INTRODUCTION

The cell is the basic unit

of life.
Biologist learned about
cellular structure by using
light and electron
microscope.
 
 

ANIMAL CELL

PLANT CELL
 LYSOSOMES
MITOCHONDRIA

NUCLEUS

ENDOPLASMA
RETICULUM

CELL MEMBRANE GOLGI APPARATUS

VACUOLE

CHLOROPLAST
PLASMA MEMBRANE
Also known as the cell membrane
A thin membrane around the cytoplasm of
a cell
A selective permeable or semi-permeable
Is made up of two lipid layers
Separates a cell from its external
environment
Holds the cell content together
Controls the exchange of molecules
between the cell and its external
environment
CELL WALL
Is a rigid cellulose layer surrounding
the plasma membrane of plant cells
Permeable to all fluids because it has
tiny pores that allow substance to
move freely into and out of the cell
Provides support and protection for
the cell
Protects the plant cell from rupturing
due to the excessive intake of water
 CYTOPLASM
Refers to region between the nucleus and
plasma membrane
A continuous aqueous solution containing
organelles (except nucleus), salts, dissolved
gases, nutrients, enzymes and other organic
molecules
Gives shapes to the cell
Provides a medium for all cellular biochemical
reactions
Provides substance obtained from the external
environment to the organelles
NUCLEUS
Nuclear
membrane
An organelle bounded by the nuclear
membrane (two layers), containing a
nucleolus, chromosomes, and
nucleoplasm
Controls all the cells activities
Separate the genetic material
(chromosomes) from the cytoplasm
Chromosomes carry genetic in its DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid)
VACUOLE
A small cavity in the cytoplasm of a cell, bound a
single and semi permeable membrane (tonoplast)
The fluid contained in the vacuole called cell sap
Its contains water, organic acids, sugars, amino
acids, mineral salts, waste substances, pigments
and metabolic by product
Generally for storage, digestion and waste removal
Central vacuole in plant cell for storage and cell
expansion
Food vacuoles in amoeba for phagocytosis
Contractile vacuoles in paramecium expel water
MITHOCHONDRIA
A small spherical or cylindrical-shaped
organelles
Has two membranes; an inner
membrane and an outer membrane
Forms the cell’s powerhouse
Produces adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), which is an energy source for
the cell
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Connected to the nuclear membrane
Exists as Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
(Rough ER) and Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum (Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum)
Rough ER has ribosomes attached to its
surface
Smooth ER does not have ribosomes attach
to its surface
Rough ER synthesises and transports
proteins made by ribosomes
Smooth ER synthesises and transports lipids
 RIBOSOMES
Are compact spherical organelles found in
large numbers in all cells
Are either attached to the ER or occur
freely in the cytoplasm
Consists of two sub-units, one small and
one large
Are small ‘protein factories’ for protein
synthesis
Use information carried by the
chromosomes to make these proteins
GOLGI APPARATUS
The Golgi complex is
distribution and shipping
of cell's chemical
products.

It modifies proteins
and fats built in
endoplasmic reticulum and
prepares them for export
to outside of cell.
LYSOSOMES
Membrane-bound sacs that contain digestive
enzymes (hydrolytic enzymes)
Digest or break down complex organic
molecules such as proteins, lipids,
polysaccharides and nucleic acids
Also eliminate worn out mitochondria and
other damaged organelles to enable a cell to
renew itself
Lysosomes also digest bacteria by breaking
down the bacteria cell wall
CENTRIOLES
Are paired cylindrical organelles just outside
the nucleus
Lie at right angles to each other
Each centriole consists of nine tubes, each
tubes with three tubules
Are found only in animal cells
Involved in cell division (mitosis and meiosis)
Migrate to opposite poles of the cell (during
cell division)
Produce spindle to assist the movements of
chromosomes
CHLOROPLAST
Lens –shaped organelles
Have an inner and outer membrane
Contain the green pigment (chlorophyll)
in the granum/ grana
Chlorophyll traps sunlight and converts
light energy into chemical energy during
photosynthesis
A cell can be thought as a “factory”, with different
department each performing specialized task
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN ANIMAL CELLS AND
PLANT CELLS

ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL

Both has;
nucleus, cytoplasm,
mithochondrion, ribosome, cell
membrane, endoplasmic reticulum
and golgi apparatus
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANIMAL CELLS AND
PLANT CELLS
ANIMAL CELL FEATURE PLANT CELL

Generally smaller SIZE Generally larger

Do not have fixed SHAPE Fixed and regular

shape shaped
Absent CELL WALL Thick, hard
cellulose
Usually not VACUOLE Present
present
Absent CHLOROPLAST present

Present CENTRIOLE Absent

Glycogen FOOD STORAGE Starch

THE DENSITY OF ORGANELLES IN
SPECIFIC CELLS
The density of an organelle refers to the
total number of that particular organelle
within the cell
Some cells have high densities of certain
organelles
Each organelles in a cell carries out a
specific function
Like organelles, cells are specialised in their
respective functions
For a cell to perform its specialised function
well, it needs high densities of certain
organelles to coordinate and carry out that
specialised function
For example, cells that are specialised in
producing enzymes generally have more
endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes to
synthesise proteins, and many
mitochondria to supply enough energy for
its activities
 Types of cell Functions Organelles found
abundantly or which occur
in high density

Sperm cells Require energy to propel

through the uterus towards the
Fallopian tubes, so that
fertilsation can take place

Muscle cell, Contract and relax to enable

for example flight movement and flight Mitochondria
muscle cells in
insects and birds

Meristematic cell Require large amount of energy

during active cell division to
produce new cells

Palisade mesophyll Absorb sunlight during Chloroplast

cells photosynthesis
 Pancreatic cells Synthesis and secrete
enzymes and hormones

Cells in the salivary Synthesise and secrete

glands enzymes Rough endoplasmic
reticulum and golgi
apparatus

Intestinal and stomach Secrete digestive enzymes

epithelium

Liver cells Carbohydrate metabolism and Smooth endoplasmic

detoxification of drugs and reticulum
poisons

Cells in the root cap Secrete a slimy lubricant that Golgi apparatus
helps the movement of roots
between soils particles
 CELL
ORGANISATION
 LIVING PROCESS IN
UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS
Unicellular organisms are single-cell
organisms capable of carrying out the
following basic life processes:
Feeding
Reproduction
Respiration
Excretion
Locomotion
Sensitivity
Grow
Amoeba sp
 General features
Free-living in freshwater environments as
well as in soil water
Has irregular shape
Its plasma membrane encloses the
cytoplasm; the outer layer (ectoplasm) and
the inner layer (endoplasm)
Other cellular structures are a nucleus,
food vacuoles and a contractile vacuoles
 LOCOMOTION
It moves by flowing its cytoplasm forward,
forming a pseudopodium that helps it to
move forward slowly

A pseudopodium means a “false foot”

This is also known as the amoeboid

movement
 FEEDING
Is an holozoic and eats algae, bacteria, plant
cells and other microscopic organism
It feeds by engulfing tiny food particles with
its pseudopodia, forming a bubble-like food
vacuole to contain the food
The food vacuoles fuses with the lysosome
and the food is digested by a hydrolytic
enzyme called lysozyme.
The resulting nutrient are absorbed into the
cytoplasm
Indigestible material is expelled
This is called phagocytosis
 OSMOREGULATION
Water continually moves into the amoeba
by osmosis
To prevent the organism from bursting, the
contractile vacuole collects all the excess
water
When the vacuoles is full, it expel the
water outside the cell
The exchange of gases, nutrients and waste
substance occur through the plasma
membrane by diffusion
 REPRODUCTION
An amoeba sp reproduces asexually by;
binary fission and formation of spores
Binary fission – takes place (in favourable
conditions and sufficient food supply) by
mitotic division of a single parent cell
Formation of spores;
Its takes place when the conditions are dry
and there is insufficient food
CELL SPECIALIZATION IN MULTICELLULAR
ORGANISMS

ORGANISM

SYSTEMS

ORGANS

TISSUES

CELLS
CELL ORGANISATION IN
ANIMALS
 CELLS
Are the basic units of structure and
function in living organisms
May serve a specific function within the
organism
Examples :
Red blood cells transport oxygen
Nerve cells transmit nerve impulses
 TISSUE
Made up of cells which are similar in
structure and function and all are working
together to perform a specific activity
Can be classified into four main types;
Epithelial tissue
Muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Nerve tissue
 EPITHELIAL TISSUE
It is made up of cells closely packed and
ranged in one or more layers.
Epithelial tissue covers the whole surface
of the body (skin and mouth area) and
inner linings of cavities (digestive tract
and lung)
Some undergo changes to form exocrine
and endocrine glands
Function ; protective barrier against
infections, mechanical injuries and
dehydration (skin)
 Simple squamous epithelium

Epithelial tissue at the lining of lungs, body

cavities, heart and blood vessels
 Stratified epithelium

Epithelial tissue at the surface of the skin and

lining of the mouth and esophagus
 Simple cuboidal epithelium

Epithelial tissue at the lining kidney tubules,

glands and ducts
 Simple columnar epithelium

Epithelial at the lining of the small intestine

 Ciliated columnar epithelium

Epithelial tissue at the lining of the trachea

 Muscle tissue
Muscles can be divided into three main
groups according to their structure, e.g.:
Are the basic units of structure and
function in living organisms
Smooth muscle tissue (intestine, blood
vessels, urinary, reproductive tract)
Skeletal muscle tissue (arms and legs)
Cardiac muscle tissue (walls of the
heart)
Nerve tissue
Composed of neurons or nerve cells
Each neurons consists of cell body and
nerve fibres called dendrites and axons
Specialised to detect stimuli and
transmit electric signals called nerve
impulse to muscles or glands
Nerve tissues control and coordinate
activity of the body
 Connective tissue
Consists of various types of cell and
fibers separated by an extracellular
matrix
Loose connective tissue (binds
epithelia to underlying tissue and
holds organ in place)
Dense fibrous connective tissue (can
be found in tendons and ligaments)
 Cartilage
A strong and flexible connective tissue
The skeletons of sharks and human
embryos are composed of cartilage.
Provides flexible support for certain
structures in adult humans including the
nose, trachea and ears.

 Adipose
 A form of loose connective tissue that
stores fat.
 Blood
Produced in the bone marrow, located at
the end of long bones
Has regulating, transporting and protective
functions

 Bone
 Consists of cells embedded in a matrix of
collagen which are hardened by mineral
deposits such as calcium.
 Provides protection to organ and support
body
 TISSUE

Epithelial Muscle Nerve Connective

tissue tissue tissue tissue
Simple squamous
Loose connective
epithelium Smooth muscle tissue
tissue
Dense fibrous
Stratified
epithelium connective tissue

Skeletal muscle Cartilage

Simple cuboidal
epithelium tissue
Bones
Simple columnar
epithelium Cardiac muscle Blood
tissue
Ciliated columnar
Adipose
epithelium
tissue
 ORGANS
Made up of two or more types of tissues
that work together to perform a particular
function
Some organs perform than one function
Examples:
The heart pumps blood around in the
body
The stomach digests food
The kidney get rid of waste substances
and control the amount of water in body
SKIN
 SYSTEM
Are group of two organs or more that work together to
perform a specific function for the organism

NERVOUS DIGESTIVE SKELETAL

SYSTEM SYSTEM SYSTEM
CELL ORGANISATION IN
PLANT
 PLANT TISSUE

MERISTEMIC PERMANENT
TISSUE TISSUE

GROUND EPIDERMAL VASCULAR

TISSUE TISSUE TISSUE

XYLEM PHLOEM
PARENCHYMA COLLENCHYMA
TISSUE TISSUE

SCHELRENCHYMA
TISSUE
ORGANS AND SYSTEMS IN
PLANTS
Leaf, stem, root and flower are some
example of organs in plant
Flowering plant consists of two main
system;
Root system (all the root of the plant)
Shoot system (stems, leaves, buds,
flowers and fruits)
 REGULATING THE INTERNAL
ENVIRONMENT
Internal environment – the interstitial
fluid and blood plasma
Interstitial fluid- fills the space between
the cells and constantly bathes the cells
Exchanges the nutrients and waste
substance with the blood plasma contained
in blood capillaries
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE
INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
Physical factors
Temperature
Blood pressure
Osmotic pressure
Chemical factors
Salt
Sugar content
PH value
 HOMEOSTASIS
The maintenance of a relatively constant
internal environment for the cells to function
optimally
In a homeostatic control, there must be a
mechanism that’s consists of a;
Stimulus which is a change in the internal
environment
Receptor to detect the stimulus
Corrective mechanism to bring about a
negative feedback
 BLOOD SUGAR LEVEL
Blood sugar Pancreas secretes Blood sugar
level rises insulin level falls

Normal Normal
Sugar Level Sugar Level

Blood sugar Pancreas secretes Blood sugar

level falls glucagon level rises
MERISTEMATIC TISSUES

Consists of small cell which have

thin walls, large nuclei, dense
cytoplasm and no vacuoles
Young actively dividing cells which
have not undergo differentiation
Located at the tips of roots and
buds of shoots
 PERMENANT TISSUE

Mature tissue that have

undergone differentiation or are
still undergoing differentiation
 EPIDERMAL TISSUE
The outermost layer
Covers the stems, leaves and root of
young plants
Most epidermal cells are flat and have
large vacuoles
Cuticle is a cell which are exposed to the
air which are covered with a waxy
waterproof coating
Minimises water loss, protects from
mechanical injury and prevents invasion of
diseases
 PARENCHYMA TISSUE

Least specialised
Found in all the organs of a plant
Thin primary walls and large
vacuoles
Store sugar and starch
Give support and shaped to
herbaceous plants (turgid)
 COLLENCHYMA TISSUE
Have unevenly thickness cell wall
Support non-woody (herbaceous) plant,
young stems and petioles
SCLERENCHYMA TISSUE

Have cell walls which are

uniformly thickened by lignin and
may be dead
Give support and mechanical
strength to mature regions of a
plant
 XYLEM
Consists mainly of xylem vessels
joined together end to end (from
the roots right up to the leaves)
Transport water and dissolved
mineral salts from the roots to
another parts of the plant
 PHLOEM
Consists of sieve tubes which are
arranged end to end to form long
continuous tube-like structure
Transport organic compound (new
synthesised carbohydrates and amino
acids) from leaves to other part of
plants