Session 13

Wind Musical Instruments using Open

and Closed Pipes
 Wind instruments 
A wind instrument is a musical instrument that contains some type of resonator (usually a pipe or
column) in which a column of air is set into vibration by the player blowing into (or over) a
mouthpiece placed at or near the end of the resonator.

Wind instruments are typically grouped into two families:

1- Brass instruments (horn, trumpet, trombone, euphonium, and tuba) 
2- Woodwind instruments (flute, oboe, clarinet, saxophone, and bassoon)
 Wind instruments (continued) 
The pitch of the vibration in wind instruments is determined by
the length of the pipe and by manual modifications of the
effective length of the vibrating column of air. The longer length
of pipe, the lower frequency of sound. Just like any musical
instruments wind instruments need an initial sound source which
can be resonated and modified by instrument body to create
music. Edge-hole of flute

In wind instruments, the initial sound vibrations is produced by

three following different techniques: Reed of Bassoon

1- Blowing across the edge of an edge-hole. (example: Flute, the

top image)
2- Blowing through a reed, a reed is a thin strip of material that Fipple of recorder
vibrates to produce a sound. (example: Bassoon, middle image)
3- Blowing over a fipple, across an open hole against an edge.
(example: Recorder, lower image)
 Air Jets and Edge-tones 
At the heart of every wind instrument there must be a mechanism
for converting the energy of air flow to air vibrations. Vibrations in
the air causes air instabilities. To understand the principal behind
the initial sound vibrations made in wind instruments, we have to
understand air instabilities and turbulences.

What is air instability and turbulence? Image 1

Instabilities are a common feature of air flows. Consider an air
flow is traveling with steady speed, see Image 1(a). When the
speed of air jet increases above a speed called critical speed
vibrations of air with many different frequencies start to rise up
instabilities and turbulences, see Image 1(b).

Similarly you can make a air blowing (air jet) through your mouth with steady
speed, no sound is created if the air flow has low velocity, see Image 2 (a).
Only when you blow air jet from your mouth hard enough (above critical
speed), you hear a noise of whistle. This means that air flow from your mouth
is not steady anymore and its speed is well above the critical speed which a
whistle with lots of frequencies is created image 2 (b). So your mouth opening
would act like a flute’s opening.
image 2
 Air Jets and Edge-Tones (continued) 
If you place a sharp-edged obstacle directly in front of the air jet of Image 2 in
the last slide, something more interesting happen. The sharp edge in front of air
jet causes stronger vibrations (Image 3). Also the sharp edge makes vibrations
with more well-defined frequency, rather than a wide range of frequencies.

The well-defined frequency made by air jet flow and a sharp edge is called edge-
tone.

You can produce this effect by holding a thin paper sheet card in front of you
mouth and blow to it. It sounds like whistle but with more defined frequency.

The frequency of the initial soundwave made by air jet and sharp edge is related Image 3
to speed of air jet and also the distance between air jet opening and the tip of
sharp edge (this distance is called embouchure length) :

  0.2× 𝑉 𝑗𝑒𝑡
𝑓 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 =
𝑏
 is the speed of air jet with unit of (m/s)
is embouchure length with unit of (m)
is the frequency of soundwave made by air jet and the sharp edge in (Hz)
Image 4
 Air Jets and Edge-Tones (continued) 

  create higher frequency (pitch) of soundwave, according to

To
the equation in the last page, the music instrument player must
blow the air jet with higher speed . Just like blowing the air out
of your
mouth with faster velocity creates a higher frequency or pitch.

On the other hand, lower air jet speed by instrument player or

whistler creates lower frequencies (pitches).

Also a shorter embouchure length cause higher frequency

(pitch).

On the other hand a longer embouchure length cause lower

frequency (pitch).
 Problem 1

 
With what velocity should a flutist blow into the
edge-hole of a flute to produce a stable tone of 262 (Hz), if the
embouchure length of this flute is about 0.01 (m)?
 Problem 1

 
With what velocity should a flutist blow into the
edge-hole of a flute to produce a stable tone of 262 (Hz), if the
embouchure length of this flute is about 0.01 (m)?

Solution:

𝑓  𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 =262(𝐻𝑧)
 

𝑉
  𝑗𝑒𝑡 =?

  0.2× 𝑉 𝑗𝑒𝑡   0.2 ×𝑉 𝑗𝑒𝑡  262× 0.01 =𝑉 𝑚

𝑓 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 = 2 62=  
𝑉
0.01 0.2 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑗𝑒𝑡 =13.1( )
𝑏 𝑠
 Musical Instruments with Edge-Hole
Now we want to concentrate on the first technique
(introduced in slide 3 of this session) for creating initial Air flow
soundwave in wind instruments which was blowing into
edge-hole. In edge-hole instruments, player direct the air jet
flow from the mouth to the edge-hole with angle in which
the air jet collides directly to the sharp edge of edge-hole
(see two top images), creating air instability, air turbulence
and consequently initial soundwave to travel into in the
instrument pipe. This initial soundwave later would be
resonated and altered by the instrument’s shape and Side view of Edge-Hole
Edge-Hole
body, creating musical sound. Instruments
using edge-hole opening are open pipe instruments.

Example of edge-hole instruments are:

1- Fife
2- Flute
3- Piccolo

Fife Flute Piccolo

Musical Instruments with Edge-Hole: Flute
Flute is a woodwind instrument which produces sound when a jet of air directed across a edge-hole in
the instrument creates a vibration of air at the hole. Flute is more advanced type of fife that a number
holes can open and close with one finger.

Holes in the flute tube change the effective length of the air column length. There are two
conditions of length changing the frequencies of flute :

1- When holes are closed, the air does not leave the flute’s pipe, so the length of flute would
be longer, therefore lower frequencies of initial sounds created by edge-hole would be
resonated and amplified.
2- When a hole is open, the air can leave the bore, so the length of flute would be shorter,
therefore lower frequencies of initial sounds made by edge-hole would be resonated and
amplified.
Also as we mentioned, the embouchure length determines the frequency of
sound created by edge-hole, so possibilities of frequency in respect to
embouchure are:
1- To make higher frequency, flute player gets his lips closer to edge-
hole (to make shorter embouchure length).
2- To make lower frequency, flute player gets his lips farther to edge-
hole (to make longer embouchure length).
Watch following video for techniques of creating different frequencies by flute: lower frequency, higher frequency
Lips farther to edge. Lips closer to edge.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cdKa5Mwd3fU
 Musical Instruments with Reed
The second technique of generating initial soundwave in woodwind instruments is the use of reed on the
mouthpiece. A reed is a thin strip of material that vibrates to produce initial soundwave. Reeds are made
from thin layer of cane, strip of metal (in harmonica), or synthetic material. The reed opens and closes,
vibrating air in the pipe, pressurizing the pipe when open, closing due to the Bernoulli effect
when the air flows fast. Instruments using reeds are closed pipe instrument. So all reed instruments are
only capable of having odd harmonics only due to being closed pipe.

There are three common type of reeds used in wind instruments:

Double reed, Obo
1- Single-reed
2- Double-reed
3- Lip-reed, lips acting as double-reed in brass instruments
Double

Reed

Lip-reed, brass instruments

Double reed, Bassoon Single reed, Saxophone

Single reed, clarinet
 Woodwind Musical Instruments with Single-Reed
A single-reed instrument is a woodwind instruments that uses only one reed to produce initial soundwave. 
A single-reed consists of one piece of thin layer of cane which vibrates against a mouthpiece made of
metal, hardened rubber or other material. Single-reed instruments are closed-pipe instruments having only
odd harmonics.

Most noticeable western instruments using single-reed are:

1- Clarinet
2- Saxophone
3- Xaphoon
In all three of these instruments, a single-
reed makes the initial sound. The body,
shape, and length
of instrument determine the timbre of
instrument.

The length of pipe determines the Saxophones are usually made of brass and
frequency of sound. The shorter the played with a single-reed mouthpiece,
length, the higher frequency(pitch). The Although most saxophones are made
length of instrument is adjusted by player, from brass, they are categorized as
by opening and closing holes during play. woodwind instruments, not a brass
instrument.
Xaphoon
Clarinet
 Woodwind Musical Instruments with Double-Reed
A double-reed is a type of reed used to produce sound in various woodwind instruments. The term double-
reed comes from the fact that there are two pieces of cane or other material vibrating against each other.
Initial sound vibrations are cussed by air blown made by player mouth through double reed.
Double-reed instruments are closed-pipe instruments, having only odd harmonics.

Most noticeable western instruments using double-reed are:

1- Bassoon
2- Obo
3- Sarrusophone
4- Heckelphone
Obo
In all four of these instruments, a double-reed makes
the initial sound. The body, shape, and length
of instrument determine the timbre of instrument.
Each of these instruments have their own unique Heckelphone
timbre.

The length of pipe determines the frequency of

sound. The shorter the length, the higher
frequency(pitch). The length of instrument is
adjusted by player: opening and closing holes
during play. Sarrusophone
Double- reed of Bassoon Bassoon
 Brass Musical Instruments with Players Lips acting as Lip-Reed

A brass instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound by vibration of air in a tubular resonator. The initial
soundwave in brass instruments is made by the player's lips. Players lips act as double-reed. Brass instruments are literally
"lip-vibrated instruments". The initial sound made by lips then gets directed by mouthpiece into the instrument main pipe.
The initial sound is not made by mouthpiece. The mouthpiece only direct the initial sound into the main pipe. Then the
initial soundwave resonated and timbred by the shape of the pipes, size and length of pipes. Due to the shape, size length of
pipes, each brass instrument sounds differently. The nature of the motion of lip-reed determines the flow of air through the
lips, between the player’s mouth and the instrument.

Brass instrument mouthpieces are in variety of size and shapes.

 Creating Different Frequencies (pitch) in Brass Musical Instruments
The frequency of soundwave made by brass instruments can be adjusted by:

1- Breathe air pressure, a higher speed of air blow by mouth makes higher frequency.
2- Lip tension, higher tension caused by facial muscles to lips makes higher frequency of sound.
3- Length of pipes and sides, player uses valves and sides to change the length of overall tubes and pipes in instrument to
create different frequencies (pitches).
What are sides?
A slide is a part of a brass instrument consisting of two (or more) pieces of tubing fitted one closely inside the other.
In some brass instruments like trumpet, sides are added or removed from main pipe by valves. Sides are used to vary
the overall length of the pipe, and therefore the frequency (pitch) of the instrument. Side pipes in trombone are two
pipes, one fitted inside the other one. Trombone Player by moving these fitted tubes back and forth varies the overall
length of pipes, therefore creates different frequencies of sound.

Slide pipe in trombone Slide pipe in trumpet

The most noticeable brass instruments in western music
with conical pipes
1- Trumpet
2- French Horn
3- Trombone
4- Baritone Horn
5- Tuba
6- Flugelhorn Bugle
7- Cornet
8- Bugle Flugelhorn

Cornet

Trumpet

Tuba French Horn

Watch all brass band (it also includes saxophone which is not brass):
Trombone
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEjNggZsWow Baritone Horn
Wind Instruments with Conical Pipes and Bell

There are two common shape of pips used in wind instruments:

1- Straight pipes
2- Conical pipes

Straight pipes:
Straight pipes
In a straight pipe instruments like flute and organ pipes, the cross
section size of pipe does not change, so both ends of open pipe have
same size cross section areas.

Conical pipes:

In a conical pipe instrument like trumpet and saxophone, the cross

section size of pipe changes over the length of pipe. Two end of pipe Conical pipes
have different cross section sizes. The laws of physics in regards to
harmonics (modes or overtone) are slightly different for straight and
conical pipes.
 What is the effect of conical shape of pipes in brass instruments and some
woodwinds such as clarinet and saxophone?
Both clarinet and saxophone in woodwind family are instruments with conical pipes, also all brass instruments have
conical pipes.

Straight and conical pipes react differently to the initial soundwave. The effective length of a conical pipe is longer
than a straight pipe with the same length. In other words, if you have two pipes with the same length, one straight
pipe and the other one a conical pipe, the conical pipe has a longer effective length for soundwave.

The effective length of a conical pipe can be calculated by:

straight pipe

𝐿  𝐿
  𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐿+0.3 𝑑

  Where: conical pipe  

is the effective length of conical pipe with unit of (m)
Is the actual length of the conical pipe with unit of (m)  𝐿
is the diameter of the bell side of conical pipe in (m)

 The image shows a straight pipe with length of (top image), but a conical effective length of conical pipe
pipe with same length (middle image) acts like a straight pipe with longer
length of (lower image).  𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓
 Harmonics in Closed Pipes (all reed instruments) with conical shape
Since in closed conical pipe of all reed instruments (brass instrument, and some wind wood instruments
such as clarinet and saxophone), sound travels in air contained in the pipe, speed of sound can be
determined by:

  = 344 + 0.6(-20)
We also know:
𝑉
  𝑇 =λ 𝑛 . 𝑓 𝑛   =1

 The rest equations are similar to straight pipes, but instead of length we need to use
effective length of .   =3
Therefore frequency and wavelength of harmonics (modes) in a closed conical pipe
become:
  =5
  𝑛.𝑉𝑇   4
𝑓 𝑛= λ𝑛= 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 where 𝐿
  𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐿+0.3 𝑑
4 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑛   =7
 stands for number of harmonic but only odd numbers 1, 3, 5 ……
is the frequency of th harmonic with unit of (Hz)
is the wavelength of th harmonic with unit of (Hz)   =9
speed of sound in the air of pipe with unit of (m/s)
is the effective length pipe in (m)
is actual length of pipe of instrument in (m)
= 1 is the fundamental vibration mode
= 3 is the third harmonic vibration mode
= 5 is the fifth harmonic vibration mode
.
Problem 2
A French horn with closed pipe is made of a 1.3 (m) long conical
pipe. The diameter of the bell is 0.4 (m), see the image.
The room in which this horn is played has the temperature of 35(°C).

0.4 (m)
A- What is speed of sound in the horn?

B- What is the effective length of pipe in this horn?

C- What is the fundamental frequency of this horn?

D- What frequency is the second harmonic of this horn?

French horn
E- What is the wavelength third harmonic of this horn?

Solutions:
A- What is speed of sound in the horn?
𝑇  =35(° 𝐶) 𝑉
  𝑇 =?
  = 344 + 0.6(-20)   = 344 + 0.6(-20)   = 344 + 0.6()   = 344 + 9 = 353 (m/s)
 Solutions of Problem 2 (continued)

B- What is the effective length of pipe in this horn?

  𝑑  =0.4(𝑚)  𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 =?

𝐿
  𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐿+0.3 𝑑 𝐿
  𝑒𝑓𝑓 =1.3+( 0.3× 0.4) 𝐿
  𝑒𝑓𝑓 =1.3+0.12=1.42(𝑚)

C- What is the fundamental frequency of this horn?

  = 1 is the fundamental

  𝑛.𝑉𝑇 1 ×353 353

𝑓 𝑛= 𝑓  𝑛=1= 𝑓  𝑛=1= =62.14 ( 𝐻𝑧)
4 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 4 ×1.42 5.68

D- What is the second harmonic frequency of this horn?

As it is stated in the problem: French horn is brass instrument and closed conical pipe. In closed pipes there is
no even harmonics. So the answer is: there is no second harmonic because 2 is an even number.
 Solutions of Problem 2 (continued)

E- What is the wavelength of third harmonic of this horn?

  = 3 is the third harmonic

  4   4
λ 𝑛 = 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 λ 𝑛=3 = ×1.42=1.89 ( m )
𝑛 3
Why are some of instruments made of conical pipes (with bell) anyway?

Reminder diffraction of sound: if a soundwave reaches an opening with sharp edges, it spreads the wave after passing
through due to diffraction. This rapid spread due to diffraction of soundwave would cause distortion in the soundwave
which is not pleasant. The smaller aperture, the larger distortion and spread of soundwave (see the right image). So a
gradual opening of a conical pipe and bell shape at the end of pipe in musical instruments can reduce the diffraction of
sound coming out of instrument. But there more reasons for the conical pipe and bell in some pipe musical
instruments (listed in the next slide).

Diffraction of sound wave when it reaches an opening Smaller opening causes more causes more diffraction, but a conical pipe
in which the size of opening gradually increases can reduce diffraction or
distortion o music coming from wind instruments such as all brass
instruments.
Why are some of instruments made of conical pipes (with bell) anyway?
(continued)

Due to following reasons a gradual flair of pipe (conical shape) and the bell are adopted for all brass instruments, saxophone
and clarinet:

1- For amplification of lower frequencies.

2- High frequencies are better able to travel into a widening bell.
3- Bell makes instrument louder.
4- Bell and conical pipe reduce the diffraction which is the source of unpleasant distortion in sound.

conical pipe conical pipe

Comparing sound in a brass instrument with and without bell:

To observe the difference in sound coming from a brass instrument with straight cylindrical pipe and a conical (flair
pipe) with bell listen to following links. You would realize how warmer and more pleasant the sound from a conical
shape with bell is :
1- The sound of straight pipe http://newt.phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/brass/110cm.mp3
2- The sound of conical pipe with bell http://newt.phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/brass/110cmbell.mp3
 Musical Instruments with Fipple
The third technique of generating initial soundwave in woodwind instruments is the use of fipple
on the mouthpiece.

How does fipple work?

In the top image (Image of fipple), mouthpiece of the instrument,
compresses the player’s breath, so that it travels along the duct (B),
then the breath is directed against a hard and bladed edge (C), also Image of fipple
called the wind-cutter, producing instability and turbulence which
produces initial soundwave with a number frequencies which later
some of them would be resonated by the shape and the size of
instrument.

Noticeable musical instrument using fipples are:

1- Recorder
2- Flue pipes in pipe organ

Organ Flue pipes

Recorder Organ Flue pipes

Pipe Organ, a giant musical instrument with combination of open and closed pipes

Pipe Organ is a keyboard instrument of multiple pipes producing frequencies (tones or pitches). Pipes are
played with keyboard, played either with the hands on a keyboard or with the feet using pedals. 

A combination of all techniques and pipe types, which we covered so far for
wind instruments, are used in the structure of a pipe organ such as:
1- Open pipes
2- Closed pipes
3- Reeds to produce initial sound
4- Fipples to produce initial sounds

Pipe organs use air moving through pipes to produce sounds. There are
thousands of pipes in an organ with different lengths to produce
different frequencies (pitches). Due to enormity of instrument there are
a number of air compressors which feed pipes with pressured air to
produce sound.

Watch the following video to be Introduced to pipe organ:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4S6BErQs-HE Air compressor mechanism to feed air into thousands pipes of organ
 Problem 3

Which one of following can be possible frequencies of first four harmonics of a flute which is an open pipe instrument?

A) 100. 200, 400, 500 (Hz)

B) 100, 300, 500, 700 (Hz)
C) 100, 200, 300, 400 (Hz)
D) 100, 400, 800, 1200 (Hz)

Solution:
In slide 9 of session 21, we listed equations for open-pipe instruments including:

𝑓 𝑛=n. 𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
 

 Where is the th harmonic vibration mode in which includes all odd and even numbers =1, 2, 3, 4, …..

So for this problem 100 (Hz) is fundamental (lowest frequency), second harmonic (=2) should be 2x100= 200 (Hz),
third harmonic (= 3) should be 3x100 = 300 (Hz), fourth harmonic should be
4x100= 400 (Hz).
So only C can be the correct answer.
 Problem 4

Which one of following can be possible frequencies of first four harmonics of a piccolo which is an open-pipe
instrument?

A) 300, 600, 900, 1200 (Hz)

B) 300, 400, 500, 600 (Hz)
C) 300, 500, 700, 900 (Hz)
D) 300, 400, 800, 1200 (Hz)

Solution:
In slide 9 of session 21, we listed equations for open-pipe instruments including:

𝑓 𝑛=n. 𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
 

 Where is the th harmonic vibration mode in which includes all odd and even numbers = 1, 2, 3, 4, …..

So for this problem 300 (Hz) is fundamental (lowest frequency), second harmonic (=2) should be 2x300= 600 (Hz),
third harmonic (= 3) should be 3x300 = 900 (Hz), fourth harmonic should be
4x300= 1200 (Hz).
So only A can be the correct answer.
 Problem 5

Which one of following can be the frequencies of first four harmonics of trumpet which is a closed-pipe
instrument?

A) 100. 200, 400, 500 (Hz)

B) 100, 300, 500, 700 (Hz)
C) 100, 200, 300, 400 (Hz)
D) 100, 400, 800, 1200 (Hz)

Solution:
In slide 7 of session 22, we listed equations for closed-pipe instruments including:
𝑓 𝑛=n. 𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
 

 Where is the th harmonic vibration mode in which includes only odd numbers: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9…..

So for this problem 100 (Hz) is fundamental (lowest frequency), the next harmonic is the third (=3) should be 3x100= 300
(Hz), the next harmonic would be fifth harmonic (= 5) should be 5x100 = 500 (Hz), the next harmonic would be seventh
harmonic (= 7) should be 7x100 = 700 (Hz),
So only B can be the correct answer.