Kyoto Protocol and

the CDM
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

Energizing Cleaner Production

Management Course

1
 Session Agenda:

Introduction to climate change

Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

The Kyoto Protocol and CDM at a

glance
CDM project cycle
CDM Pre-screen Tool for Industry in
Developing Countries

2
 Introduction to Climate Change
Your task: answer these questions

• What causes climate change?

• Why are sea levels rising?
Kyoto Protocol

• Which greenhouse gas is more powerful:

and the CDM

CO2 or CH4?
• If we cut all GHG emissions, how long will
it take for climate
change to stop?
• How realistic was the
movie “The Day
After Tomorrow?”
3
 Introduction to Climate Change
Some basic facts
• Human activities are releasing greenhouse
gases (GHG) into the atmosphere
• Climate change is a global issue:
1 tCO2 emitted in India = 1 tCO2 emitted in USA
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

• Rising levels of greenhouse gases are already

changing the climate
• Climate models predict the global temperature
will rise by about 1.4 to 5.8 degrees by 2100
• Climate change is likely to have a significant
impact on the global environment, economy
and society

4
 Introduction to Climate Change
The greenhouse effect

1) Solar radiation
5 2 2) Reflected back to space
Kyoto Protocol

3) Absorbed by atmosphere
and the CDM

6 1 4) Infra-red radiations
emitted from Earth

5) Some of the IR passes

4 through the atmosphere
3
6) Some is absorbed and
re-emitted by greenhouse
gas molecules

The effect is increasing temperatures on Earth

5
 Introduction to Climate Change
Kyoto Protocol 1 oC increase since 1986
and the CDM

6
 Introduction to Climate Change
Kyoto Protocol The greenhouse gases
and the CDM

7
 Introduction to Climate Change
Kyoto Protocol Greenhouses are rising
and the CDM

8
 Introduction to Climate Change
Kyoto Protocol ...and so is the temperature
and the CDM

9
 Introduction to Climate Change
Trends for 2100

TEMPERATURE PRECIPITATION
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

5 degrees = What separates us from the last glacial era (-15 000 BC)

Models’ forecasts : +1.4 to +5.8 degrees by 2100.

10
 Introduction to Climate Change
Kyoto Protocol
Time needed to reach equilibrium
and the CDM

CO2 concentration, temperature, and sea level

11
continue to rise long after emissions are reduced!
 Introduction to Climate Change
Kyoto Protocol
Visual impact at the polar ice cap
and the CDM

12
 Introduction to Climate Change
Less visual but major impact

Consequences of Agriculture and food security

Crop yields, irrigation demands...
climate change:
Forest
Kyoto Protocol

Composition, health and productivity...

and the CDM

Water resources
Water supply, water quality...

Coastal areas
Erosion, inundation, cost of prevention...

Species and natural areas

> Temperature increase Biodiversity, modification of ecosystems...
> Sea level rise
> More rain Human health
Infectious diseases, human settlements...
13
 Introduction to Climate Change
Your task: answer these questions

• What causes climate change?

• Why are sea levels rising?
Kyoto Protocol

• Which greenhouse gas is more powerful:

and the CDM

CO2 or CH4?
• If we cut all GHG emissions, how long will
it take for climate
change to stop?
• How realistic was the
movie “The Day
After Tomorrow?”
14
 Kyoto Protocol and CDM at a glance
Your task: answer these questions

• What is the main difference between

UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol?
• When did the Kyoto Protocol come into
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

effect, and why not before?

• What does it mean when we talk about
the “commitment period”?
• What are the “Flexible Mechanisms”?
• Why has USA not ratified the Kyoto
Protocol?
• What are the two main purposes of CDM?
15
 Kyoto Protocol and CDM at a glance
United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

• A global legal instrument (international

agreement) to protect the climate system
and stabilize GHG emissions
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

• Adopted in 1992, entered into force in 1994

• Status of participation: 189 Parties
• Contains 2 annexes:
– Annex 1: countries with obligations to take measures to
mitigate the effects of climate change
– Annex 2: countries with obligations to provide financing to
developing countries for their obligations under UNFCCC
16
 Kyoto Protocol and CDM at a Glance
Kyoto Protocol – key points

• Adopted at third Conference of Parties

(COP) to the UNFCCC in Kyoto in 1997
• Required ratification of > 55 countries
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

representing > 55% of GHG emissions

• Entered into force on February 16th, 2005
after ratification of the Russian Federation
• Now 163 countries covering 61.6% of global
emissions have ratified the protocol

17
 Kyoto Protocol and CDM at a Glance
Kyoto Protocol – key points

• Six emissions: CO2, CH4, N2O, PFCs, HFCs, SF6

• Binding emission reduction targets for Annex I
countries of 5.2% below 1990 over 2008-2012
Kyoto Protocol

• Non-Annex I countries have no binding targets but

and the CDM

must report on their actions

• Annex I countries can achieve targets through
domestic policies and three market mechanisms
• Non-Annex I countries can participate through the
Clean Development Mechanism to facilitate
sustainable development
• Rules for implementation worked out at annual COP
meetings
18
 Kyoto Protocol and CDM at a Glance
Annex B countries
(= Annex I under UNFCCC)

Australia Estonia Latvia Russia

Austria Finland Liechtenstein Slovakia
Belarus France Lithuania Slovenia
Kyoto Protocol

Belgium Germany Luxembourg Spain

and the CDM

Bulgaria Greece Netherlands Sweden

Canada Hungary New Zealand Switzerland
Croatia Iceland Norway Turkey
Czech Rep Ireland Poland Ukraine
Denmark Italy Portugal UK
EC Japan Romania USA
* Countries with economies in transition to a market economy.

* Countries which did not ratify Kyoto protocol. 19

 Kyoto Protocol and CDM at a Glance
Emission trends in Annex 1
countries (2005)

Decreased emissions
(1990 baseline)
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

Increased emissions
(1990 baseline)

20
 Kyoto Protocol and CDM at a Glance
Flexible mechanisms

ET - Emissions Trading
AAU (Assigned Amount Units) are exchanged
between Annex I countries
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

JI - Joint Implementation
Annex I investors receive ERUs (Emission
Reduction Units) by investing in a project in another
Annex I nation which reduces GHG emissions

CDM - Clean Development Mechanism

Annex I investors receive CERs (Certified Emission
Reductions) by investing in a project in a non-Annex
I nation which reduces GHG emissions
21
 Kyoto Protocol and CDM at a Glance
What Annex I countries can do

Limitations of CO2 emissions in

developed countries (Annex I)
Kyoto Protocol

4 options for companies

and the CDM

1/ Pay expensive 2/ Carry out carbon 3/ Buy emissions 4/ Carry out carbon
fines. reduction through credits on the reduction through
processes CO2 market (ETS). technology transfers
improvement. in CDM or JI project.

22
 Kyoto Protocol and CDM at a Glance
Kyoto Protocol Opportunities for industry
and the CDM

23
 Kyoto Protocol and CDM at a Glance
Opportunities for industry

• Technology transfer to improve

process and energy efficiency
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

• Co-finance investments by selling

emission credits

• Prepare for future commitments

(after 2012)

• Achieve sustainable development

24
 Kyoto Protocol and CDM at a Glance
Cleaner Production and Kyoto
Protocol Opportunities
Policy advice on industry’s
needs to enable JI/CDM

Submit pilot and full-scale projects to GEF.

Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

Engage in technology needs

Cleaner assessments project Kyoto
Production Propose JI/CDM projects Protocol
Activities
Raise awareness of JI/CDM opportunities
among local key industries and partners
Assistance in formulation of National
Implementation Plans
(GHG inventories, needs, etc.).

25
 Kyoto Protocol and CDM at a glance
Why CDM?

• Emission reductions more expensive

in developed than developing
Kyoto Protocol

countries
and the CDM

• Two objectives:
– Help Annex 1 countries meet their
objectives in a cost-effective way
– Contribute to sustainable development
of the host country

26
 Kyoto Protocol and CDM at a glance
How the CDM Works

• Annex I country invests in GHG

reduction project in non-Annex I
country
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

• Annex I country receives CERs

• Non-Annex I country receives
revenues from CERs
Investment

Annex 1 Country Non-Annex 1 Country

CERs (negotiated)
e.g. Japan e.g. Thailand

Revenues
27
 Kyoto Protocol and CDM at a glance
Your task: answer these questions

• What is the big difference between

UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol?
• When did the Kyoto Protocol come into
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

effect, and why not before?

• What does it mean when we talk about
the commitment period?
• What are the “Flexible Mechanisms”?
• Why has USA not ratified the Kyoto
Protocol?
• What are the two main purposes of CDM?
28
 CDM Project Cycle
Your task: answer these questions

• What is the difference between PIN

and PDD?
• What is the difference between the
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

baseline and the baseline

methodology?
• What is the role of the DOE?
• Does the size of my CDM project
matter?
• How are CDM projects normally
financed?
29
 CDM Project Cycle
Overview: 9 steps
Project developer DOE DNA EB

1. Project Preparation 2. Development of 3. Development of Project Design 4. Submission of the

i. Identification of project Project Idea Document (PDD) PDD and Host
Note (PIN) Country Approval
ii. Pre-screening of CDM- i. Project Description
to Validator
Applicability ii. Select baseline approach
Kyoto Protocol

iii. Development of Feasibility iii. Assess additionality

Study iv. Set baseline emission level
and the CDM

(under consideration of CDM

v. Set Crediting Period
Aspects)
vi. Calculate net emission reduction
vii. Develop a monitoring plan Host
viii.Assess environmental impacts Country
ix. Invite stakeholders for comments Approval

8. Project
implementation Registration of Possible review
and monitoring the CDM project by CDM EB 7. 5.
Submission of Make PDD
Validation publicly
Report and available for
PDD 6. 30 days
of Project Validation
9. of Project
Yearly
verification
and Registration of
Possible review
certification
by CDM EB the CDM project
30
 CDM Project Cycle
CDM participants

• CDM project developer / operator –

e.g. government agencies, financial institutions,
NGOs
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

• CDM investors / CER purchasers –

usually corporation, government agency or NGO
in Annex I country

• Host government and Designated

National Authority – ratification of Kyoto
Protocol and approve CDM projects

31
 CDM Project Cycle
CDM participants

Designated Operational Entities (DOEs)

• Domestic / international legal entities,
Kyoto Protocol

accredited by CDM Executive Board

and the CDM

• Responsibilities
– Validating CDM activities
– Making PDDs available
– Receive comments on CDM documents
– Verifying and certifying CERs during project
operation
32
 CDM Project Cycle
CDM participants

• CDM Executive Board (CDM-EB)

– Reports to UNFCCC
– Ten members
Kyoto Protocol

–
and the CDM

Reviews project validation and verification reports

– Issues CERs

• Other stakeholders
– Local stakeholders: comment on PDD before host
country approval
– Other interested parties: comment on posted
PDD

33
 CDM Project Cycle
Step 1. Project preparation

• 1-i. Identification of project

• Usually by comparison against approved
baseline and monitoring methodologies
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

• 1-ii. Pre-screening of CDM applicability

• Assessment of project against criteria
• CDM Pre-screen Tool can be used for this
step!

• 1-iii. Development of feasibility study

• Technical and economical feasibility
• Not required but recommended to prove
‘additionality’ of project
34
 CDM Project Cycle
Step 2. Develop Project Idea Note (PIN)

• Project developer prepares PIN

• Not mandatory but helps to obtain
Kyoto Protocol

feedback from country / investors

and the CDM

• Five pages
– Project type, size, location
– GHG reductions
– Suggested crediting life time and CER price
– Financial structure
– Other socio-economic and environmental
benefits
35
 CDM Project Cycle
Step 3. Develop Project Design
Document (PDD)
A. General description of the project
B. Setting of the baseline
C. Duration of the project / Crediting period
Kyoto Protocol

D. Setting of the monitoring plan

and the CDM

E. Estimation of GHG emission reductions

F. Environmental impacts
G. Stakeholders’ comments
Annex 1: Contact information on participants
Annex 2: Information regarding Public Funding
Annex 2: Baseline information
Annex 3: Monitoring plan
36
 CDM Project Cycle
Step 3. Develop Project Design
Document (PDD)

Baseline methodology: Approved

methodology
Kyoto Protocol

• Statement of which approved methodology has

and the CDM

been selected
• Description of how the approved methodology
will be applied in the context of the project

37
 CDM Project Cycle
Step 3. Develop Project Design
Document (PDD)

Baseline methodology: new methodology

(to be submitted to the UNFCCC
Secretariat)
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

• Description of the baseline methodology and

justification of choice, including an assessment of
strengths and weaknesses of the methodology
• Description of key parameters, data sources and
assumptions used in the baseline estimate, and
assessment of uncertainties
• Projections of baseline emissions
• Description of how the baseline methodology
addresses potential leakage
38
 CDM Project Cycle
Step 3. Develop Project Design
Document (PDD)
• Carbon credit (CER) can be generated
as from now:
– Banking by buyer for use towards compliance in
Kyoto Protocol

2008-2012
and the CDM

– Banking by project proponent for sale in later

years
• Crediting period:
– Usually at start of project operation
– Fixed crediting period of up to 10 years
– Renewable crediting periods of up to 7 years
(maximum 3 x 7 years)
39
 CDM Project Cycle
Step 4. Submission of PDD and host
country approval to validator

• Completed PDD and other reports

submitted to DNA for approval
Kyoto Protocol

– Ensures that governments retain sovereignty

and the CDM

over natural resources

– Confirm that project meets sustainable
development criteria

• PDD and host country approval

documents submitted to validator
(DOE)
40
 CDM Project Cycle
Step 5 – 7: Public comments, validation,
review and registration of CDM project

Tasks of DOE
• Public consultation process (30 days)
• Validation of CDM project against
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

requirements
• Submission to CDM-EB

Tasks of CDM Executive Board

• Review (optional)
• Registration of CDM project
41
 CDM Project Cycle
Step 5 – 7: Public comments, validation,
review and registration of CDM project
Number of projects registered or known to be prepared for registration:
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

End of 2004 End of 2005

Source: www.cd4cdm.org 42
 CDM Project Cycle
Step 8: Project implementation and
monitoring
Monitoring required upon project
implementation
• In accordance with monitoring plan
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

of PDD
• For the entire crediting period
• Must at least cover technical project
performance
• Monitoring report submitted to DOE
for verification
43
 CDM Project Cycle
Step 9. Yearly verification and
certification
Tasks of verification DOE
• Verification of data accuracy and
completeness and collection in
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

accordance with monitoring plan

• Preparation of verification report and
certification report to CDM EB & public

Tasks of CDM Executive Board

• Approval of issuance of CERs
• CER transfer into accounts
44
 CDM Project Cycle
Fast track for small-scale projects

Reasons for “fast track”

• CDM process not feasible for small projects (high
Kyoto Protocol

transaction costs)
and the CDM

• Many small projects deliver significant local

sustainable development benefits
• Small-scale technologies are some of the most
promising for solving the long term problem of
climate change (e.g. solar; wind; fuel cells)
• CDM might lose public support if rules are biased
toward large capital-intensive projects

45
 CDM Project Cycle
Fast track for small-scale projects

Three types of small-scale projects

• Type I: renewable energy projects with a
Kyoto Protocol

capacity of up to 15 MW
and the CDM

• Type II: energy efficiency projects with up to 15

GW/year (54 TJ) reduction on the demand and
supply side
• Type III: other projects which reduce emissions
and are emitting less than 15 kT CO2/year

46
 CDM Project Cycle
How are CERs sold?

• Carbon funds are available through

– International tenders for CDM projects
Kyoto Protocol

– Voluntary corporate initiatives

and the CDM

– Multilateral Funds
– EU commitments for carbon purchase
– Bilateral negotiations with the
consortium of buyers
• Average price of 7,5 US$ / tCO2eq
in 2005 (3 to 14 US$)
47
 CDM Project Cycle
How are CERs sold?
• What determines the CER price
– Likelihood Seller will deliver verifiable reduction on schedule
– Creditworthiness and experience of project developer
– Technical / technological viability of the project
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

– Liabilities the Seller is willing to take if project fails to deliver

including penalties for non-delivery and willful default / gross
negligence
– Vintages: in some markets, early vintages (until 2012) are
priced higher because the Buyer’s willingness to pay in
order to meet compliance
– Likelihood of host country approval
– Environmental and social compliance and additional
benefits

48
 CDM Project Cycle
Future demand for CERs
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

49
 CDM Project Cycle
Your task: answer these questions

• What is the difference between PIN

and PDD?
• What is the difference between the
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

baseline and the baseline

methodology?
• What is the role of the DOE?
• Does the size of my CDM project
matter?
• How are CDM projects normally
financed?
50
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Purpose and content

• Helps companies determine if they

can and should participate in CDM
Kyoto Protocol

• Applied in step 1 of CDM cycle

and the CDM

• Tool consists of three parts

– Part I: is the project eligible for CDM?
(11 questions)
– Part II: GHG calculation
– Part III: Financial feasibility

51
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Kyoto Protocol Part I: CDM eligibility
and the CDM

52
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Part I: CDM eligibility (cont)

1. Has the host country ratified the

Kyoto Protocol?
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

2. Has the host country assigned a

Designated National Authority
(DNA)?

53
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Part I: CDM eligibility (cont)

3. Will the project reduce emission

types under the Kyoto Protocol?
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

• Carbon dioxide (CO2)

• Methane (CH4)
• Nitrous oxide (N2O)
• Hydrofluorcarbons (HFCs)
• Perfluorcarbons (PFCs)
• Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)

54
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Part I: CDM eligibility (cont)

4. Does the country meet sustainable

development requirements of the
Kyoto Protocol

host country?
and the CDM

• Economy, e.g. creation of employment

• Ecology, e.g. reduction of air pollution
• Social, e.g. improved availability of
public services

55
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Part I: CDM eligibility (cont)

5. Are emission reductions additional?

GHG emissions 1. Validation of project 2. Verification /
(tCO2eq) design, baseline and Certification of
Kyoto Protocol

monitoring plan emission reductions

and the CDM

Emissions baseline

ADDITIONAL
EMISSION
REDUCTIONS

Emissions after the project

Years
Project implementation
56
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Part I: CDM eligibility (cont)

5. Are emission reductions additional?

Additional to what the company would

Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

do under ‘business-as-usual’ scenario:

• Project required to meet country’s
legislative requirements
• Project follows country’s policies
• Technology corresponds to country’s
state-of-the art technology
• Project is financially feasible
57
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Part I: CDM eligibility (cont)

6. Is the project not financed through

official development assistance
Kyoto Protocol

(ODA)?
and the CDM

• CDM projects may not divert ODA

• Examples:
• Asia Development Bank
• World Bank

58
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Part I: CDM eligibility (cont)

7. Does the project fall into one of the

seven project type categories?
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

• End-use energy efficiency

• Supply-side energy efficiency
• Renewable energy
• Fuel switching
• Methane reduction
• Industrial processes
• Sequestration and sinks
59
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Part I: CDM eligibility (cont)

8. Does the project fall into type I – III

of small-scale projects?
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

• Type I: renewable energy projects with a

capacity of up to 15 MW
• Type II: energy efficiency projects with up to 15
GW/year (54 TJ) reduction on the demand and
supply side
• Type III: other projects which reduce emissions
and are emitting less than 15 kT CO2/year
60
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Part I: CDM eligibility (cont)

9. Does the potential technology meet

the following conditions?
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

• Proven technology, although not necessarily

applied in the host country
• Established and commercially feasible
technology, although not necessarily in the
host country
• Replicable technology and/or one that can
effectively be transferred to the host country
61
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Part I: CDM eligibility (cont)

10.Does the project result in significant

negative environmental impacts?
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

• If “yes”, then environmental impact

assessment (EIA) required
• Covers non-GHG impacts
• Significant impacts may disqualify project
for CDM
• EIA brings additional costs to the company

62
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Part I: CDM eligibility (cont)

11.Does the project have an

acceptable payback period
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

63
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Kyoto Protocol Part II: GHG Calculation
and the CDM

64
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Part II: GHG Calculation (cont)

The baseline emissions and emission

reductions are calculated for four
Kyoto Protocol

emission sources:
and the CDM

• Fuel combustion
• Fuel for transport
• Electricity consumption
• Process related

65
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Part II: GHG Calculation (cont)

• Total CO2 reductions are calculated

per year and for total crediting period
Kyoto Protocol

• Basis for CERs

and the CDM

66
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Kyoto Protocol Part III: Financial Feasibility
and the CDM

67
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Part III: Financial Feasibility (cont)

• Calculates the payback period of

CDM costs versus CER revenue
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

CDM payback period =

Transaction costs + Additional costs

Assumed CER price X Tons CO2-eq/yr

68
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Part III: Financial Feasibility (cont)
Indicative Timelines and Transaction Costs
under CDM
Project completion Preparation and review of the Project
Upstream Due Diligence, carbon risk
assessment and documentation: $ 40K
3m
s on
ear ths
y Baseline : $20 K
Kyoto Protocol

21 Monitoring Plan: $20K

to
and the CDM

Up
Periodic verification &

2 mo
certification World Bank
Verification: $15-30 K Experiences

nths
Supervision: $15-30K with
CDM Processes
1-3

Validation process
ye

Contract, Processing

s
ars

th
and documentation: $30k

on
m
2
3 months

Construction and start up Project Appraisal and Negotiation

Initial verification at start-up: $ 25K
Total through Negotiations

Complete transaction costs for:

1 time 10 years CER period: 165,000 USD
3 times 7 years CER period: 195,000 USD 69
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Part III: Financial Feasibility (cont)

• Transaction costs ranges between

US$ 123,000 – 233,000 (indicative)
Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

70
 CDM Pre-screen Tool
Part III: Financial Feasibility (cont)

Additional costs under the CDM, e.g.

• Internal personal costs for assisting with and
supervising the work of consulting companies
Kyoto Protocol

• Operation and maintenance (O&M) costs of the

and the CDM

monitoring system
• Purchase of monitoring equipment and system

CER revenue, which depends on:

• The (assumed) price per CER, e.g. US$ 5
• The crediting period: one time 10 years or up to
three times 7 years

71
 For further information

• www.energyefficiencyasia.org
• www.unep.fr
•
Kyoto Protocol

www.cd4cdm.org
and the CDM

72
 Kyoto Protocol and

Kyoto Protocol
and the CDM

the CDM
Thank you for your attention!

73
 Acknowledgements
• This training session was prepared as part of the
development and delivery of the course “Energizing
Cleaner Production” funded by InWent, Internationale
Weiterbildung und Entwicklung (Capacity Building
Kyoto Protocol

International, Germany) and carried out by the United

and the CDM

Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

• The session is based on materials from two projects
funded by the Swedish International Development
Cooperation Agency (Sida):
• The GERIAP project that resulted in the “Energy
Efficiency Guide for Industry in Asia”
(www.energyefficiencyasia.org)
• “Applying Cleaner production to Multilateral
Environmental Agreements” (ACME). ACME
74
project outputs are available on www.unep.fr.