UNIT 28 ELECTRICAL GENERATORS

1
600 Watt Portable Generator

(World’s largest generator)

single-unit capacity of
700,000KW
(i.e. 700,000,000 Watts!)2
 References

1. NEETS MOD 5 (Intro To Motors And Generators)

2. NSTM Chap 300, Electrical Plant General
3. Electrician’s Mate 3
 Enabling Objectives:

1. RETRIEVE or RECOGNIZE information concerning AC and

DC generators.

2. RECOGNIZE information pertaining to the construction and

components of AC and DC generators.

3. RECOGNIZE the information pertaining to the basic

operation of generators.

4. RECOGNIZE information pertaining to the procedures used

to PERFORM basic generator maintenance.

4
 Enabling Objectives:

5. CALCULATE values of frequency, number of poles, RPM’s,

and line/phase values in wye/delta connections.

6. RETRIEVE OR RECOGNIZE information pertaining to the

effects of changing operating values on generator
performance.
7. CONSTRUCT and TROUBLESHOOT an AC generator.

8. APPLY the safety precautions associated with the use of

test equipment on generators in accordance with NAVY
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR AFLOAT FORCES
5
 1. AC GENERATOR THEORY

a. A Generator is a machine that converts MECHANICAL

energy into ELECTRICAL energy.

6
 AC Generator Theory (con’d)

b. The same magnetic

induction generator that
was used to develop an
AC voltage in unit 11.5
(AC waveforms) contains
the basic components of
all magnetic induction
generators.

7
 AC Generator Theory (con’d)

c. Three factors necessary to create voltage through magnetic

induction, given by the formula:
1. A Magnetic Field ( I )
2. A Conductor (K)
3. Relative motion between the two (N)

E=KIN 8
 AC Generator Theory (con’d)
d. Recall that as a single loop conductor rotates within a magnetic
field, an AC voltage is induced into the conductor.
1. AC voltage will be delivered to the load through an
assembly of slip rings and brushes

9
 AC Generator Theory (con’d)

e. As long as the 3 necessary elements required to produce

voltage are present, voltage will be produced regardless of
the arrangement of the elements.

1. A single loop conductor moving within a magnetic field

will produce voltage.

2. A magnet, or magnetic field, moving WITHIN a single

loop conductor will produce voltage as well. This method is
the most common arrangement to produce voltage.

10
 2. AC GENERATOR COMPONENTS

a. The 2 basic parts of induction generators are the field

winding and the armature winding.

1. Field Winding - produces the magnetic field, or main field

flux.

2. Armature Winding - where voltage is induced into the

windings or conductors. Supplies power to the load.

3. For relative motion to take place between the conductor

(armature) and field, all generators must have 2 mechanical
parts. A rotor and a stator.
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 AC Generator Components (con’d)

a. The Rotor is the part that rotates/revolves, and is centered

inside the generator.
b. The Stator is the part that remains stationary.
Rotor Stator

c. In a DC Generator the armature winding is always wound

in the rotor. In AC generators (alternators) the armature may
be either the rotor or stator.
12
 AC Generator Components (con’d)
4. Types of Rotor:
a. There are 2 types of rotors used in alternators. They
are called Salient Pole and Cylindrical/Turbine Driven.

1. Salient Pole Rotor –

laminated with protruding
pole pieces on which the
windings are housed.
Low speed rotor, used at
speeds of 1200 RPM’s or
below.

13
Salient Pole Rotor

14
 AC Generator Components (con’d)

2. Cylindrical/Turbine Driven Rotor – windings firmly

embedded in slots. High speed rotor, used at speeds of 1200
RPM’s or greater.

15
Cylindrical/Turbine Driven Rotor

16
Generator Rotors

17
 AC Generator Components (con’d)
5. Frame – Houses and supports other stator components.
6. Core Material - Consists of steel laminations slotted to house
the windings. Designed to concentrate lines of flux.
7. End Bells – Houses the bearings and aligns the rotor shaft.

8. Bearings - Both ends of the shaft.

Provides ease of rotation and reduces
friction. 18
9. Slip Rings and Brushes – Serve as sliding contact to provide
a path for current.
a. The slip rings are metal rings, usually steel or brass,
connected to the ends of the rotor conductors. Insulated from
the rotor and each other.

19
 b. The brushes serve as a sliding contact to transfer power.
They are usually made of carbon and are sturdy enough to
carry current, but are soft enough so as not to damage the slip
rings.
Brushes

Brush Tension
Device/Spring

Brush holder
Slipring
20
 AC Generator Components (con’d)

c. The brushes are held against the slip rings by a brush

holder assembly that positions the brushes and applies
pressure to ensure good connection.

9. Exciter – device that supplies/provides DC potential to start or

maintain the main field flux. May be a separate DC
generator or a rectifier circuit powered from the generator
itself.

21
10. Prime Mover - machine that supplies the mechanical force
(motion) that turns the rotor of the generator.
a. Steam/Gas Turbine - because of the high operating
speed of turbines, the generators are not connected directly
to the turbine shaft, but are instead connected through
reduction gears. Generator speed range from 900 to 1800
RPM’s. In rare instance: 3600 RPM’s.

22
 2. Gas/Diesel Engine - engine is directly coupled to the
generator and operates at 600-1800 RPM’s.

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3. Electric Motor – directly coupled with a generator.

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 3. AC GENERATORS TYPES
a. Rotating Armature, Stationary Field Generator (RASF)
1. Output voltage is taken from the armature windings
through slip rings and brushes.
2. Limiting factor as to the amount of power supplied: the
current carrying capacity (size) of the brushes.
3. Seldom used as Ship’s Service Generator because of its
low power capability. Used only for light loads.

25
b. Rotating Field, Stationary Armature Generator (RFSA)
1. Output voltage is taken from the armature windings.

2. Limiting factor as to the amount of power provided is the size of the armature
windings.

3. Most commonly used type because of its high power

capability.

26
 RASF
Revolving Armature, Stationary Field
Magnetic Field – Stator
Rotor – output voltage

RFSA
Revolving Field, Stationary Armature
Magnetic Field – Rotor 27
Stator Windings – output voltage
 4. AC SINGLE PHASE ROTATING-FIELD GENERATOR

a. Generating a single phase EMF.

1. Voltage is induced into the armature due to flux of the

field cutting conductors of armature.

2. Minimum or zero voltage is induced when the field poles

are positioned at an equal distance between armature
poles. (Conductors are in parallel with the magnetic field).

3. Maximum voltage is induced when the field poles are

aligned with the armature poles (conductors are
perpendicular to the field).

4. One complete turn produces one complete sine wave or

one cycle. (commonly referred to as Hertz). 28
Generating a single phase EMF (con’d)

29
Generating a single phase EMF (con’d)

30
Single Phase AC Generator

31
Single Phase AC Generator

32
Single Phase AC Generator

33
Single Phase AC Generator

34
Single Phase AC Generator

35
b. Operation of the AC three Phase Rotating-Field Generator

1. Three phase generators are more commonly used than

single phase generators because of some major advantages.

a. Three phase generators deliver more power than single

phase generators of the same physical size.
b. More efficient use of armature space is possible when
using three phase generators.

2. The armature of a three phase generator consists of 3

single phase windings: Phase A, Phase B, and Phase C.

a. The windings are equally spaced 120 electrical degrees

apart on the armature core.
b. The Field is still DC, requiring only 2 slip rings and
brushes to provide excitation.
36
c. Generating a 3 Phase EMF
1. Induced voltages in each phase are equal in magnitude
but 120 electrical degrees apart.

37
2. When one induced voltage is maximum, the other two
induced voltages are at 50% of maximum BUT of opposite
polarity (direction).

B
100%

A&C
50%

38
3. The algebraic sum of all 3 induced voltages is equal to
zero.

Example:

C = 100 Volts
A = -50 Volts
B = -50 Volts
Zero(0) Volts

39
d. Three phase Armature Connections: The methods of
connecting the 3 single phase armatures to produce a 3
phase generator are basically SERIES (wye) and
PARALLEL (delta).

(1) Terms:
a. LINE VOLTAGE (E) – voltage present at output
terminals of a generator.
b. PHASE VOLTAGE (e) – voltage induced in each
individual phase of the generator.

(2) WYE connection: connected to form a common

junction, giving characteristics of a SERIES circuit. The
remaining three leads are connected directly to the bus to
supply power to the load.
40
 a. Two phases are connected in series between any two
output terminals; therefore, since current is common in series
circuits, the Line current is equal to the Phase current.

I=i
S

S – Start
F - Finish

F
S

41
b. Line voltage (E) is equal to 1.73 x phase voltage (e)

E = 1.73e
c. Line voltage can also be found by VERTORIALLY adding
the Phase voltages together.

d. Being a series circuit, if a phase winding opens, that

phase will be lost and one line connection will be
available.

42
 WYE Connection

A Phase

N S B Phase

C Phase

43
(3) DELTA Connection: the Start of one phase connects to
the finish of another phase (“A” start to “C” finish, “B” start to
“A” finish, “C” start to “B” finish), giving the characteristics of
a PARALLEL circuit. The line connections are taken from
the junctions of the phase windings.

44
 DELTA Connection

As
CF
A
S – Start
AF
Cs F - Finish
B

BF Bs
C

45
a. Voltage is common in a parallel circuit, therefore line voltage
and phase voltages are equal.

E=e
b. Line current (I) is equal to 1.73 x phase current (i) due to the
phase current being 120 electrical degrees out of phase with
each other.

I=1.73i
c. Line current can also be found by VECTORIALLY adding the
Phase currents together.
d. The type of connection used on a particular generator is
generally selected by the manufacturer to obtain the
required operating characteristics and to ensure ease and
simplicity of manufacture and repair in the most economical
46
way possible.
 H. GENERATOR LOSSES
1. Power Loss – Anything that produces heat in the generator
and reduces its efficiency. More power is applied than is
being extracted.
2. Efficiency – ratio of output to input power

% Efficiency =
Pout
X 100
Pin
3. Friction Losses – wind & bearing friction in the rotor to slow
down requiring more power from prime mover.
4. Three Types of Core Losses:
a. Hysteresis – molecular friction caused by shifting domains in
the core material. To minimize, use low reluctance material.
Example: soft iron, silicon steel.
(Reluctance – low opposition to magnetic lines of flux) 47
 3 Types of Core Losses: (con’d)

b. Eddy Currents – circulating current in the core material.

Reduced by using thin sheets of core material called
“laminations”.

c. Copper Losses (I2R)– losses due to resistive properties

of a wire as current flows through it. Reduced by using
less wire as possible. 48
5. Armature Reaction – the distortion of the main field flux
caused by the interaction of the main field and armature field.
a. It is compensated by increasing the DC excitation to the
main field windings.
b. The greater the load on the generator or armature
current, the greater the Armature Reaction.

49
c. Fleming’s Left Hand Rule:
1. Thumb – motion of conductor
2. Index finger – direction of magnetic flux
3. Middle finger – direction of current

50
 Exercise 1:

N . X S ? X . ? S ? ? N

What is the direction What side is the What is the direction

of the rotor? North and South of current?
pole?

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 Exercise 1:

N . X S N X . S S X . N

What is the direction What side is the What is the direction

of the rotor? North and South of current?
pole?

52
6. Motor Action – the development of a force that opposes the
speed of the prime mover. It is base on the principle that when
a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, that
conductor will tend to move at right angles to that field.

53
6. Motor Action (con’d)
No load = No current flow

54
6. Motor Action (con’d)

a. As the Armature pole approaches the main field pole, an

interaction between the 2 fluxes causes the armature flux
to build up (increase) on the main field. Both fluxes opposes
each other and will cause the rotor to stop if the rotor were
moving too slowly.
b. To compensate for this loss, increase the speed of the
prime mover.

55
 I. GENERATOR RATINGS
1. Generators are rated by its ability to dissipate heat generated
by its power losses (i.e. Heat)

2. AC generators are generally rated by the Apparent Power (AP)

it can deliver to a load and is measured in Volt-Amp/Kilo-Volt-
Amp.

Apparent Power = E x I x 1.73 = KVA

1000

56
 Generator Ratings (con’d)

3. True Power (TP) – power that is actually used or consumed by the

resistive load and is measured in KW (Kilowatt). It is DEPENDENT
upon the power factor of the load.

E x I x 1.73 X PF
True
1000Power = = KW

4. Reactive Power (RP) – power that is stored and returned back

to the source by the reactive components and is measured in
KVAR (Kilo-Volt Amp Reactive). It is the vectorial difference
between KVA and KW.

Reactive Power = KVA2 - KW2

57
 J. Methods of controlling the terminal output of Generators

1. Conductor (K) – increase/decrease the number of turns will vary the output
voltage, but it is neither practical nor economical.
2. Speed of the Prime mover (N) – increase/decrease speed will vary output
voltage, but will also affect the frequency (F) of the output voltage.
3. Strength of the Magnetic Field (I) – increase/decrease strength of magnetic
field will vary output voltage. It is the PREFERRED method. It is
accomplished by using a variable rheostat (VAR) in series with the field
windings.

58
 Methods of controlling the terminal output of Generators
(con’d)
4. The field winding receives excitation from an external DC
source (battery, rectifier, DC generator). When the main field
increases, the armature windings are cut with greater force
inducing more voltage into the armature.

5. Induced voltage increase, armature current increase and

armature reaction and motor action increase.

59
Methods of controlling the terminal output of Generators
(con’d)
Adding Load Removing Load
Armature Current
Armature Reaction
Motor Action
Gen. Output Voltage
Prime Mover
Frequency
VAR
Magnetic Field (I)
Gen. Output Voltage (E)

60
 Methods of controlling the terminal output of Generators
(con’d)
6. Voltage Regulation – ability of the generator to maintain a
constant terminal output voltage under varying load condition.

ENL - EFL
% Voltage Regulation = x 100
EFL

a. Voltage control of the AC generator is usually performed

automatically by electronic components and systems, but
can be performed manually. It is controlled by changing
the strength of the magnetic field.

61
K. Methods of controlling the output frequency of an AC
generator

1. Factors affecting frequency:

a. Number of poles
b. Speed of rotation – most preferred/feasible method

2. Formula:

PN P = Number of Poles
Frequency (F) =
120 N = Speed

62
3. Frequency/cycles per second - shows how many North and
South poles will complete a cycle in 1 second.
4. The standard output frequency of AC generators is 60 cycles
per second, also known as Hertz (Hz). 63
 a. Armature Reaction causes Motor Action which slows
down the primer mover. As the load increases on the
generator, Armature Reaction and Motor Action increase,
slowing the prime mover and lowering the frequency.

b. By increasing the fuel supply to Diesel or Gas Turbine

engines, or by increasing the steam flow to Steam Turbines,
these prime movers will increase speed of the generator rotor,
and return the frequency to the rated value. 64
 L. DC Generators
DC generators are quickly being replaced with AC generators;
however, some special applications, such as cranes & mine
sweeping systems, require a high amount of DC current.

65
 DC Generators (con’d)
1. RASF Type
2. Major difference between AC and DC generators is the
method of obtaining the output voltage.

AC Generator DC Generator 66
 DC Generators (con’d)

3. A DC generator uses a COMMUTATOR in place of SLIP

RINGS. The “split” slip ring is the commutator which produces
a DC output voltage.

4. COMMUTATION – the process of obtaining a DC output

voltage from armature windings that has an AC voltage
induced into it. 67
 DC Generators (con’d)

Recall the basic RASF generator, but instead of the 2 slip rings,
use one slip ring cut in half with the brushes placed opposite
each other.

a. The “Split” slip ring is the commutator which produces a

DC output voltage.
68
BASIC DC GENERATOR

69
b. Size of the brushes –
limiting factor as to the
amount of power
generated by a DC
generator.
c. Increasing the number of
commutation
segment/armature
conductors provide a
smoother output voltage.

1. High power DC
generator have several
sets of brushes mounted
on the commutator to
increase the amount of
70
DC current available.
 DC Generators (con’d)

5. The same power losses that affect AC generators, affect DC

generators:

a. Friction loss
b. Eddy current loss
c. Hysteresis loss
d. Copper loss
e. Armature Reaction
f. Motor Action

71
 M. Generator Maintenance

1. Majority of generator malfunctions are caused by improper /

lack of preventive maintenance on the brush rigging assembly
and slip ring / commutator.
2. Brush rigging assembly
a. The bottom of the
brush holder should
be between 1/8 – 1/16
inch from the surface
of the commutator/slip
rings.

1/8-1/16”

72
 Generator Maintenance (con’d)
b. All brush leads should be securely connected to the
brushes and the brush holders. They also should move freely
in their holders but should not vibrate.

c. Replace all brushes that are:

1. Worn or chipped
2. Have damaged leads or pigtails
3. Worn 50% of original length/size
4. Metal portion of the brush is 1/8 inch from contact with
the commutator/slip rings.

73
 Generator Maintenance (con’d)
d. Before replacing brushes clean all carbon and grease off
brush rigging.
e. All brushes should be checked for proper seating before
putting a generator back in operation.
f. SEATING – process of shaping a brush until it fits the
contour (shape) of the commutator / slip ring.

74
75
 Generator Maintenance (con’d)
g. Methods of seating the brush:
1. Sandpaper – preferred method. Use a fine grade of
sandpaper, about the same width as the slip rings.

Steps:
Generator is secured and
tagged out of commission.
Place the sandpaper
under the brush (course
side up). Pull sandpaper
under in the direction of
rotation. Ensure
sandpaper is kept on the
surface of slip rings so as
not to round the edges of
brushes. Continue
process until it takes the
shape of slip rings. Finish
by using a finer grade of
76
sandpaper.
 Generator Maintenance (con’d)
2. Seating stone – made of soft abrasive material. Place
max pressure on brush. Generator MUST be running. After
seating, adjust spring tension.

77
 Generator Maintenance (con’d)
3. Adjust the brush tension by using a scale and a piece of
paper. (Use 2 - 2.5 psi pressure if a MRC or MTM is not
available.)

4. After the brushes

have been seated,
regardless of
which method is
used, clean the
inside of the
generator by using
a vacuum cleaner
(suction side) or
lint-free rags.

78
Dynanometer

79
 Generator Maintenance (con’d)

3. Slip rings / Commutators

a. After 2 weeks of
operation, an “oxide film”
which is uniform glaze
brown in color develops
on the surface of the slip
rings / commutator. This
must NOT be removed.
It prevents excessive
wear of the brushes and
slip rings/commutator.

80
 Generator Maintenance (con’d)
b. If generator cannot be secured, use canvass wiper to clean
the surface of slip ring / commutator.

c. If generator can be secured,

use vacuum cleaner and lint-
free rags. Remove any build
up of grease or carbon dust.

d. If the surface becomes pitted, grooved or scratched, it causes sparking

and excessive brush wear. Notify WCS so the proper corrective action is
taken.

81
 Generator Maintenance (con’d)

4. Using a multi-meter, the resistance between the phases

should be equal or the same.
5. Megger (Meg-Ohm meter) – used to measure ground
(insulation) resistance of generator. Readings should be
infinite or at least 1 megohm or stated on PMS card.

82
 N. APPLICATION
Generator Trainer

83
Set-up for WYE Connection

84
Set-up for DELTA Connection

85
 General Safety Precautions

1. Remove all metal or jewelry prior to entering lab.

2. During lab operation the trainee will NOT make or
break electrical connections on energized circuits.
3. Power is to be secured prior to any changes in circuit
configuration.

86
 Review of Objectives:
This is what you have learned.
1. RETRIEVE or RECOGNIZE information concerning AC and
DC generators.

2. RECOGNIZE information pertaining to the construction and

components of AC and DC generators.

3. RECOGNIZE the information pertaining to the basic operation

of generators.

4. RECOGNIZE information pertaining to the procedures used to

PERFORM basic generator maintenance.

87
 Review of Objectives:
This is what you have learned.

5. CALCULATE values of frequency, number of poles, RPM’s,

and line/phase values in wye/delta connections.

6. RETRIEVE OR RECOGNIZE information pertaining to the

effects of changing operating values on generator
performance.

7. CONSTRUCT and TROUBLESHOOT an AC generator.

8. APPLY the safety precautions associated with the use of test

equipment on generators in accordance with NAVY SAFETY
PRECAUTIONS FOR AFLOAT FORCES
88
SUMMARY AND REVIEW

89