TRO3 Lecture 03

Introductory Chemistry, 3rd Edition
Nivaldo Tro
Chapter 3
Matter and Energy
Roy Kennedy
Massachusetts Bay Community College
Wellesley Hills, MA
2009, Prentice Hall
In Your Room
• Everything you can see,
touch, smell or taste in
your room is made of
matter.
• Chemists study the
differences in matter and
how that relates to the
structure of matter.
Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 2

What Is Matter?
• Matter is defined as
anything that occupies
space and has mass.
• Even though it appears to
be smooth and continuous,
matter is actually composed
of a lot of tiny little pieces
we call atoms and
molecules.

Atoms and Molecules
• Atoms are the tiny particles

that make up all matter.
• In most substances, the
atoms are joined together in
units called molecules.
The atoms are joined in
specific geometric
arrangements.
Structure Determines Properties
• The properties of matter are determined by the atoms and molecules that compose it.
Carbon Monoxide Carbon Dioxide

1. Composed of one carbon 1. Composed of one carbon
atom and one oxygen atom. atom and two oxygen atoms.
2. Colorless, odorless gas. 2. Colorless, odorless gas.
3. Burns with a blue flame. 3. Incombustible.
4. Binds to hemoglobin. 4. Does not bind to hemoglobin.
5
Classifying Matter
by Physical State
• Matter can be classified as solid, liquid, or
gas based on what properties it exhibits.
State Shape Volume Compress Flow
Solid Fixed Fixed No No
Liquid Indefinite Fixed No Yes
Gas Indefinite Indefinite Yes Yes
•Fixed = Property doesn’t change when placed in a container.

•Indefinite = Takes the property of the container.
Structure Determines Properties
• The atoms or molecules have different
structures in solids, liquids, and gases −
leading to different properties.
7
Solids
• The particles in a solid are packed
close together and are fixed in
position.
 Although they may vibrate.
• The close packing of the particles
results in solids being
incompressible.
• The inability of the particles to
move around results in solids
retaining their shape and volume
when placed in a new container
and prevents the particles from
flowing. Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 8
Solids, Continued
• Some solids have their particles
arranged in an orderly geometric
pattern—we call these crystalline
solids.
Salt and diamonds.
• Other solids have particles that do
not show a regular geometric
pattern over a long range—we
call these amorphous solids.
Plastic and glass.
Liquids
• The particles in a liquid are closely packed,
but they have some ability to move around.
• The close packing results in liquids being
incompressible.
• The ability of the particles to move allows
liquids to take the shape of their container
and to flow. However, they don’t have
enough freedom to escape and expand to fill
the container.
Gases
• In the gas state, the particles have complete
freedom from each other.
• The particles are constantly flying around,
bumping into each other and the container.
• In the gas state, there is a lot of empty space
between the particles.
On average.

Gases, Continued
• Because there is a lot of empty
space, the particles can be
squeezed closer together.
Therefore, gases are
compressible.
• Because the particles are not held
in close contact and are moving
freely, gases expand to fill and
take the shape of their container,
and will flow.

Classification of Matter
by Appearance
• Homogeneous = Matter that is uniform throughout.

 Appears to be one thing.
 Every piece of a sample has identical properties, though another sample
with the same components may have different properties.
 Solutions (homogeneous mixtures) and pure substances.
• Heterogeneous = Matter that is non-uniform throughout .
 Contains regions with different properties than other regions.

Practice—Classify the Following as
Homogeneous or Heterogeneous
• Table sugar.
• A mixture of table sugar and black pepper.
• A mixture of sugar dissolved in water.
• Oil and vinegar salad dressing.

Homogeneous or Heterogeneous,
Continued
• Table sugar = homogeneous
• A mixture of table sugar and black pepper =

heterogeneous
• A mixture of sugar dissolved in water =

homogeneous
• Oil and vinegar salad dressing = heterogeneous

Classifying Matter
by Composition
• Matter that is composed of only one kind of
atom or molecule is called a pure substance.
• Matter that is composed of different kinds of
atoms or molecules is called a mixture.
• Because pure substances always have only one
kind of piece, all samples show the same
properties.
• However, because mixtures have variable
composition, different samples will show
different properties.
Copper—A Pure Substance
• Color is brownish red.
• Shiny, malleable, and ductile.
• Excellent conductor of heat and electricity.
• Melting point = 1084.62 °C
• Density = 8.96 g/cm3 at 20 °C

Brass—A Mixture
Type Color % Cu % Zn Density MP Tensile Uses
g/cm3 °C Strength
psi
Gilding reddish 95 5 8.86 1066 50K pre-83 pennies,
munitions, and plaques
Commercial bronze 90 10 8.80 1043 61K door knobs and

grillwork
Jewelry bronze 87.5 12.5 8.78 1035 66K costume jewelry
Red golden 85 15 8.75 1027 70K electrical sockets,
fasteners, and eyelets
Low deep 80 20 8.67 999 74K musical instruments

yellow and clock dials
Cartridge yellow 70 30 8.47 954 76K car radiator cores
Common yellow 67 33 8.42 940 70K lamp fixtures and
bead chain
Muntz metal yellow 60 40 8.39 904 70K nuts and bolts
Classification of Matter
Matter
Pure Substance Mixture

Constant Composition Variable Composition
Homogeneous
• Pure Substance = All samples are made of the same pieces in

the same percentages.
 Salt
• Mixtures = Different samples may have the same pieces in
different percentages.
 Salt water

Pure Substances vs. Mixtures
Pure Substances Mixtures
1. All samples have the same 1. Different samples may show
physical and chemical different properties.
properties. 2. Variable composition =
2. Constant composition = All Samples made with the same
samples have the same pieces pure substances may have
in the same percentages. different percentages.
3. Homogeneous. 3. Homogeneous or
4. Separate into components heterogeneous.
based on chemical properties. 4. Separate into components
5. Temperature stays constant based on physical
while melting or boiling. properties.
5. Temperature usually
changes while melting or
boiling because composition
changes.
Pure Substances or Mixtures
• A homogeneous liquid whose temperature stays
constant while boiling.
• Granite—a rock with several visible minerals in it.
• A red solid that turns blue when heated and
releases water that is always 30% of the solid’s
mass.
• A gas that when cooled and compressed, a liquid
condenses out but some gas remains.

Pure Substances or Mixtures,
Continued
• A homogeneous liquid whose temperature stays
constant while boiling = pure substance.
• Granite—a rock with several visible minerals in it
= mixture.
mass = pure substance.
• A gas that when cooled and compressed, a liquid
condenses out but some gas remains = mixture.

Classification of Pure Substances
• Substances that cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by chemical reactions are called elements.
 Basic building blocks of matter.
 Composed of single type of atom.
 Although those atoms may or may not be combined into molecules.
• Substances that can be decomposed are called compounds.
 Chemical combinations of elements.
 Although properties of the compound are unrelated to the properties of the
elements in it!
 Composed of molecules that contain two or more different kinds
of atoms.
 All molecules of a compound are identical, so all samples of a
compound behave the same way.
• Most natural pure substances are compounds.
Atoms and Molecules
• Atoms
 Are submicroscopic particles that are the
unit pieces of elements.
 Are the fundamental building blocks of all
matter.
• Molecules
 Are submicroscopic particles that are the
unit pieces of compounds.
 Two or more atoms attached together.
 Attachments are called bonds.
 Attachments come in different strengths.
 Molecules come in different shapes and
patterns.
Classification of Pure Substances
Elements Compounds
1. Made of one
type of atom. 1. Made of one
(Some elements type of
are found as molecule, or
multi-atom array of ions.
molecules in 2. Molecules
nature.) contain 2 or
2. Combine more different
together to make kinds of atoms.
compounds.

Elements or Compounds
• Chlorine, Cl2
• Table sugar, C12H22O11
mass.
• A brown-red liquid that, when energy is applied to
it in any form, causes only physical changes in the
material, not chemical.

Elements or Compounds, Continued
• Chlorine, Cl2 = element.
• Table sugar, C12H22O11 = compound.
mass = compound.
• A brown-red liquid that, when energy is applied to
it in any form, causes only physical changes in the
material, not chemical = element.

Classification of Mixtures
• Mixtures are generally classified based on
their uniformity.
• Mixtures that are uniform throughout are
called homogeneous.
Also known as solutions.
Mixing is on the molecular level.
• Mixtures that have regions with different
characteristics are called heterogeneous.
Classification of Mixtures, Continued
Heterogeneous Homogeneous
1. Made of 1. Made of
multiple multiple
substances, substances, but
whose appears to be
presence can one substance.
be seen. 2. All portions of
2. Portions of a a sample have
sample have the same
different composition
composition and properties.
and properties.

Classifying Matter
30
Properties Distinguish Matter
• Each sample of matter is distinguished by
its characteristics.
• The characteristics of a substance are called
its properties.
• Some properties of matter can be observed
directly.
• Other properties of matter are observed
when it changes its composition.
Properties of Matter
• Physical Properties are the characteristics of matter
that can be changed without changing its
composition.
 Characteristics that are directly observable.
• Chemical Properties are the characteristics that

determine how the composition of matter changes as
a result of contact with other matter or the influence
of energy.
 Characteristics that describe the behavior of matter.

Some Physical Properties
Mass Volume Density
Solid Liquid Gas
Melting point Boiling point Volatility
Taste Odor Color
Texture Shape Solubility
Electrical Thermal Magnetism
conductance conductance
Malleability Ductility Specific heat
capacity
Some Physical Properties of Iron
• Iron is a silvery solid at room temperature with a metallic taste and smooth
texture.
• Iron melts at 1538 °C and boils at 4428 °C.
• Iron’s density is 7.87 g/cm3.
• Iron can be magnetized.
• Iron conducts electricity, but not as well as most other common metals.
• Iron’s ductility and thermal conductivity are about average for a metal.
• It requires 0.45 J of heat energy to raise the temperature of one gram of
iron by 1°C.

Some Chemical Properties
Acidity Basicity (aka alkalinity)
Causticity Corrosiveness
Reactivity Stability
Inertness Explosiveness
(In)Flammability Combustibility
Oxidizing ability Reducing ability

Some Chemical Properties of Iron
• Iron is easily oxidized in
moist air to form rust.
• When iron is added to
hydrochloric acid, it produces
a solution of ferric chloride
and hydrogen gas.
• Iron is more reactive than
silver, but less reactive than
magnesium.

Practice—Decide Whether Each of the Observations
About Table Salt Is a Physical or Chemical Property
• Salt is a white, granular solid.

• Salt melts at 801 °C.
• Salt is stable at room temperature, it does not decompose.
• 36 g of salt will dissolve in 100 g of water.
• Salt solutions and molten salt conduct electricity.
• When a clear, colorless solution of silver nitrate is added
to a salt solution, a white solid forms.
• When electricity is passed through molten salt, a gray
metal forms at one terminal and a yellow-green gas at the
other.
Practice − Decide Whether Each of the Observations
About Table Salt Is a Physical or Chemical Property
• Salt is a white, granular solid = physical.

• Salt melts at 801 °C = physical.
• Salt is stable at room temperature, it does not decompose =
chemical.
• 36 g of salt will dissolve in 100 g of water = physical.
• Salt solutions and molten salt conduct electricity = physical.
• When a clear, colorless solution of silver nitrate is added to a salt
solution, a white solid forms = chemical.
• When electricity is passed through molten salt, a gray metal forms
at one terminal and a yellow-green gas at the other = chemical.

Changes in Matter
• Changes that alter the state or appearance of the
matter without altering the composition are
called physical changes.
• Changes that alter the composition of the matter
are called chemical changes.
During the chemical change, the atoms that are
present rearrange into new molecules, but all of the
original atoms are still present.

Changes in Matter, Continued
• Physical Changes—Changes in
the properties of matter that do
not effect its composition.
Heating water.
Raises its temperature, but it is still
water.
Evaporating butane from a lighter.
Dissolving sugar in water.
Even though the sugar seems to
disappear, it can easily be separated
back into sugar and water by
evaporation.
Changes in Matter, Continued
• Chemical Changes involve a change
in the properties of matter that change
its composition.
 A chemical reaction.
 Rusting is iron combining with oxygen to
make iron(III) oxide.
 Burning results in butane from a lighter to
be changed into carbon dioxide and
water.
 Silver combines with sulfur in the air to
make tarnish.
Is it a Physical or Chemical Change?
• A physical change results in a different form of
the same substance.
 The kinds of molecules don’t change.
• A chemical change results in one or more
completely new substances.
 Also called chemical reactions.
 The new substances have different molecules than the
original substances.
 You will observe different physical properties because
the new substances have their own physical properties.
Phase Changes Are
Physical Changes
• Boiling = liquid to gas.
• Melting = solid to liquid.
• Subliming = solid to gas.
• Freezing = liquid to solid.
• Condensing = gas to liquid.
• Deposition = gas to solid.
• State changes require heating or cooling the substance.
 Evaporation is not a simple phase change, it is a solution
process.
Practice—Classify Each Change as Physical
or Chemical
• Evaporation of rubbing alcohol.

• Sugar turning black when heated.
• An egg splitting open and spilling out.
• Sugar fermenting.
• Bubbles escaping from soda.
• Bubbles that form when hydrogen peroxide is
mixed with blood.
Practice—Classify Each Change as Physical
or Chemical, Continued
• Evaporation of rubbing alcohol = physical.
• Sugar turning black when heated = chemical.
• An egg splitting open and spilling out =
physical.
• Sugar fermenting = chemical.
• Bubbles escaping from soda = physical.
• Bubbles that form when hydrogen peroxide is
mixed with blood = chemical.
Separation of Mixtures
• Separate mixtures based on different
physical properties of the components.
Physical change.
Different Physical Property Technique
Boiling point Distillation
State of matter (solid/liquid/gas) Filtration

Adherence to a surface Chromatography
Volatility Evaporation
Centrifugation and
Density
decanting

Distillation

Filtration

Law of Conservation of Mass
• Antoine Lavoisier
• “Matter is neither created nor destroyed in a
chemical reaction.”
• The total amount of matter present before a
chemical reaction is always the same as the
total amount after.
• The total mass of all the reactants is equal to
the total mass of all the products.
Conservation of Mass
• Total amount of matter remains constant in a
chemical reaction.
• 58 grams of butane burns in 208 grams of oxygen to
form 176 grams of carbon dioxide and 90 grams of
water.
butane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
58 grams + 208 grams → 176 grams + 90 grams
266 grams = 266 grams

Practice—A Student Places Table Sugar and
Sulfuric Acid into a Beaker and Gets a Total
Mass of 144.0 g. Shortly, a Reaction Starts that
Produces a “Snake” of Carbon Extending from
the Beaker and Steam Is Seen Escaping. If the
Carbon Snake and Beaker at the End Have a
Total Mass of 129.6 g, How Much Steam Was
Produced?

Practice—A Student Places Table Sugar and
Sulfuric Acid into a Beaker and Gets a Total
Mass of 144.0 g. Shortly, a Reaction Starts that
Produces a “Snake” of Carbon Extending from
the Beaker and Steam Is Seen Escaping. If the
Carbon Snake and Beaker at the End Have a
Total Mass of 129.6 g, How Much Steam Was
Produced?
• Total of reactants and beaker = 144.0 g.
• Conservation of mass says total of products and
beaker must be 144.0 g.
• Mass of steam = 144.0 g − 129.6 g = 14.4 g.
Energy
• There are things that do not have mass and
volume.
• These things fall into a category we call energy.
• Energy is anything that has the capacity to do
work.
• Although chemistry is the study of matter, matter
is effected by energy.
It can cause physical and/or chemical changes in
matter.
Law of Conservation of Energy
• “Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.”
• The total amount of energy in the universe is
constant. There is no process that can increase
or decrease that amount.
• However, we can transfer energy from one
place in the universe to another, and we can
change its form.

Matter Possesses Energy
When a piece of matter possesses energy, it can give some or all of it to
• another object.
It can do work on the other object.

All chemical and physical changes result in the matter changing energy.
•

Kinds of Energy
Kinetic and Potential
• Potential energy is energy that is
stored.
 Water flows because gravity pulls it
downstream.
 However, the dam won’t allow it to
move, so it has to store that energy.
• Kinetic energy is energy of motion,
or energy that is being transferred
from one object to another.
 When the water flows over the dam,
some of its potential energy is converted
to kinetic energy of motion.

Some Forms of Energy
• Electrical
 Kinetic energy associated with the flow of electrical charge.
• Heat or Thermal Energy
 Kinetic energy associated with molecular motion.
• Light or Radiant Energy
 Kinetic energy associated with energy transitions in an atom.
• Nuclear
 Potential energy in the nucleus of atoms.
• Chemical
 Potential energy in the attachment of atoms or because of their position.

Converting Forms of Energy
• When water flows over the dam, some of its
potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.
 Some of the energy is stored in the water because it is
at a higher elevation than the surroundings.
• The movement of the water is kinetic energy.
• Along the way, some of that energy can be used to
push a turbine to generate electricity.
 Electricity is one form of kinetic energy.
• The electricity can then be used in your home.
For example, you can use it to heat cake batter you
mixed, causing it to change chemically and storing
some of the energy in the new molecules that are
made.
Using Energy
• We use energy to accomplish all kinds of
processes, but according to the Law of
Conservation of Energy we don’t really use it
up!
• When we use energy we are changing it from
one form to another.
For example, converting the chemical energy in
gasoline into mechanical energy to make your car
move.

“Losing” Energy
• If a process was 100% efficient, we could
theoretically get all the energy transformed
into a useful form.
• Unfortunately we cannot get a 100%
efficient process.
• The energy “lost” in the process is energy
transformed into a form we cannot use.

There’s No Such Thing as a Free
Ride
• When you drive your car, some of the
chemical potential energy stored in the
gasoline is released.
• Most of the energy released in the
combustion of gasoline is transformed into
sound or heat energy that adds energy to the
air rather than move your car down the
road.
Units of Energy
• Calorie (cal) is the amount of energy needed to
raise one gram of water by 1 °C.
kcal = energy needed to raise 1000 g of water 1 °C.
food calories = kcals.
Energy Conversion Factors
1 calorie (cal) = 4.184 joules (J)
1 Calorie (Cal) = 1000 calories (cal)
1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 3.60 x 106 joules (J)

Energy Use
Unit Energy Required to Energy Energy Used
Raise Temperature Required to by Average
of 1 g of Water by Light 100-W U.S. Citizen
1°C Bulb for 1 in 1 Day
Hour
joule (J) 4.18 3.6 x 105 9.0 x 108
calorie (cal) 1.00 8.60 x 104 2.2 x 108
Calorie (Cal) 1.00 x 10-3 86.0 2.2 x 105
kWh 1.1 x 10-6 0.100 2.50 x 102

Example 3.5—Convert 225 Cal to Joules
1. Write down the Given Given: 225 Cal 3 sig figs
quantity and its unit.
2. Write down the quantity Find: ?J
you want to Find and unit.
3. Write down the appropriate Conversion 1 Cal = 1000 cal
Conversion Factors. Factors: 1 cal = 4.184 J
4. Write a Solution Map. Solution Cal cal J
Map: 1000 cal 4.184 J
1 Cal 1 cal
5. Follow the solution map to Solution:
Solve the problem.
1000 cal 4.184 J
225 Cal × × = 9.41× 105 J
1 Cal 1 cal
6. Significant figures and Round: 225 Cal = 9.41 x 105 J

round. 3 significant figures
7. Check. Check: Units and magnitude are correct.
Example 3.5:
• A candy bar contains 225 Cal of nutritional energy. How
many joules does it contain?

Example:
A candy bar contains
225 Cal of nutritional
energy. How many
joules does it contain?
• Write down the given quantity and its units.
Given: 225 Cal

Example: Information
A candy bar contains Given: 225 Cal
energy. How many
• Write down the quantity to find and/or its units.
Find: ? joules

225 Cal of nutritional Find: ? J
energy. How many
• Collect needed conversion factors:
1000 cal = 1 Cal
4.184 J = 1 cal

Given: 225 Cal
A candy bar contains Find: ? J
225 Cal of nutritional Conversion Factors:
energy. How many 1000 cal = 1 Cal; 4.184 J = 1 cal
• Write a solution map for converting the units:
Cal cal J
1000 cal 4.184 J

1 Cal 1 cal

Find: ? J
Conversion Factors:
joules does it contain? Solution Map: Cal → cal → J
1000 cal 4.184 J
1 Cal 1 cal
• Apply the solution map:

1000 cal 4.184 J
225 Cal × ×
1 Cal 1 cal
= 941400 J
• Significant figures and round:
= 9.41 x 105 J
Find: ? J
Conversion Factors:
joules does it contain? Solution Map: Cal → cal → J
1000 cal 4.184 J
1 Cal 1 cal
• Check the solution:
225 Cal = 9.41 x 105 J
The units of the answer, J, are correct.

The magnitude of the answer makes sense
since joules are much smaller than Cals.
Chemical Potential Energy
• The amount of energy stored in a material is its
chemical potential energy.
• The stored energy arises mainly from the attachments
between atoms in the molecules and the attractive
forces between molecules.
• When materials undergo a physical change, the
attractions between molecules change as their position
changes, resulting in a change in the amount of
• When materials undergo a chemical change, the
structures of the molecules change, resulting in a
change in the amount of chemical potential energy.

Energy Changes and
Chemical Reactions
• Chemical reactions happen most readily when
energy is released during the reaction.
• Molecules with lots of chemical potential
energy are less stable than ones with less
• Energy will be released when the reactants
have more chemical potential energy than the
products.

Exothermic Processes
• When a change results in the release of energy it is
called an exothermic process.
• An exothermic chemical reaction occurs when the
reactants have more chemical potential energy than the
products.
• The excess energy is released into the surrounding
materials, adding energy to them.
 Often the surrounding materials get hotter from the energy
released by the reaction.

An Exothermic Reaction
Surroundings
reaction
Reactants
Potential energy
Amount
of energy
released
Products

Endothermic Processes
• When a change requires the absorption of energy it is
called an endothermic process.
• An endothermic chemical reaction occurs when the
products have more chemical potential energy than the
reactants.
• The required energy is absorbed from the surrounding
materials, taking energy from them.
 Often the surrounding materials get colder due to the energy
being removed by the reaction.

An Endothermic Reaction
Surroundings
reaction
Products
Potential energy
Amount
of energy
absorbed
Reactants

Temperature Scales
• Fahrenheit scale, °F.
Used in the U.S.
• Celsius scale, °C.
Used in all other countries.
A Celsius degree is 1.8
times larger than a
Fahrenheit degree.
• Kelvin scale, K.
Absolute scale.
Temperature Scales
100°C 373 K 212°F 671 R Boiling
point water
25°C 298 K 75°F 534 R Room temp
0°C 273 K 32°F 459 R Melting

point ice
-38.9°C 234.1 K -38°F 421 R Boiling
point
mercury
-183°C 90 K -297°F 162 R Boiling

point
oxygen
-269°C BP helium
-273°C 4 K 0 K -452°F -459 °F 7 R 0 R Absolute
Celsius Kelvin Fahrenheit Rankine zero
Temperature Scales
• The Fahrenheit temperature scale used as its
two reference points the freezing point of
concentrated saltwater (0 °F) and average
body temperature (96 °F).
More accurate measure now sets average body
temperature at 98.6 °F.
• Room temperature is about 72 °F.

Temperature Scales, Continued
• The Celsius temperature scale used as its
two reference points the freezing point of
distilled water (0 °C) and boiling point of
distilled water (100 °C).
More reproducible standards.
Most commonly used in science.
• Room temperature is about 22 °C.

Fahrenheit vs. Celsius
• A Celsius degree is 1.8 times larger than a
Fahrenheit degree.
• The standard used for 0° on the Fahrenheit
scale is a lower temperature than the
standard used for 0° on the Celsius scale.
°C =
( °F - 32 )
1.8
The Kelvin Temperature Scale
• Both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales have
negative numbers.
 Yet, real physical things are always positive amounts!
• The Kelvin scale is an absolute scale, meaning it
measures the actual temperature of an object.
• 0 K is called absolute zero. It is too cold for
matter to exist because all molecular motion
would stop.
 0 K = -273 °C = -459 °F.
 Absolute zero is a theoretical value obtained by
following patterns mathematically.
Kelvin vs. Celsius
• The size of a “degree” on the Kelvin scale is the
same as on the Celsius scale.
 Although technically, we don’t call the divisions on the
Kelvin scale degrees; we call them kelvins!
 That makes 1 K 1.8 times larger than 1 °F.
• The 0 standard on the Kelvin scale is a much lower
temperature than on the Celsius scale.
• When converting between kelvins and °C, remember
that the kelvin temperature is always the larger
number and always positive!
K = °C + 273
Example 3.7—Convert –25 °C to Kelvins
1. Write down the Given Given: -25 °C
quantity and its unit. units place
2. Write down the quantity Find: K
3. Write down the appropriate Equation:
Equations. K = ° C + 273
4. Write a Solution Map. Solution °C K
Map:
K = ° C + 273
Solve the problem.
K = (−25° C) + 273 = 258 K
6. Significant figures and Round: 258 K

round. units place
Example 3.8—Convert 55° F to Celsius
1. Write down the Given Given: 55 °F units place
quantity and its unit. and 2 sig figs
2. Write down the quantity Find: °C
3. Write down the appropriate Equation: ( °F - 32)
Equations. °C =
1.8
4. Write a Solution Map. Solution °F °C
Map: ( °F - 32 )
°C =
1.8
Solve the problem. ( 55° F - 32)
°C = = 12.778 °C
1.8
6. Significant figures and Round: 12.778 °C = 13 °C
round. units place and 2 sig figs
7. Check. Check: Units and magnitude are
correct.
Example 3.9—Convert 310 K to Fahrenheit
1. Write down the Given Given: 310 K units place
quantity and its unit. and 3 sig figs
2. Write down the quantity Find: °F
°C =
( °F - 32)
Equations. K = °C + 273
1.8
4. Write a Solution Map. Solution K °C °F
Map:
°C = K - 273 °F =1.8 ( °C ) + 32
Solve the problem.
°C = 310 − 273 = 37 °C
°F = 1.8( 37° C ) + 32 = 98.6 °F
6. Significant figures and Round: 98.6 °F = 99 °F
round. units place and 2 sig figs
Example 3.9:
• Convert 310 K to Fahrenheit.

Example:
Convert 310 K to Fahrenheit.

Given: 310 K

Convert 310 K to Fahrenheit. Given: 310 K

Find: ? °F

Find: ? °F
• Collect needed equations:
°C =
( °F - 32)
1.8
K = °C + 273

Find: ? °F
Equations:
°C =
( °F - 32)
1.8 K = °C + 273
• Write a solution map:
K °C °F
K = °C + 273 °C =
( °F - 32 )
1.8
K − 273 = °C
1.8 × °C = ( °F - 32)
1.8 × °C + 32 = °F
Convert 310 K to Given: 310 K
Fahrenheit. Find: ? °F
Equations:K − 273 = °C 1.8 × °C + 32 = °F
Solution Map: K → °C → °F
• Apply the solution map:

K − 273 = °C 1.8 × °C + 32 = °F
310 − 273 = °C 1.8 × 37 + 32 = °F
37 = °C 98.6 = °F
• Significant figures and round:
= 99 °F
Convert 310 K to Given: 310 K
Fahrenheit. Find: ? °F
Equations:K − 273 = °C 1.8 × °C + 32 = °F
Solution Map: K → °C → °F
310 K = 99 °F
The units of the answer, °F, are correct.

since both are above, but close to, room temperature.

Practice—Convert 0 °F into Kelvin

Practice—Convert 0 °F into Kelvin,
Continued
°C = 0.556(°F-32)
°C = 0.556(0-32)
°C = -18 °C
K = °C + 273
K = (-18) + 273
K = 255 K

Energy and the Temperature of Matter
• The amount the temperature of an object
increases depends on the amount of heat
energy added (q).
If you double the added heat energy the
temperature will increase twice as much.
• The amount the temperature of an object
increases depending on its mass.
If you double the mass, it will take twice as
much heat energy to raise the temperature the
same amount.
Heat Capacity
• Heat capacity is the amount of heat a substance
must absorb to raise its temperature by 1 °C.
cal/°C or J/°C.
Metals have low heat capacities; insulators have
high heat capacities.
• Specific heat = heat capacity of 1 gram of the
substance.
cal/g°C or J/g°C.
Water’s specific heat = 4.184 J/g°C for liquid.
Or 1.000 cal/g°C.
It is less for ice and steam. 98
Specific Heat Capacity
• Specific heat is the amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of one gram of a substance by 1 °C.
• The larger a material’s specific heat is, the more energy it
takes to raise its temperature a given amount.
• Like density, specific heat is a property of the type of matter.
 It doesn’t matter how much material you have.
 It can be used to identify the type of matter.
• Water’s high specific heat is the reason it is such a good
cooling agent.
 It absorbs a lot of heat for a relatively small mass.

Specific Heat Capacities
Substa
Alumin
Heat Gain or Loss by an Object
• The amount of heat energy gained or lost by an
object depends on 3 factors: how much material
there is, what the material is, and how much the
temperature changed.
Amount of Heat = Mass x Heat Capacity x Temperature Change

q=mxCx∆ T

Example 3.10—Calculate Amount of Heat Needed to
Raise Temperature of 2.5 g Ga from 25.0 to 29.9 °C
1. Write down the Given Given: m = 2.5 g, T1 = 25.0 °C,
quantity and its unit. T2= 29.9 °C, C = 0.372 J/g°C
2. Write down the quantity Find: q, J
Equations. q = m × C × ∆T
4. Write a Solution Map. Solution m, C, ∆ T q

Map:
q = m × C × ∆T
Solve the problem.
(
q = ( 2.5 g ) × 0.372 J
g °C
) × ( 29.9 - 25.0°C)
q = 4.557 J
6. Significant figures and Round: 4.557 J = 4.6 J
round. 2 significant figures
Example 3.10:
• Gallium is a solid metal at room temperature, but melts at
29.9 °C. If you hold gallium in your hand, it melts from
body heat. How much heat must 2.5 g of gallium absorb
from your hand to raise its temperature from 25.0 °C to
29.9 °C? The heat capacity of gallium is 0.372 J/g°C.

Example:
How much heat must 2.5 g of
gallium absorb from your hand to
raise its temperature from 25.0 °C
to 29.9 °C? The heat capacity of
gallium is 0.372 J/g°C.
Given: mass of Ga = 2.5 g
starting temp. = 25.0 °C
final temp. = 29.9 °C
spec. heat of Ga = 0.372 J/g°C

How much heat must 2.5 g of Given: m = 2.5 g; Ti = 25.0 °C;
gallium absorb from your hand to
Tf = 29.9 °C; C = 0.372 J/g°C
raise its temperature from 25.0 °C

Find: amount of heat in joules

gallium absorb from your hand to Tf = 29.9 °C; C = 0.372 J/g°C
raise its temperature from 25.0 °C Find: q (J)
• Collect needed equations:
q = m • C • ∆T

to 29.9 °C? The heat capacity of Equation: q = m ∙ C ∙ ∆ T
• Write a solution map:
C, m, ∆ T q
q = m • C • ΔT

gallium is 0.372 J/g°C. Solution Map: m, C, ∆ T → q
• Apply the solution map: q = m • C • ΔT

 J 
q = ( 2.5 g ) •  0.372  • ( 29.9°C − 25.0°C )
 g°C 
 J 
q = ( 2.5 g ) •  0.372  • ( 4.9°C ) = 4.557 J
 g°C 
• Significant figures and round: q = 4.6 J
gallium is 0.372 J/g°C. Solution Map: m, C, ∆ T → q

q = 4.6 J
The units of the answer, J, are correct.

since the temperature change, mass, and specific heat are small.

Practice—Calculate the Amount of Heat Released
When 7.40 g of Water Cools from 49° to 29 °C

Practice—Calculate the Amount of Heat Released
When 7.40 g of Water Cools from 49° to 29 °C,
Continued
• Sort Given: T1 = 49 °C, T2 = 29 °C, m = 7.40 g
Information
Find: q, J
• Strategize Solution Map: Cs m, ∆ T q
q = m • Cs • ΔT
q = m ∙ Cs ∙ ∆ T
Relationships:
Cs = 4.18 J/g⋅ °C (Table 3.4)
• Follow the Solution: q = m • C s • ΔT
concept plan ∆T = T2 − T1
to solve the ∆T = 29 °C - ( 49°C ) ( )
= ( 7.40 g ) • 4.18 g •°C • ( - 20 °C )
J
problem.
= - 20 °C = −618.64 J = −6.2 × 102 J
• Check. Check:
The unit and sign are correct.

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Introductory Chemistry, 3rd Edition

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 2

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 3

• Atoms are the tiny particles

Carbon Monoxide Carbon Dioxide

•Fixed = Property doesn’t change when placed in a container.

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 11

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 12

• Homogeneous = Matter that is uniform throughout.

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 13

• A mixture of table sugar and black pepper.

• A mixture of sugar dissolved in water.

• Oil and vinegar salad dressing.

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 14

• A mixture of table sugar and black pepper =

• A mixture of sugar dissolved in water =

• Oil and vinegar salad dressing = heterogeneous

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 17

Commercial bronze 90 10 8.80 1043 61K door knobs and

Low deep 80 20 8.67 999 74K musical instruments

Pure Substance Mixture

• Pure Substance = All samples are made of the same pieces in

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 19

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 21

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 22

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 25

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 26

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 27

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 29

• Chemical Properties are the characteristics that

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 32

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 34

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 35

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 36

• Salt is a white, granular solid.

• Salt is a white, granular solid = physical.

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 38

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 39

• Evaporation of rubbing alcohol.

Boiling point Distillation

State of matter (solid/liquid/gas) Filtration

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 46

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 47

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 48

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 50

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 51

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 54

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 55

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 56

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 57

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 59

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 60

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 62

joule (J) 4.18 3.6 x 105 9.0 x 108

calorie (cal) 1.00 8.60 x 104 2.2 x 108

Calorie (Cal) 1.00 x 10-3 86.0 2.2 x 105

kWh 1.1 x 10-6 0.100 2.50 x 102

6. Significant figures and Round: 225 Cal = 9.41 x 105 J

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 65

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 66

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 67

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 68

1000 cal 4.184 J