the mechanical stop.
Advantages
Simple and inexpensive.
Applications
Fuel injectors and EGR valves.
Schematic Drawing of Fuel Injector
Pulse Mode Fuel Control Signal to Fuel Injector
EGR Actuator Control
Stepper motor throttle actuator