a 

natural science that deals with the study of 

celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, 
nebulae, star clusters and galaxies) and 
phenomena that originate outside the 
Earth's atmosphere (such as the 
cosmic background radiation. It is concerned with
the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and 
motion of celestial objects, as well as the 
formation and development of the universe.
The "Pillars of Creation" from
the Eagle Nebula

A nebula, from Latin:

"cloud”, is an
interstellar cloud of dust,
hydrogen gas, helium
gas and other
ionized gases.
 The Triangulum Emission
Garren Nebula

Originally, nebula was a

general name for any
extended astronomical
object, including galaxies
beyond the Milky Way
The Crab Nebula, an example
of a supernova remnant.

some examples of the

older usage of nebula
survive; for example, the
Andromeda Galaxy was
referred to as the
Andromeda Nebula
before galaxies were
discovered by
Edwin Hubble
Messier 69 in the constellation
Sagittarius

Star clusters or star

clouds are groups of
stars.
star clusters can be
distinguished as
globular clusters - are
tight groups of hundreds
of thousands of very old
stars which are
gravitationally bound
The Pleiades, an open cluster dominated by hot blue stars surrounded by
reflection nebulosity.
open clusters are loosely
bound to each other by
mutual
gravitational attraction and
become disrupted by close
encounters with other
clusters and clouds of gas as
they orbit the galactic center
resulting in a migration to the
main body of the galaxy, as
well as a loss of cluster
members through internal
close encounters
It is built on Greek root astron = star and
nomos = arrangement, order or law.
Astronomy, therefore, is the study of
arrangement of stars. It is the branch of
Physics that studies celestial bodies and the
Universe as a whole.
Difference between astronomy and astrology
Astronomy is based on the laws of physics and aims at
describing what is happening to the universe based on what
we observe today. Because the laws of physics are
constant (as far as we can tell), astronomy can also explain
how the universe behaved in the past and can propose a
limited number of possible scenarios for its future
Astrology on the other hand claims it can predict what will
happen to individuals or to mankind, based on such things as
solar system configurations and birth dates.
 Historical Background
In early times, astronomy only comprised the
observation and predictions of the motions of objects
visible to the naked eye. Ex. determine the seasons,
an important factor in knowing when to plant crops,
as well as in understanding the length of the year.

Most of early astronomy actually consisted of

mapping the positions of the stars and planets, a
science now referred to as astrometry.
 Historical Background
From these observations, early ideas about the
motions of the planets were formed, and the nature
of the Sun, Moon and the Earth in the universe were
explored philosophically.
The Earth was believed to be the center of the
universe with the Sun, the Moon and the stars
rotating around it. This is known as the geocentric
model of the universe.
 Historical Background

A particularly important early development was the

beginning of mathematical and scientific astronomy,
which began among the Babylonians, who laid the
foundations for the later astronomical traditions that
developed in many other civilizations. The
Babylonians discovered that lunar eclipses recurred
in a repeating cycle known as a saros.
 Historical Background

•The Saros cycle is an eclipse cycle with a period

of 223 synodic months (approximately 6585.3213
days, or nearly 18 years 11 1/3 days), that can be
used to predict eclipses of the Sun and Moon. One
cycle after an eclipse, the Sun, Earth, and Moon
return to approximately the same relative geometry,
and a nearly identical eclipse will occur.
•A series of eclipses that are separated by one
Saros cycle is called a Saros series.
 Historical Background

•Synodic Month

This is the average period of the Moon's revolution

with respect to the Sun. The synodic month is a
description of the Moon's phases, because the
Moon's appearance depends on the position of the
Moon with respect to the Sun as seen from the
Earth.
 Historical Background

In the 3rd century BC, Aristarchus of Samos

calculated the size of the Earth, and measured the
size and distance of the Moon and Sun, and was the
first to propose a heliocentric model of the solar
system.
•Heliocentrism, or heliocentricism is the
astronomical model in which the Earth and planets
revolve around a stationary Sun at the center of the
solar system.
 Historical Background

Aristarchus' method relied on several observations:

•The apparent size of the Sun and the Moon in the sky
•The size of the Earth's shadow in relation to the Moon
during a lunar eclipse
•The angle between the Sun and Moon during a half moon is
very close to 90°.

The rest of the article details a reconstruction of

Aristarchus' method and results.
 Historical Background
The reconstruction uses the following variables:
Symbol Meaning
Angle between the Earth and the Sun during a half moon (directly
φ
measurable)
L Distance to the Moon
S Distance to the Sun
ℓ Radius of the Moon
s Radius of the Sun
t Radius of the Earth
Distance from the center of Earth to the vertex of Earth's shadow
D
cone
d Radius of the Earth's shadow at the location of the Moon
n Ratio, d/ℓ (a directly observable quantity during a lunar eclipse)
x Ratio, S/L = s/ℓ (which is calculated from φ)
 Historical Background
Aristarchus began with the premise that, during a half moon,
the moon forms a right triangle with the Sun and Earth. By
observing the angle between the Sun and Earth, φ, the ratio
of the distances to the Sun and Moon could be deduced using
a form of trigonometry.
 Historical Background
using geometrical analysis in the style of Euclid, Aristarchus
determined that

In other words, the distance to the Sun was somewhere

between 18 and 20 times greater than the distance to the
Moon.
This value (or values close to it) was accepted by
astronomers for the next two thousand years, until the
invention of the telescope permitted a more precise estimate
of solar parallax.
 Historical Background

•A simplified illustration of the parallax of an object against a distant

background due to a perspective shift. When viewed from "Viewpoint A",
the object appears to be in front of the blue square. When the viewpoint is
changed to "Viewpoint B", the object appears to have moved in front of the
red square.
 Historical Background
Aristarchus also reasoned that as the angular size of the Sun
and the Moon were the same, but the distance to the Sun
was between 18 and 20 times further than the Moon, the Sun
must therefore be 18-20 times larger.
Aristarchus then used another construction based on a lunar
eclipse:
 Historical Background

The appearance of these equations can be simplified using n

= d/ℓ and x = s/ℓ.

The above equations give the radii of the Moon and Sun
entirely in terms of observable quantities.
 Historical Background
The following formulae give the distances to the Sun and
Moon in terrestrial units:

where θ is the apparent radius of the Moon and Sun

measured in degrees.
 Historical Background

A similar procedure was later used by Hipparchus, who

estimated the mean distance to the moon as 67 Earth radii,
and Ptolemy, who took 59 Earth radii for this value.

In the 2nd century BC, Hipparchus discovered precession,

calculated the size and distance of the Moon and invented
the earliest known astronomical devices such as the
astrolabe. Hipparchus also created a comprehensive catalog
of 1020 stars, and most of the constellations of the northern
hemisphere derive are taken from Greek astronomy.
 Historical Background
The Antikythera mechanism (c. 150–80 BC) was an early
analog computer designed to calculating the location of the Sun,
Moon, and planets for a given date. (is an ancient
mechanical computer designed to calculate astronomical
positions) Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not
reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical
astronomical clocks appeared in Europe.
During the Middle Ages, astronomy was mostly stagnant in
medieval Europe, at least until the 13th century. However,
astronomy flourished in the Islamic world and other parts of the
world.
This led to the emergence of the first astronomical observatories in
the Muslim world by the early 9th century.
 Historical Background
In 964, the Andromeda Galaxy, the nearest galaxy to the
Milky Way, was discovered by the Persian astronomer Azophi
and first described in his Book of Fixed Stars.

The SN 1006 supernova, the brightest apparent magnitude

stellar event in recorded history, was observed by the
Egyptian Arabic astronomer Ali ibn Ridwan and the
Chinese astronomers in 1006.
•The apparent magnitude (m) of a celestial body is a measure of its
brightness as seen by an observer on Earth, normalized to the value it
would have in the absence of the atmosphere. The brighter the object
appears, the lower the value of its magnitude.
 Scientific Revolution

During the Renaissance, Nicolaus Copernicus proposed a

heliocentric model of the solar system. His work was
defended, expanded upon, and corrected by Galileo Galilei
and Johannes Kepler. Galileo innovated by using telescopes
to enhance his observations

Kepler was the first to devise a system that described

correctly the details of the motion of the planets with the Sun
at the center. However, Kepler did not succeed in formulating
a theory behind the laws he wrote down.
 Scientific Revolution

It was left to Newton's invention of

celestial dynamics and his law of gravitation to
finally explain the motions of the planets. Newton
also developed the reflecting telescope.

• A reflecting telescope (also called a reflector) is an

optical telescope which uses a single or combination
of curved mirrors that reflect light and form an image.
Scientific Revolution

24 inch convertible
Newtonian/Casseg
rain reflecting
telescope on
display at the
Franklin Institute.
 Scientific Revolution
More extensive star catalogues were produced by
Lacaille. The astronomer William Herschel made a
detailed catalog of nebulosity and clusters, and in
1781 discovered the planet Uranus, the first new
planet found.
•Abbé Nicolas Louis de Lacaille (March 15, 1713 –
March 21, 1762) was a French astronomer.
He is noted for his catalogue of nearly 10,000 southern
stars, including 42 nebulous objects
 Scientific Revolution
The distance to a star was first announced in 1838 when the
parallax of 61 Cygni was measured by Friedrich Bessel
•61 Cygni, sometimes called Bessel's Star or Piazzi's Flying Star, is a
binary star system in the constellation Cygnus. It consists of a pair of K-type
dwarf stars that orbit each other in a period of about 659 years, forming a
visual binary. At fifth and sixth apparent magnitudes, they are among the least
conspicuous stars visible in the night sky to an observer without an
optical instrument.
•Cygnus is a northern constellation lying on the plane of the Milky Way. Its
name is the Latinized Hellenic (Greek) word for swan. One of the most
recognizable constellations of the northern summer and autumn, it features a
prominent asterism known as the Northern Cross (in contrast to the
Southern Cross). Cygnus was among the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd
century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern
constellations.
 Scientific Revolution

Significant advances in astronomy came about with the

introduction of new technology, including the spectroscope
and photography.

Fraunhofer discovered about 600 bands in the spectrum of

the Sun in 1814–15, which, in 1859, Kirchhoff ascribed to the
presence of different elements. Stars were proven to be
similar to the Earth's own Sun, but with a wide range of
temperatures, masses, and sizes
 Scientific Revolution

The existence of the Earth's galaxy, the Milky Way,

as a separate group of stars, was only proved in the
20th century, along with the existence of "external"
galaxies, and soon after, the expansion of the
Universe, seen in the recession of most galaxies
from us
 Scientific Revolution

Modern astronomy has also discovered many exotic

objects such as quasars, pulsars, blazars, and
radio galaxies, and has used these observations to develop
physical theories which describe some of these objects in
terms of equally exotic objects such as black holes and
neutron stars
Physical cosmology made huge advances during the 20th
century, with the model of the Big Bang heavily supported
by the evidence provided by astronomy and physics.
Quasars
A quasi-stellar radio
source ("quasar") is
a very energetic and
distant
active galactic nucleus
. Quasars are among
the most luminous
objects in the universe

An artist's impression of a
growing quasar.
The Vela Pulsar and its surrounding pulsar wind nebula.
Pulsars are highly magnetized,
rotating neutron stars that emit a
beam of
electromagnetic radiation. The
radiation can only be observed
when the beam of emission is
pointing towards the Earth. This
is called the lighthouse effect
and gives rise to the pulsed
nature that gives pulsars their
name. Because neutron stars
are very dense objects, the
rotation period and thus the
interval between observed
Blazar jet accelerated to the edge of the speed-of-light barrier.
A blazar (blazing quasi-stellar
object) is a very compact
quasar (quasi-stellar object)
associated with a presumed
supermassive black hole at
the center of an active, giant
elliptical galaxy. Blazars are
among the most energetic
phenomena in the universe
and are an important topic in
extragalactic astronomy.
Black Hole
A black hole is a region of
space from which nothing,
not even light, can escape.
Around a black hole there is
an undetectable surface
called an event horizon that
marks the point of no return.
It is called "black" because it
absorbs all the light that hits
the horizon, reflecting
nothing.
 Field of Astronomy
During the 20th century, the field of professional astronomy
split into observational and theoretical branches.
Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from
observations of celestial objects, which is then analyzed
using basic principles of physics.
Theoretical astronomy is oriented towards the development
of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical
objects and phenomena.
The two fields complement each other, with theoretical
astronomy seeking to explain the observational results, and
observations being used to confirm theoretical results.
 Field of Astronomy
Observational astronomy
Radio astronomy is a subfield of astronomy that studies celestial objects
at radio frequencies
Radio astronomy studies radiation with wavelengths greater than
approximately one millimeter.
Radio astronomy is conducted using large radio antennae referred to as
radio telescopes, that are either used singularly, or with multiple linked
telescopes utilizing the techniques of radio interferometry and
aperture synthesis.
The discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation, which
provided compelling evidence for the Big Bang, was made through radio
astronomy.
 Field of Astronomy
Observational astronomy

Infrared astronomy is the branch of astronomy and

astrophysics that studies astronomical objects
visible in infrared (IR) radiation. The wavelength of
infrared light ranges from 0.75 to 300 micrometers.
Infrared falls in between visible radiation, which
ranges from 380 to 750 nanometers, and
submillimeter waves.
 Field of Astronomy
Observational astronomy
Optical astronomy, also called visible light astronomy, is the oldest form
of astronomy. Optical images were originally drawn by hand.

In the late 19th century and most of the 20th century, images were made
using photographic equipment. Modern images are made using digital
detectors, particularly detectors using charge-coupled devices (CCDs).

Although visible light itself extends from approximately 4000 Å to 7000 Å

(400 nm to 700 nm), the same equipment used at these wavelengths is
also used to observe some near-ultraviolet and near-infrared radiation.
Visible-light astronomy is part of optical astronomy.
 Field of Astronomy
Observational astronomy
Ultraviolet astronomy is generally used to refer to observations at
ultraviolet wavelengths between approximately 100 and 3200 Å (10 to
320 nm).
Ultraviolet astronomy is best suited to the study of thermal radiation and
spectral emission lines from hot blue stars (OB stars) that are very bright
in this wave band.
Other objects commonly observed in ultraviolet light include
planetary nebulae, supernova remnants, and active galactic nuclei.
However, as ultraviolet light is easily absorbed by interstellar dust, an
appropriate adjustment of ultraviolet measurements is necessary.
 Field of Astronomy
Observational astronomy
X-ray astronomy is an observational branch of astronomy which deals
with the study of X-ray emission from celestial objectsat
X-ray wavelengths.
X-radiation is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, so instruments to
detect X-rays must be taken to high altitude by balloons, sounding
rockets, and satellites. X-ray astronomy is part of space science.

Typically, objects emit X-ray radiation as synchrotron emission (produced

by electrons oscillating around magnetic field lines),
thermal emission from thin gases above 107 (10 million) kelvins, and
thermal emission from thick gases above 107 Kelvin.
 Field of Astronomy
Observational astronomy
Gamma-ray astronomy is the astronomical study of the cosmos with
gamma rays. Gamma-rays are the most energetic form of light that travel
across the universe for incredible distances and have the smallest
wavelength of any wave in the electromagnetic spectrum. Gamma-rays
are created by and allow us to detect and observe celestial events such
as supernova explosions, destruction of atoms, black holes and even the
decay of radioactive material in space.

Gamma rays may be observed directly by satellites such as the

Compton Gamma Ray Observatory or by specialized telescopes called
atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes.
 Field of Astronomy
Observational astronomy
Fields not based on the electromagnetic spectrum
Neutrino astronomy is motivated by the possibility to observe processes
that are inaccessible to optical telescopes, such as the Sun's core.

In neutrino astronomy, astronomers use special underground facilities

such as SAGE, GALLEX, and Kamioka II/III for detecting neutrinos.
These neutrinos originate primarily from the Sun but also from
supernovae.
Additionally, some future neutrino detectors may also be sensitive to the
particles produced when cosmic rays hit the Earth's atmosphere.
 Field of Astronomy
Observational astronomy
Fields not based on the electromagnetic spectrum

Gravitational wave astronomy is an emerging new field of astronomy

which aims to use gravitational wave detectors to collect observational
data about compact objects. A few observatories have been constructed,
such as the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Observatory LIGO, but
gravitational waves are extremely difficult to detect.
These observations include fly-by missions with remote sensors, landing
vehicles that can perform experiments on the surface materials,
impactors that allow remote sensing of buried material, and sample
return missions that allow direct laboratory examination.
 Field of Astronomy
Observational astronomy
Fields not based on the electromagnetic spectrum
In observational astronomy, astrometric techniques help identify stellar
objects by their unique motions. It is instrumental for keeping time, in that
UTC is basically the atomic time synchronized to Earth's rotation by
means of exact observations. Astrometry is also involved in creating the
cosmic distance ladder because it is used to establish parallax distance
estimates for stars in the Milky Way.
Astrometry has also been used to support claims of extrasolar
planet detection by measuring the displacement the proposed planets
cause in their parent star's apparent position on the sky, due to their
mutual orbit around the center of mass of the system.
 Field of Astronomy
Theoretical astronomy
Theoretical astronomy is usually assumed to have begun with Johannes
Kepler (1571–1630), and Kepler's laws. It is co-equal with observation.
From the point of view of theoretical astronomy, not only must the
mathematical expression be reasonably accurate but it should preferably
exist in a form which is amenable to further mathematical analysis when
used in specific problems
Most of theoretical astronomy uses Newtonian theory of gravitation,
considering that the effects of general relativity are weak for most
celestial objects. The obvious fact is that theoretical astronomy cannot to
predict the position, size and temperature of every star in the heavens.
Theoretical astronomy by and large has concentrated upon analyzing the
apparently complex but periodic motions of celestial objects.
 Field of Astronomy
Theoretical astronomy
Specific subfields
Solar astronomy is the scientific study of the celestial star we refer to as
the sun and the phenomena that surround it. The main concerns of solar
astronomy are the physics, chemistry, meteorology, motion and evolution
of the sun as well as its place in the universe.
Because the sun is the physically closest star to the Earth, which is about
eight light-minutes away, it is the most frequently studied star
Through the study of solar astronomy scientists have also discovered
that the sun goes through an 11-year cycle of periodic changes in
activity which they call a sunspot cycle. A sunspot is a region on the sun
that has intense magnetic activity which forms an area with lower than
average surface temperature. During a sunspot cycle the number of
sunspots on the surface of the sun fluctuates.
 Field of Astronomy
Theoretical astronomy
Specific subfields
Planetary science is the scientific study of planets (including Earth), moons, and
planetary systems, in particular those of the Solar System and the processes that
form them. It studies objects ranging in size from micrometeoroids to gas giants,
aiming to determine their composition, dynamics, formation, interrelations and
history. It is a strongly interdisciplinary field, originally growing from astronomy
and earth science, but which now incorporates many disciplines, including
planetary astronomy, planetary geology (together with geochemistry and
geophysics), physical geography (geomorphology and cartography as applied to
planets), atmospheric science, theoretical planetary science, and the study of
extrasolar planets. Allied disciplines include space physics, when concerned with
the effects of the Sun on the bodies of the Solar System, and astrobiology.
 Field of Astronomy
Theoretical astronomy
Specific subfields
Stellar astronomy is the study of stars and the phenomena exhibited by
the various forms/developmental stages of stars.
Observational stellar astronomy comprises optical observations, such as
photometry and spectroscopy, and observations in all non-optical regions
of the electromagnetic spectrum as well.
Theoretical stellar astronomy includes various forms of stellar modeling
as well as models of specific phenomena which have been
observationally associated with stars (such as magnetic reconnection
models for stellar flares or Raymond-Smith models for high-temperature
plasmas which may surround stars or which may be found in other
astronomical contexts).
 Field of Astronomy
Theoretical astronomy
Specific subfields
Galactic astronomy is the study of our own Milky Way galaxy and all its
contents.
Galactic astronomy should not be confused with
galaxy formation and evolution, which is the general study of galaxies,
their formation, structure, components, dynamics, interactions, and the
range of forms they take.
Our own Milky Way galaxy, where our solar system belongs, is in many
ways the best studied galaxy, although important parts of it are
obscured from view in visible wavelengths by regions of cosmic dust.
 Field of Astronomy
Theoretical astronomy
Specific subfields
Extragalactic astronomy is the branch of astronomy concerned with
objects outside our own Milky Way Galaxy. In other words, it is the study
of all astronomical objects which are not covered by galactic astronomy.
As instrumentation has improved, more distant objects can now be
examined in detail. It is therefore useful to sub-divide this branch into
Near-Extragalactic Astronomy and Far-Extragalactic Astronomy. The
former deals with objects such as the galaxies of our Local Group, which
are close enough to allow very detailed analyses of their contents (e.g.
supernova remnants, stellar associations). The latter describes the study
of objects sufficiently far away that only the brightest phenomena are
observable.
 Field of Astronomy
Theoretical astronomy
Specific subfields

Cosmology is the study of the physical universe considered as a totality

of phenomena in time and space
Observations of the large-scale structure of the universe, a branch known
as physical cosmology, have provided a deep understanding of the
formation and evolution of the cosmos. Fundamental to modern
cosmology is the well-accepted theory of the big bang, wherein our
universe began at a single point in time, and thereafter expanded over
the course of 13.7 Gyr to its present condition.

Gyr, abbreviations for gigayear, i.e. a billion (109) years

 Units and Measurement

An astronomical unit (abbreviated as AU, au or a.u.) is a unit of length equal to

about 149,597,870.7 kilometres (92,955,807.27 miles) or approximately the mean 
Earth–Sun distance.
The parsec (parallax of one arcsecond; symbol: pc) is a unit of length, equal to
just under 31 trillion (3.1×1013) kilometres (about 19 trillion miles), 206265 AU, or
about 3.26 light-years.
The length of a parsec is about 30.857 petametres, 3.26163 light-years or
1.9174×1013 mi.
The speed of light, usually denoted by c, is a physical constant important in
many areas of physics. Its value is exactly 299,792,458 metres per second
(approximately 186,282 miles per second).

*Petameter - An SI unit of length equal to 1015 meters;

 Units and Measurement
The sexagesimal system of angular measurement
In radians
Unit Value Symbol Abbreviations
(approx.)
⁄360 circle 17.4532925
Degree 1
° deg
mrad
⁄60 degree arcmin, amin, , 290.8882087
Arcminute 1
′ (prime)
MOA µrad
⁄60
1
Arcsecond ″ (double prime) arcsec 4.8481368 µrad
arcminute
1
⁄1,000
Milliarcsecond   mas 4.8481368 nrad
arcsecond
1 × 10−6
Microarcsecond   μas 4.8481368 prad
arcsecond

Sexagesimal (base 60) is a numeral system with sixty as its base.

 Units and Measurement
Lengths
Unit Symbol Metric Equivalent Used for
Atomic physics;
Angstrom 10-10m
Spectroscopy
Earth Radius 6.378 x 106m Planetology
Solar Radius 6.96 x 108m Stellar astronomy
Astronomical Unit AU 1.496 x 1011m Solar system astronomy
Interstellar & intergalactic
Lightyear ly 9.46 x 1015m
astronomy
Interstellar & intergalactic
Parsec pc 3.09 x 1016m
astronomy
 Units and Measurement
Masses
Unit Symbol Metric Equivalent Used for
Earth Mass 5.98 x 1024kg Planetology
Stellar and galactic
Solar Mass 1.99 x 1030kg
astronomy

Luminosities

Unit Symbol Metric Equivalent Used for

Stellar and galactic
Solar Luminosity 3.90 x 1026Watts
astronomy
 Units and Measurement
The light year is is the distance that light travel in one year (365 1/4 days).

Object Distance in light years

Nearest Star (Proxima Centuri) 4.2
Sirius the dog star (the brightest star
8.6
in the sky)
centre of the galaxy approximately 30 000
Andromeda (one of our nearest
approximately 2 million
neighbouring galaxies)
The stars of Orion. (Betelgeuse and
1400 light years
Rigel)
 Units and Measurement

Astronomical
  kilometres (km) Light Years (l.y.) Parsec (pc)
units (AU)
kilometres
1 149.6 million 9,460,000,000,000 30,857,000,000,000
(km)
Astronomical
0.0000000067 1 63,240 206,263
units (AU)

Light Years
0.00000000000011 0.000016 1 3.2616
(l.y.)
Parsec (pc) 0.000000000000033 0.0000048 0.3066 1
 Units and Measurement

absolute magnitude (M) Visual magnitude that a star would have

at a standard distance of 10 PARSECS. If m = apparent magnitude
and r = distance in parsecs:
M= m 5 5 log r
For a minor planet this term is used to describe the brightness it
would have at a distance of 1 AU from the Sun, 1 AU from the Earth
and at zero PHASE ANGLE (the Sun–Asteroid–Earth angle, which is a
physical impossibility).
 Units and Measurement
anomalistic year - Period of a single orbit of the Earth
around the Sun, equivalent to 365.25964 days of MEAN
SOLAR TIME, an anomalistic year is about 4m 43s.5 longer
than a SIDEREAL YEAR because of the gradual eastward
movement of the point of perihelion.
annual parallax (heliocentric parallax) Difference in the
apparent position of a star that would be measured by
hypothetical observations made from the centre of the Earth
and the centre of the Sun.
 Units and Measurement
apparent solar time Local time, based on the position of
the Sun in the sky, and as shown by a sundial. Apparent noon
occurs when the Sun crosses the local MERIDIAN at its
maximum altitude. The length of a solar day measured this
way is not uniform. It varies throughout the year by as much
as 16 minutes because of the elliptical orbit of the Earth and
the fact that the Sun appears to move across the sky along
the ecliptic, rather than the celestial equator. Clock time is
therefore based on the uniform movement of a fictitious mean
Sun. The difference between apparent and MEAN SOLAR
TIME is called the EQUATION OF TIME.