Leadership Development

Leadership – Historical
Perspective

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Why Study the Classical Literature of
Leadership?

• The framework of contemporary

leadership theories originates in the
classical writings.
• The content of classical writings is
relevant today.
• Classical writings offer interesting answers
to complex leadership questions that still
have not been fully resolved.

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 Caveat Emptor!

• History is written by the

winners
• Be wary of sources

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Some Good Lessons Nevertheless
From Aristotle to Machiavelli

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 Aristotle On Rhetorical Leadership
• Rhetoric: the art of persuasion in which
emotion and power are influential features
• Truth and justice are stronger than lies and
injustice, “false” rhetoric would not be able to
overturn them
• Rhetoric persuades through emotion, not
reason
• Rhetorical skills have great significance for
contemporary leaders intent on enabling
their followers to see the rationality of the
arguments they put forth.
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“A key – perhaps the key – to
leadership is
the effective
communication
of a story.”
Howard Gardner
Leading Minds: An Anatomy of Leadership

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 Castiglione’s The Book of the Courtier

• Sought to explain the success and failure of

leaders
• Followers, in blind obedience, may carry out
orders that are erroneous or dishonourable.
• Leaders may begin to listen only to advice
that supports their views (hubris) and
become increasingly isolated as they become
more powerful.

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“With numbing regularity good people were seen to
knuckle under the demands of authority and
perform actions that were callous and severe. Men
who are in everyday life responsible and decent were
seduced by the trappings of authority, by the control of
their perceptions, and by the uncritical acceptance of
the experimenter's definition of the situation, into
performing harsh acts. …A substantial proportion of
people do what they are told to do, irrespective of
the content of the act and without limitations of
conscience, so long as they perceive that the
command comes from a legitimate authority…”
(Stanley Milgrim 1965)

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 Machiavelli’s The Prince

– Offered real-world advice to leaders on how and

when they should act to do whatever is necessary
for the greater good and protect the community.
• Leadership is not popularity; it is being
respected (feared and effective) without being
hated.
• Ruthless princes: power is the essence of
society, and organization has to be imposed on
society by leaders to prevent anarchy.
• Commitment by the people to the state is
important.

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– Modern theory refutes this
– It is however still regarded by many as the basis for
effective influence…
– Brings to bear the question what is basis for
positive and negative influence, respectively

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Closely Related is the “Big Man” Theories
Heroic Warrior Model of Leadership

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1. Simple-clear scheme (“Plan”)
2. SOARING/BOLD/CLEAR/UNEQUIVOCAL/WORTHY/NOBLE/INSPIRI
NG
3. “GOAL”/“MISSION”/“PURPOSE”/“QUEST”
4. “Conversation”: Engagement of All Leaders
5. LED BY “LOVE” (Lambert), NOT “AUTHORITY” (Identify with
sailors!)
6. Instinct/Seize the Moment/“Impetuosity”
7. VIGOR! Workaholic! (“Duty” first, second, and third)
8. LEAD BY CONFIDENT & DETERMINED & CONTINUOUS & VISIBLE
EXAMPLE
9. Others’ principal shortcoming: “ADMIRALS MORE FRIGHTENED OF
LOSING THAN ANXIOUS TO WIN”
Source: Andrew Lambert, Nelson: Britannia’s God of War

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 “He above all encouraged (and prepared)
his subordinates to seize the initiative
whenever necessary, particularly in the fog
of war —and the men who served under
him knew what he expected.” —Jay Tolson,
on “The Nelson Touch,” The Battle That
Changed The World

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 “almost inhuman
disinterestedness in …
strategy” U.S.
—Josiah Bunting on
Grant (from Ulysses S. Grant)

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 “This [adolescent] incident [of getting from point A to
point B] is notable not only because it underlines
Grant’s fearless horsemanship and his determination,
but also it is the first known example of a very important

Grant had an
peculiarity of his character:

extreme, almost phobic

dislike of turning back and
retracing his steps. If he set out for
somewhere, he would get there somehow, whatever the
difficulties that lay in his way. This idiosyncrasy would
turn out to be one the factors that made him such a
formidable general. Grant would always, always press
on—turning back was not an option for him.”
—Michael Korda, Ulysses Grant

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“The only way to
whip an army is
to go out and
fight it.” —Grant
Source: John Mosier, Grant

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 “The [Union senior] officers rode past
the Confederates smugly without
any sign of recognition except by
one. ‘When General Grant reached
the line of ragged, filthy, bloody,
despairing prisoners strung out on
each side of the bridge, he lifted his
hat and held it over his head until
he passed the last man of that living
funeral cortege. He was the only
officer in that whole train who
recognized us as being on the face
of the earth.’*”

*quote within a quote from diary of a Confederate

soldier

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 "The art of war is
simple enough. Find
out where your
enemy is. Get at him
as soon as you can.
Strike at him as hard
as you can and as
often as you can, and
keep moving on." —
Grant, courtesy Richard Cauley at
tompeters.com
(original source unknown)

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 “The art of war does not
require complicated
maneuvers; the simplest
are the best, and
common sense is
fundamental. From which
one might wonder how it
is generals make
blunders; it is because
they try to be clever.” —
Napoleon on Simplicity, from Napoleon
on Project Management by Jerry Manas

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Leadership Theories 1900-1970
Enter the Age of Leadership Research

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Focus on Traits

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 Trait Research from 1904 TO 1947

– Research, encouraged by the need to

identify potential military leaders, that
sought to answer the question “What
makes a leader?”
– Attempted unsuccessfully to identify a
single trait or universal cluster of traits
that would differentiate leaders from
followers.
– Found a number of positive correlations
for individual traits.

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 Trait Research from 1948 TO 1970

– Multivariate experiments and factor analysis

became the basic research tools in the study
of trait and leadership consequences.
– Leadership was now considered to be
based on complex groupings of traits and
social interactions, rather than on a single
trait or a small cluster of traits
– More research was now being conducted
inside work organizations.

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 Selective Leadership Attributes
According to Stogdill’s 1948 and 1974
Survey

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 Source: Based on Stogdill, R.
M. (1974). Handbook of
Leadership: A Survey of
Theory and Research. New
York: Free Press.

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More Contemporary Leadership Attributes
• High energy levels
• Strong internal locus of control
• Self-confidence
• Emotional maturity
• Integrity
• Need for power
• Moderately high achievement
orientation
• Moderately low need for social affiliation
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More Contemporary Leadership Attributes
• High energy levels

?
• Strong internal locus of control
• Self-confidence
• Emotional maturity
• Integrity
• Need for power
• Moderately high achievement
orientation
• Moderately low need for social affiliation
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 Weaknesses of the Trait Approach
– Trait research neglects the contexts
(situations) within which leaders and
followers find themselves.
– The trait approach does not recognize the
importance and influence of followers in
the leadership process.
– Most research on leadership traits is
culturally determined in that traits
considered desirable in effective leaders in
one culture may not be desirable in another
culture.
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Focus on Behavior

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 Behavioural Leadership Theory

– Emphasizes leaders’ behaviours (i.e., what leaders

do) in considering leadership as an activity.
– Examines the managerial or leadership style of the
leader’s behaviour towards followers.
– Task-oriented behaviours focus on meeting
targets and accomplishing goals.
– Relationship-oriented behaviours are actions
taken to establish, maintain, and direct
relationships with followers.

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 Boys’ Club Studies (1939)

– Autocratic leaders are most effective

overall in getting out production.
– Democratic leaders are best at
creating job satisfaction and
fostering higher unsupervised
employee output.
– Laissez-faire leaders are least effective
on both accounts.

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From To
Behaviour Style

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 University of Michigan Studies

– Focused on the effect of the leader’s behaviour or

style on the performance of followers.
– Production-oriented leaders emphasize the
production and technical aspects of work.
– Employee-oriented leaders focus on employees and
have a strong human relations approach to dealing
with employees.
– Managers have persistent styles that are not easily
changed.

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Four General Leadership Styles (Likert)

– Exploitative-authoritative
– Benevolent-authoritative
– Consultative
– Participative
– The key dimension of leadership behaviours
differentiating these styles is the amount of
empowerment or participation the leader allows
followers in the decision-making process.

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 Ohio State Studies

– Used the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) to investigate how

leaders behaved when in charge of a work group or a work organization.

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EVOLVING TO THE BLAKE AND MOUTON APPROACH

THE LEADERSHIP GRID

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Weaknesses of the Behaviour and Style Approach

– The behavior approach, like the trait approach, has

been unable to identify a universal style of
leadership that is effective in the vast majority of
situations.
– The behavior approach suggesting the most
universally effective leadership style is the high-
high style—that is, high production and high
people-oriented behavior.
– Behavior theories do not adequately demonstrate
how leaders’ behaviors are associated with
performance outcomes in a complex reality.

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AN INCREASING REALIZATION OF TWO ASPECTS


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Situation - Contingency

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 Situational Leadership II

Situational Leadership II is based on the beliefs that:

• there is no best leadership style

• people can and want to develop

• you should tailor leadership style to the situation

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“Different strokes for different folks;
but also
Different strokes for the same folks”

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“Leadership is not something you do
TO people;
but something you do
WITH people”

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Beware the 4-1 Leader!

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“Changes in performance triggers
a change in leadership style”

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Contingency Theories and Transaction…vis

TRANSFORMATIONAL
LEADERSHIP
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