MOTIVATION

MOTIVATION
Motivation is concerned with
understanding
‘WHY PEOPLE DO WHAT THEY DO’.
In other words why do people choose a particular
course of action and persist with it , even in the
face of difficulties and problems.
Needs Tension Search Performance
Deficiency for
solution

Reward
Satisfied or not
 Motivation is concerned with understanding
‘why people do what they do’. In other words
why do people choose a particular course of
action and persist with it , even in the face of
difficulties and problems. Motivation is forces
within an individual that account for the level,
direction, and persistence of effort expended at
work.
 Motivation refers to the ways in which the
urges, desires, aspirations, needs of an
individual, direct, control and explain his
behaviour.
 In the context of organization, It is the
willingness to exert high level of efforts
towards organizational goals, conditioned
by the efforts ability to satisfy some
individual need.
 LIKERT has called motivation as “Core of
Management”
 Motivation is getting people do, what
you want them to do, because they want
to do it.
 Motivation tries to find out something
inside or outside a person, which propells
him to do or not to do something.
 NATUREOF MOTIVATION
GOALS MOTIVES BEHAVIOR

 Motivation refers to an internal feelings of an individual

motives.
 These emotions and feelings of a person prompt him to
work more.
 Motivation activates and channelizes dormant energies of
an individual towards productive action.
 Motivation is linked to satisfaction. Satisfaction is the feeling
of contentment a person experiences out of need fulfillment.
 TYPES OF MOTIVATION

 POSITIVE MOTIVATION: It is based on

reward. The incentive may be in the shape of more
pay, promotion, recognition of work etc. It is
achieved by the co-operation of employees and they
have a feeling of happiness.
 NEGATIVE MOTIVATION : It is based on fear
or force. The employees do not willingly co-operate
rather they want to avoid punishment. It becomes
the cause of industrial unrest
People are motivated by a variety of two things

An INTRINSIC REWARD is the good feeling you have when you have
done good job.
An EXTRINSIC REWARD is something given to you by someone else as
recognition of good work and include pay increases.

IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION
 Improved morale
 Lower labour turnover
 Improved goodwill
 Cordial industrial relationship
 Quality orientation
 Acceptability of change
 Early Theories of Motivation
These early theories may not be valid, but they do form
the basis for contemporary theories and are still used by
practicing managers.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

 Alderfer’s ERG (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth)
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
McClelland’s Theory of Needs

© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6-10

 Motivational Theories

Content Theories Process Theories

 Expectancy theories
 Maslow
 (Vroom, Porter &
Lawler)
 Herzberg  Equity Theory
 McClelland  (Adams)
 McGregor  Goal Theory
 (Locke)
 ERG Theory
 (Alderfer’s)
 Content Theories
Focus primarily on individual needs—the
physiological or psychological deficiencies
that we feel a compulsion to reduce or
eliminate.

These theories suggest that the manager’s

job is to create a work environment that
responds positively to individual needs.
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is
substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

Assumptions
Higher Order  Individuals cannot
move to the next
Internal higher level until
all needs at the
current (lower)
Lower Order level are satisfied
External  Must move in
hierarchical order
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS: Basic survival needs
including the needs to drink, eat and be sheltered
from heat and cold. Individuals try to satisfy these
before turning to the next level of safety needs,
which involve such things as security, protection,
and stability.
SAFETY NEEDS: Free from any physical danger both
for individual as well as his family. Physical as well
as financial protection i.e. to secure himself from
deprivation of physiological needs in future.
SOCIAL NEEDS
It consist of a sense of belonging and a need for
affiliation.
ESTEEM NEEDS : Esteem needs are for both self-
respect and for reputation or recognition in the eyes
of others. They come into play once lower order
needs are satisfied.
SELF ACUTALISATION NEED : Consist of the desire
to achieve self-fulfillment through the creative and
full use of one’s talents

CRITICISM:
 Sometimes the person may not aware about his own
needs. How can the managers come to know about
these needs?
 There is a lack of direct cause and effect relationship between
need and behaviour. A particular individual behaviour may be
due to the result of different needs.

 Don’t appreciate existence of sub conscious needs.

 There is a lack of hierarchical structure of needs as suggested

by Maslow, though every individual has some ordering for his
need satisfaction. Some people may be deprived of his lower
level needs but may strive for self actualization needs.

 No Explanation regarding need satisfaction blockage and its

consequences.

 Needs may simultaneously effect the behaviour of individual

e.g hungry and food in five star hotel
 MASLOW’S HIERARCHY NEEDS
S.A Need structure when Physiological and safety
ESTEEM are high-strength needs
SOCIAL
SAFETY
PHYSIOLOGICAL
DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
S.A Need structure when social needs are high-

ESTEEM strength and self- Actualization and Physiological

SOCIAL needs are much less important
SAFETY
PHYS
IN COMING FUTURE
S.A Needs structure when esteem, self- Actualization
ESTEEM are high- strength needs
SOCIAL
SAFETY
PHYS
 HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR
THEORY
 Herzberg investigated the question
“What do people want from their jobs”
 He asked people to describe the situations in which they
felt extremely good or extremely bad.
 Data at study suggested that opposite of satisfaction is
not dissatisfaction as was traditionally believed.
Removing dissatisfying characterstics from job does not
necessarily make job satisfying.
 TRADITIONAL VIEW
 HERZBERG VIEW
 Herzberg
 Herzberg also noted that there were hygiene factors that are essential for
a happy workforce. These are include good pay and working conditions,
as shown by a clean and safe workplace, the control of noise and fumes
and good rest breaks.
 If these factors are missing morale and motivation are lower and can lead
to unhappy workers and a fall in output.
Traditional View
Dissatisfaction Satisfaction

Two-Factor View
(Hygiene Factors)
Absent Present
(Dissatisfaction) (No Dissatisfaction)

Absent (Motivators) Present

(No Satisfaction) (Satisfaction)
 According to Herzberg, Factors that motivate an individual
are different from those that prevent dissatisfaction. He
talked about two factors :
 HYGIENE FACTORS: These factors do not motivate people,
they simply prevent dissatisfaction. These factors do not
produce positive results but prevent negative results. These
factors are related to job context :
 Salary
 Working conditions
 Interpersonal relations with superiors
 Interpersonal relations with subordinates
 Interpersonal relations with peers.
 Company policy
 Style of supervision
Presence of these factors will not motivate an individual but will prevent
him from getting dissatisfied.
 MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS : The motivational factors
have a positive effect on job satisfaction and often result
in an increase in total output. These factors are related
with job content. Motivators are :
 Achievement
 Advancement
 Recognition
 Responsibility
 Work itself

Productivity is function of ability and willingness. F(a,w)

According to Herzberg, Hygiene factors have effect on
willingness to work while motivating factors have effect
on ability to work.

This theory is not conclusive as not applicable to everyone.

(Challenging work acceptable to some) other criticism is
that both factors can work as satisfiers or dissatisfiers at
different points of time
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MASLOW&HERZBERG

Motives
 Maslow
Behaviour
Goals

According to motivation theory, Maslow theory identifies the need while

Herzberg theory identifies goals, incentives that need lead to satisfaction
of need
 Maslow given hierarchy & Herzberg doesn’t given. Herzberg didn’t
presupport existence of factors in hierarchy. All needs influence
simultaneously.
 Physiological
safety
Social
Hygiene Self esteem
Self-Actualization
Motivators
Line has been drawn Between esteem Because esteems can be acquired on
birth.
 ALDERFER ERG THEORY
 ERG theory was developed by Clayton Alderfer. He
reformulated Maslow’s need hierarchy theory. Alderfer
condenses 5 need given by Maslow into 3 needs

1. EXISTENCE NEEDS : It is concerned with survival

(physiological well-being). It includes Maslow’s physiological
& safety needs.
2. RELATEDNESS NEEDS: It includes the importance of
interpersonal & social relationships. It includes Maslow’s
Social & esteem needs
3. GROWTH NEEDS: These needs are concerned with the
individual’s intrinsic desire for personal development. It is
similar to Maslow’s self- Actualisation needs.
 Removed the hierarchical assumption
 Can be motivated by all three at once
 He argued that the needs form a hierarchy only
in the sense of decreasing concreteness i.e. the
ways in which we can satisfy these needs
become increasingly abstract.
 He reasoned that we are likely to satisfy our
most concrete needs first then abstract needs
 Dealt with coping behaviour also i.e. there can
be frustration-regression. If an individual fails to
satisfy a need at higher level, he will drop back
to concrete needs and try to fulfill them more
and more
 He conceived the ERG along a continuum which
avoids the implication that higher up an
individual in hierarchy better it is.
 MC GREGOR THEORY X, THEORY Y
•MC Gregor proposed two distinct views of human being :
One basically negative, labeled theory X
Other basically positive,labeled theory Y

After viewing the way in which managers deal with employees, Mc Gregor
concluded that the manager’s view of the nature of human is based on certain
assumptions. He/She tends to mould his/her behaviour towards subordinates
according to these assumptions.

THEORY X ASSUMPTION
• Average human being has inherent dislike of work and will try to avoid it.
• Average human being is lazy and avoids responsibility.
• An average human being is indifferent to organizational goals.
• Average human being prefers to be directed and relatively less ambitious.
• Most workers give more importance to security, than other factors related
to work. So they will show little ambition.
 THEORY Y ASSUMPTION
•Average human being does not inherently dislike work, Work may be source
of satisfaction.
•Average human being will exercise self-direction & self – control, in
service of objectives to which they are committed.
•Commitment to objectives is the function of rewards associated with their
achievement.
•Average human being under proper conditions not only accept but seek
responsibility

APPLICABILITY OF THEORY X
It is more applicable to unskilled & uneducated lower class workers, who work
for the satisfaction of their physiological needs only.

APPLICABILITY OF THEORY Y
•It is applicable to educated, skilled & professional employees, who
understand their responsibility and are self controlled.
 Comparison Between Theory X & Theory Y
Theory X
 Work is inherently
disstastefull to most people
 Most people are not
ambitious, have little desire
for responsibility and prefer
to be directed
 Motivation occurs only at
the physiological and
security levels
Theory Y
 Work is as natural as play, if
the conditions are
favourable.
 Self- control is often
indispensable in achieving
organizational goals
 Motivation occurs at the
social, esteem & self-
Actualization levels, as well
as the physiological &
security levels
 McCLELLAND’S NEED
THEORY OF MOTIVATION
 Need for Achievement (nAch)
 The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, compelling drive to succeed
 Need for Power (nPow)
 The need to make others behave in a way that they
would not have behaved otherwise, preferred to be
placed in competitive situation
 Need for Affiliation (nAff)
 The desire for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships, prefer to be in cooperative situation
 People have varying levels of each of the three needs.
 Hard to measure
 LIMITATIONS of McCLELLAND’s
THEORY

 Need and satisfaction of needs is a

psychological thing. Sometimes the person
may not aware of his own needs.
 There is no direct cause and effect
relationship between need and behaviour.
One particular need may cause different kinds
of behaviour.
 The physiological and safety needs are more
important as compared to McCLELLAND’s
theory.
Performance Predictions for High nAch
 People with a high need for achievement are likely to:
 Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance
of success, avoiding very low- or high-risk
situations
 Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of
personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk
 Not necessarily make good managers – too
personal a focus. Most good general managers do
NOT have a high nAch
 Need high level of nPow and low nAff for
managerial success
 Good research support, but it is not a very practical
theory
 COMPARISON OF 4 THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
MASLOW ALDERFER HERZBERG McCLELLAND

Self-Actualization
Need for
Esteem GROWTH Motivators achievement

Social Relatedness

Hygiene Need for

Safety Existence Factors Affiliation

Phsiological
 THEORY Z
Theory Z as proposed by William Ouchi
 Trust : Trust and openness are the building blocks of theory z.
The organization must work toward trust, integrity and openness.
 ORGANISATION-EMPLOYEE RELATIONSHIP: It suggests
strong linkage between employees and the organization. It
argues for the life time employment for people in the
organization.
 EMPLOYEE PARTICIPATION: Participation here does not
mean that employees should participate in all organisational
decisions but a decision where employees are invited to suggest
but a final green signal given by the management.
 STRUCTURELESS ORGANISATION.
 HOLISTIC CONCERN FOR EMPLOYEES: Leaders must be
prepared to invest their time and energies in developing
employees skill. The basic objective must be to work
cooperatively and willingly.
 VROOM EXPECTANCY THEORY
 Victor Vroom proposed this theory.
 According to this theory, motivation is determined by nature of reward,
people expect to get as result of their job performance
 Expectancy theory says that an employee will be motivated to exert a high
level of effort, then he or she belief that effort will lead to performance
appraisal that good appraisal will lead to rewards like bonus, salary
increase or a promotion, and that rewards will satisfy the employee’s
personal goals.
 The theory focuses on 3 relationships:
• EFFORT- PERFORMANCE EXPECTANCY: The degree to which individual
believes that given amount of effort will lead to attainment of desired
outcome.
• PERFORMANCE- REWARD INSTUMENTALITY: The degree to which
individual believes that performing a particular level will lead to attainment
of desired outcome.
• VALENCE i.e REWARDS- PERSONAL GOAL RELATIONSHIP: The degree to
which organisational rewards satisfy individual personal goals or needs.
 Vroom Expectancy Theory
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way
depends on the strength of an expectation that the act
will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.
Motivation is = E x I x V (all the three elements should
be positive)
Expectancy of Instrumentality of Valuation of the
performance success in getting reward in
success reward employee’s eyes
EXPECTANCY MODEL FOR MOTIVATION

REWARD
EFFORT PERFORMANCE

PERCEIVED
PERCEIVED PERCEIVED
PERFORMANCE-
EFFORT- VALUE OF
REWARD
PERFORMANCE REWARD
PROBABILITY
PROBABILITY
“What are my chances of getting job done “what are my chances of getting rewards “what rewards do I value?”

If I put forth the necessary effort?” I satisfactorily complete the job?”

• If I give maximum effort, will it be recognized in my performance appraisal ?

For a lot of employees, the answer is “ NO ”. Now, ques. Is WHY ?
The reasons are- : may be their skill level is deficient, which means that no matter how hard they try,
they are not likely to be high performer. Sometimes employees perceives that his or her boss don’t like
them. So he expects to get poor appraisal,regardless of his level of effort. This lead to low employee
motivation.
• If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to organizational rewards?
Many employees see the performance- reward relationship in their jobs as weak & demotivating..
• If I am rewarded, are the rewards one, that I find personally attractive ?The employee works hard in
the hope of getting a promotion but he gets a pay raise instead. Or employee wants a more interesting
& challenging job but he receive only a few words of praise.
 PORTER AND LAWLER MODEL OF MOTIVATION

The various elements of this model are

 EFFORT : Effort refers to the amount of energy which a person exerts
on a job.
 VALUE OF REWARD: If the reward to be obtained is attractive or
valent, then the individual will put extra efforts to perform the job,
otherwise he will lower his effort.
 PERCEIVED EFFORT REWARD PROBABILITY:
The possibility of the performance leading to certain kinds of rewards.
 PERFORMANCE: The expected level of
performance will depend upon the amount of effort,
abilities and traits of the individual and his role
expectations.
 REWARDS: Performance leads to certain outcomes
in the shapes of two types of rewards namely
extrinsic rewards and intrinsic rewards.
 SATISFACTION: Satisfaction will result from both
extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. However , for being
satisfied, an individual will compare his actual
rewards with the perceived rewards. Satisfaction
level will depend upon extent to which actual
reward falls short, meet or exceed the individual’s
perceived level of equitable reward.
 EQUITY THEORY
PERSON,S OUTCOME = OTHER’S OUTCOME EQUITY
PERSON,S INPUT OTHER,S INPUTS

PERSON’S OUTCOMES < OTHER,S OUTCOMES NEGATIVE INEQUITY

PERSON,S INPUTS OTHER,S INPUTS

PERSON,S OUTCOMES > OTHER,S OUTCOMES POSITIVE INEQUITY

PERSON,S INPUTS OTHER,S INPUTS

J. Stacy Adams formulated the equity theory, which is most highly developed &
researched - :
Equity theory is based on assumptions that people want to be treated fairly in
comparison to others.
Employees feel satisfied or dissatisfied, when compare themselves to friends,
neighbors, co-workers or their past jobs.
Equity theory recognize that individuals are concerned not only with absolute
amount of rewards, they receive for their efforts but also compare it with
what others receive.
They make judgments on basis of relationships between their inputs &
outcomes and inputs & outcomes of others.
Based on one’s inputs such as efforts, experience,education, one compares
• When people perceive an imbalance in their outcome- input ratio relative
to others , tension is created. This tension provides basis for motivation, as
people strive for what they perceive is equity and fairness.

•Based on equity theory, when employees perceive an inequity, they can

make on of the six choices - :
1. Change their inputs ( for ex : don’t exert as much effort ).
2. Change their outcomes ( for ex : individuals paid on piece-rate basis,
can increase their pay by producing a higher quantity of units of lower
quality )
3. Distort perceptions of self ( for ex : “ I used to think, I work at a
moderate pace but now I realized that I work a lot harder than every one
else ).
4. Distort perception of others ( for ex : “ Mike’s job isn’t as desirable , as
I previously thought it was ” ).
5. Choose a different referent ( For ex : “ I may not make as much as my
brother- in – law, but I am doing a lot better, than my dad did when he
was of my age ) .
6. Leave the field ( For ex : Quit the job ) .
 GOAL SETTING THEORY
Edwin locke proposed that intentions to work towards the goal are a major
source of wok motivation.
 Goals tell an employee what need to be done and how much effort will need
to be put in.
 Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output, than generalized goal of
“ DO YOUR BEST ”.
 The specificity of the goal itself act as an internal stimulus.

THEORY EMPHASIS FOLLOWING POINTS

If factors like ability & acceptance of the goals are held constant, we can also
state that the more difficult the goal, the higher level of performance.
 People will do better, when they get feedback on how well they are
progressing towards their goals.
If employees have the opportunity to participate in setting of their own goals,
will they try harder?
 The evidence is mixed regarding superiority of participative over assigned
goals.
FACTORS INFLUENCING GOAL PERFORMANCE
RELATIONSHIP - :

1. GOAL COMMITMENT : Goal setting theory, assume that individual is

committed to goal. He is determined not to lower or abandon the goal.
2. SELF-EFFICIENCY : It is individual belief he or she is capable of
performing a task. The higher your self-efficiency, more confidence you
have in your ability.
CONCLUSION
•Hard & specific goals are important motivating force.
• Under proper condition, they can lead to higher performance.
• But, there is no evidence that such goals can lead to increased job
satisfaction.
 Reinforcement Theory
 Similar to Goal-Setting Theory, but focused on a
behavioral approach rather than a cognitive one.
 Behavior is environmentally caused
 Thought (internal cogitative event) is not important
 Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored
 Behavior is controlled by its consequences –
reinforcers
 Is not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of
behavior
 Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but is not
likely to be the sole cause
 MOTIVATION IN FUTURE
• Employees are not alike – different employees respond
to different managerial and motivational styles.
• Tomorrow’s managers will not be able to use any one
formula .
• They will need to work with each employee for as an
individual and fit the motivational effort to that individual
• Different cultures experience motivational
approaches differently.
• Managers need to give workers what they need to
do a good job-the right tools, the right information,
and the right amount of cooperation