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Savannah?
Coral reef?
Who is at home in the soil?
Diversity of soil organisms
Mite
Earthworm Yeast
Mouth parts
of bacteria-
feeding Predatory
nematode nematode
Species and function
Plants, the primary producers
– Vascular plants: roots of all Legume roots with
crop and vegetable plants nitrogen fixing nodules
– Algae
Algae
The rhizosphere
Flagellate
Ciliate
Slime mold
Water bear
Red
Mushroom
yeast
Water bear
Species and function
Monera
Bacteria Actinomycetes
Numbers of Species
In a healthy soil one might find…
Several species of vertebrate animals
Several species of earthworms
20-30 species of mites
50-100 species of insects
Dozens of species of nematodes
Hundreds of species of fungi
Thousands of species of bacteria and
actinomycetes
Abundance of soil organisms
Number Biomass1
Organism per gram soil (lbs per
(~1 tsp) acre 6”)
Earthworms – 100 – 1,500
Mites 1-10 5 – 150
Nematodes 10 – 100 10 – 150
Protozoa up to 100 thousand 20 – 200
Algae up to 100 thousand 10 – 500
Fungi up to 1 million 1,000 – 15,000
Actinomycetes up to 100 million 400 – 5,000
Bacteria up to 1 billion 400 – 5,000
11
Biomass is the weight of living organisms
Benefits of diversity
Commensalist
Parasitic
Symbiotic
Beneficial microbe-plant-soil
interactions
Some examples
Millepede
• Soil insects and other
arthropods
– Shred fresh organic material
into much smaller particles
– Allows soil microbes to access
Ants all parts of the organic residue
Organic matter decomposition
Everyone is involved
• Bacteria
Bacteria on fungal strands
– Population increases
rapidly when organic
matter is added to soil
– Quickly degrade simple
compounds - sugars,
proteins, amino acids Spiral bacteria
– Have a harder time
degrading cellulose, lignin,
starch
– Cannot get at easily
degradable molecules that
are protected
Rod bacteria
Organic matter decomposition
Everyone is involved
• Fungi
– Grow more slowly and Fungus on poplar leaf
efficiently than bacteria when
organic matter is added to soil Tree trunk
– Able to degrade complex rotted by fungi
organic molecules such as
cellulose, lignin, starch
– Give other soil microorganisms
access to simpler molecules
that were protected by
cellulose or lignin
Fairy ring
Soil fungus
Organic matter decomposition
Everyone is involved
• Actinomycetes
– The cleanup crew
– Become dominant in the
final stages of
decomposition
– Attack the highly complex
and decay resistant
compounds
• Cellulose
• Chitin (insect shells)
• Lignin
Organic matter decomposition
Everyone is involved
• Protists and nematodes, Amoeba
the predators
– Feed on the primary
decomposers (bacteria,
fungi, actinomycetes)
– Release nutrients (nitrogen) Bacteria-feeding nematode
contained in the bodies of
the primary decomposers
Rotifer
Predatory nematode
Organic matter decomposition
Carbon and Nitrogen Cycling
During each cycle of
degradation about 2/3 of
the organic carbon is
used for energy and During each cycle of
released as carbon CO2 degradation about 1/3 of
the organic carbon is
dioxide (CO2)
used to build microbial
cells or becomes part of
Plant litter the soil organic matter
CO2
Bacteria, Fungi
Soil organic matter Nematodes, protists, humus
Organic matter decomposition
Carbon and Nitrogen Ratio
CO2
Litter
2/3 of carbon
C/N ratio
released as CO2
around C/N
24:1 ratio
8:1
Immobilization
Organic matter decomposition
Carbon and Nitrogen Ratios
CO2
Litter 2/3 of carbon
C/N ratio released as CO2
around C/N
9:1 ratio
3:1
Soil N
Mineralization
Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation
• Many bacteria have the Rhizobia bacteria
ability to “fix” or convert
atmospheric nitrogen into Rhizobia nodules on
bean roots
forms that plants can utilize.
• Some of these bacteria,
notably the rhizobia species,
form symbiotic relationships
with legumenous plants
– The plant provide Rhizobia
with a steady source of food Effect of rhizobia inoculation on
(sugars) soybean
– The rhizobia provides the
plant with nitrate nitrogen
– Efficiency nitrogen fixation
is greatly increased by this
relationship Inoculated Not inoculated
Mycorrhizal fungi
Plant/fungi symbiosis
• Mycorrhizae means “fungus root”
• Fungi live in close association with plant roots
• May live on the external surface of roots
(ectomycorrhizal)
• Fungal hyphae may invade root cells (endomycorrhizal)
No mycorrhizal fungi
Div ses
ers
it y r ea
dec inc
r ea s it y
es rs
ve
Di
Effects of soil management
practices on soil organisms
Increased intensity of tillage tends
to decrease microbial diversity and
microbial biomass
Effects of soil management
practices on soil organisms
Application of lime or fertilizer to
infertile soils tends to increase
microbial activity and biomass
Pesticide applications
have variable effects on
microbial populations
Herbicide Decomposition/Fate
Pesticides are degraded into inactive
substances (e.g., CO2 ) or rendered inactive
by several mechanisms:
– Adsorption to soil
components
– Leaching out of plant
available zone
– Volatility - escapes into air
and degrades
– Photodecomposition -
degraded by sunlight
– Chemical decomposition -
broken down by reactions
– Microbial degradation -
primary means
Pesticide degradation
CO2
OCH2COOH CO2
H2O
H2O
Cl OH Cl-
Cl
Cl COOH
CH2
2,4-D Cl CH2
COOH
Pesticide degradation
Critical concentrations for soil-applied or
residual herbicides
Minimum concentration
for good weed control
Herbicide conc. in soil
Maximum concentration
for safe recrop
Time
Pesticide effects on non-target
soil organisms
• Herbicides
– Minimal known effects soil microbes or soil
animals
– Some may harm certain algae
• Insecticides
– Some effects on non-target soil insects
– Some effects on earthworms
• Fungicides and soil fumigants
– Significant effects on a wide array of fungi and
soil animals.
Pesticide effects on earthworms
• Most herbicides are harmless to earthworms
– Triazines (atrazine, simazine) appear to have moderate
effects on earthworms
– Removing weeds may have indirect effects on
earthworms by decreasing plant cover and food supply.
Pesticide effects on earthworms
• Insecticides have varied effects on earthworms
– Most carbamates (Temik, Ficam, Sevin, Furadan) are
highly toxic.
– Most organophosphates are low to moderate toxicity.
Very toxic exceptions are:
• phorate (Thimet)
• chlopyrifos (Dursban, Equity, Tenure)
• ethoprophos (Mocap)
• ethyl-parathion
• isazophos
– Natural or synthetic pyrethroids are not known to be
toxic
Pesticide effects on earthworms
– Carbamate fungicides (carbendazim, benomyl) have toxic
effects on earthworms
– Broad spectrum fumigants (fungicides, nematicides) tend to
be very toxic to earthworms.
Photo Credits
Pedatory nematode: Kathy Merifield, Oregon Rotifer: Nikon Microscopy, Inc.
State Univ. Fairy ring: Univ. Tenn.
Bacterial and root feeding nematode: Elaine Millipede, mite, springtail: Penn State Univ. Insect
Ingham, Oregon State Univ. Fair
Nematode: Mark Blaxter, Univ. Edinburgh Disking: Colorado State Univ.
Earthworms: Clive Edwards, Ohio State Univ. Strip Crop: Ingolf Vogler
Fungi on poplar: Bryce Kendrick No till corn: Mich. State Univ.
Mycorrhizae and soil aggregation: Ted St.John, Rangeland: North Dakota St. Univ.
USDA-ARS Rhizobia: Frank Dazzo, Mich. State Univ.
Amoeba: Ohio State Univ. – Lima Actinomycetes: Paul R. August, Univ. Minn.
Water bear: Kamamusi Soybean growth: RIAL Siebersdorf
Ciliate: BioMedia Products Rod bacteria: Univ. Georgia
Bear in water: Katami Nat’l Park, Alaska