Chapter 9: DC Motors (Only) : Motor Is Assumed Constant, Because It Help Simplifies

Chapter 9: DC Motors (only)
 DC motors are driven from a dc power supply.

 Unless otherwise specified, the input voltage to a dc
motor is assumed constant, because it help simplifies
the analysis and the comparison between different types of
motors.
 There are five major types of dc motors in general use:
1) The separately excited dc motor
2) The shunt dc motor
3) The permanent-magnet dc motor
4) The series dc motor
5) The compounded dc motor
Electric Machines & Power Electronics 1

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The equivalent circuit of a dc motor
 Below is the equivalent circuit of a dc motor.
 The armature (rotor) circuit is represented by:

 an ideal voltage source EA a Thevenin equivalent of
the entire rotor structure
 a resistor RA
(including rotor coils, interpoles and compensating
windings, if present)

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 The brush voltage drop is represented by a
small battery Vbrush opposing the direction of
current flow in the machine.
 The field coils (producing the magnetic flux in the
motor) are represented by:
- an inductor LF
- a resistor RF
 Note: resistor Radj is an external variable
resistor used to control the amount of current
in the field circuit.

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 Some variation and simplifications can be made:
 Vbrush may be left out (Vbrush << EA) or included in RA
 The RF is sometimes lumped together with Radj and the
total is a variable resistor called RF (see the simplified
equivalent circuit below)
 Some generators have more than one field coil, all of
which appear on the equivalent circuit.
 Hence, the simplified equivalent circuit of a dc motor:

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 The internal generated voltage is given by:
EA = K
 and the torque induced is
ind = KIA
The tools necessary to analyse the behaviour

and performance of a dc motor are:
1) Equations for EA and ind
2) Kirchoff’s voltage law (KVL) equation of the
armature circuit
3) The machine’s magnetisation curve

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The magnetisation curve of a dc machine
 EA is directly proportional to the flux in the machine and
the speed of rotation of the machine.
 How is the internal generated voltage related to the field
current in the machine?
The field current IF produces a field magnetomotive force
(mmf) given by F = NFIF.
 This mmf produces a flux in the machine in
accordance with its magnetisation curve shown below.
The magnetisation curve

of a ferromagnetic
material ( vs. F)

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 ,
Since, I F  mmf and E A  flux  , it is customary to present
the magnetisation curve as a plot of
EA vs IF for a given speed 0. (figure below)
EA [= K]
Magnetisation curve of a dc machine

expressed as a plot of EA vs IF for a fixed
speed 0
IF [= VF/RF]

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 Note: Most machines are designed to operate
near the saturation point on the magnetisation
curve (at the knee of the curve).
 This implies that a fairly large increase in field
current is often necessary to get a small increase
in EA when operation is near full load.

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Separately excited and shunt dc motors
 A separately excited dc motor is a motor
whose field circuit is supplied from a separate
constant-voltage power supply.
VF
IF 
RF  Radj
The equivalent circuit of a separately excited dc motor.

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Separately excited and shunt dc motors
 While a shunt dc motor is a motor whose field
circuit gets its power directly across the armature
terminals of the motor
The equivalent circuit of a shunt dc motor.

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 When the supply voltage to a motor is assumed
constant, there is no practical difference in
behaviour between these two motors.
 Hence, unless otherwise specified, whenever the
behaviour of a shunt motor is described, the
separately excited motor is included too.
 The KVL equation for the armature circuit of
these motors is: VT = EA + IARA

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The terminal characteristic of a shunt dc motor
 The terminal characteristic of a machine is a
plot of the machine’s output quantities versus
each other.
 The terminal characteristic of a motor is A plot
of its output torque vs. Speed
 How does a shunt dc motor respond to a load?

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If the load on the shaft of a shunt motor is increased,
Motor slows EA

load > ind
down ( ) (= K )
Finally,
ind = load ind  Armature current
at a lower (= KIA) IA= ( VT -EA ) / RA
mechanical
speed 
The output characteristic of a shunt dc motor can be derived

from the induced voltage and torque equations of the motor plus
the KVL.

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From KVL, VT  E A  I A RA .
The induced voltage EA = K, so
VT  K  I A RA (9.4)
Since ind = KIA, current IA can be expressed as

 ind (9.5)
IA 
K
Combining equations (9.4) and (9.5) yields

 ind (9.6)
VT  K  RA
K
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Finally, the motor speed is given by:
VT RA
   (9.7)
K  K  2 ind
This equation is just a straight line with a negative slope.

The resulting torque-speed characteristic of a shunt dc motor is
shown below:
Torque-speed
characteristic of a shunt or
separately excited dc
motor with compensating
windings to eliminate
armature reaction.

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 It is important to realize that, in order for the speed of the
motor to vary linearly with torque, the other terms in this
expression must be constant as the load changes. The
terminal voltage supplied by the dc power source is
assumed to be constant - if it is not constant, then the
voltage variations will affect the shape of the torque-speed
curve.
 Another effect internal to the motor that can also affect the
shape of the torque-speed curve is armature reaction. If a
motor has armature reaction, then as its load increases,
the flux-weakening effects reduce its flux. From the motor
speed equation above, the effect of reduction in flux is to
increase the motor’s speed at any given load over the
speed it would run at without armature reaction. The
torque-speed characteristic of a shunt motor with armature
reaction is shown below:

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Torque-speed characteristic of
the motor with armature
reaction present.
 If a motor has compensating windings, there will be no flux

weakening problems and the flux in the motor will be
constant.
 If a shunt dc motor has compensating windings so that flux
is constant regardless of load, and the motor’s speed and
armature current are known at any one value of load, then
it is possible to calculate its speed at any other value of
load, as long as the armature current at that load is known
or can be determined.

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Therefore, if a shunt dc motor is connected to a load (condition
1), and the motor speed n1, IA1 and EA1 are known, hence
E A1  K 'n1
Assuming the field current is constant and there are no

armature reaction effects, the flux will remain constant.
Therefore, at another load condition (condition 2):
E A 2  K 'n2
Hence, the motor speed at condition 2 can be calculated using:

E A2
n2  n1 (9.8)
E A1
provided EA2 is known or can be determined from KVL.
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Example 9.1
 A 50HP, 250V, 1200 r/min DC shunt motor with compensating
windings has an armature resistance (including the brushes,
compensating windings, and interpoles) of 0.06 . Its field circuit has
a total resistance Radj + RF of 50 , which produces a no-load speed of
1200r/min. There are 1200 turns per pole on the shunt field winding
(Figure below)
(a) Find the speed of this motor when its input current is 100A.
(b) Find the speed of this motor when its input current is 200A.
(c) Find the speed of this motor when its input current is 300A.

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Speed control of shunt dc motors
 Adjusting the field resistance RF
 Adjusting the terminal voltage applied to the armature
 Inserting a resistance in series with the armature
circuit - less common method.
VT RA
  
K  K  2 ind

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Changing the Field Resistance
1. Increasing RF causes IF to decrease. I F  VT RF 
Decreasing IF,
2. -
decreases 
Decreasing  lowers EA
3. E A  K  
instantaneously.
I A  VT  E A   R A
Decreasing EA causes IA to
4.
increase.
Increasing IA,
5. increases ind  ind  K  I A 
Note: IA  predominates over  .
Increasing ind causes ind > load,
6. -
hence motor speeds up ().
7. Since  , EA increases again. E A  K 
I A  VT  E A  R A 
Increasing EA causes IA to
8.
decrease .
Decreasing IA causes ind to
decrease until
9.  ind  KI A 
ind = load at a higher speed .
Note: Decreasing RF reverses the whole process and .

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 The effect of increasing the field resistance on the
output characteristic of a shunt motor is shown
below.
(b) Over the entire range from no load to

(a) Over the normal operating range stall conditions
The effect of field resistance RF speed control on a shunt
motor’s torque-speed characteristics
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WARNING about field resistance speed control:
 As the flux decreases, the motor’s:
1) no-load speed increases
2) torque-speed curve slope becomes steeper
 Figure on previous slide shows the terminal
characteristic of the motor over the whole full
range from no-load to stall conditions (speed = 0).
 It is apparent that at very slow speed, an
increase in RF will actually decrease the speed
of the motor.

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 This is because at very slow speeds, the increase in IA
(due to decrease in EA) is not large enough to
compensate for decrease in  in the ind equation (see
step 5 in the previous table).
 With  decrease larger than IA increase, ind decreases
and motor slows down.
 Some small dc motors used for control purposes actually
operate at speeds close to stall conditions. For these
motors, an increase in field resistance might have no
effect, or it might even decrease the speed of the motor.
Since the results are not predictable, field resistance
control should not be used in these types of dc motors.

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Changing the armature voltage
 This method involves changing the voltage
applied to the armature circuit without changing
the voltage applied to the field.
 In effect the motor must be separately excited to
use armature voltage control.

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1. Increasing VA causes IA to increase. I A  V A   E A  RA
Increasing IA,  ind  K  I A
2. increases ind
Increasing ind causes ind > load,
3. -
hence motor speeds up ().
4. Since  , EA increases. E A  K 
I A  VT  E A  RA 
Increasing EA causes IA to
5.
decrease .
Decreasing IA causes ind to
6. decrease until  ind  KI A 
ind = load at a higher speed .

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 The effect of increasing VA on the torque-speed
characteristic of a separately excited motor is
shown below.
 Notice that the no-load speed is shifted by this
method of speed control but the slope of the
curve remains constant.

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Inserting a resistor in series with the
armature circuit
 If a resistor is inserted in series with the armature circuit (RA ), the
effect is to drastically increase the slope of the motor’s torque-
speed characteristic, making it operate more slowly if loaded.
 The effect of armature resistance speed control on a shunt motor’s
torque-speed characteristics.
 The insertion of a resistor is very wasteful since the losses in the
inserted resistor are very large. Hence, this method for speed
control is rarely used.
VT RA
.   
K  K 

2 ind

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Safe ranges of operation for the two common
methods of shunt motor speed control
Field resistance control Armature voltage control

the lower the field current, the lower the armature voltage,
faster it turns slower it turns (VA , )
(IF , )
the higher the armature
the higher the field current, voltage, faster it turns
slower it turns (VA, )
(IF, )

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There is a minimum There is a maximum
achievable speed achievable speed
when motor’s field circuit has when motor’s armature

maximum voltage reaches its
permissible current flowing. maximum
permissible level.
Controls motor speeds above Controls motor speeds below
base speed base speed
(but not for below base speeds) (but not for above base speeds)
If  < base, IF > IF,max and field If  > base, VA > VA,max and
windings may be damaged. armature windings may be
damaged.
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 Note: If a motor is operating at its rated terminal
voltage, power and field current, then it will be
running at rated speed or base speed.
 Hence, the two speed control techniques are
complementary.
 There is significant difference in torque and
power limits on the machine under these two
types of speed control.
 In either case, the limiting factor is heating of
armature conductors (i.e. it places upper limit on
the magnitude of armature current IA)
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Field resistance control Armature voltage control
controls motor speeds above base controls motor speeds below base
speed speed
 flux decreases ( increase)  flux is constant
 max must decrease,
 max = constant
i.e. max    1/ (regardless of the speed)
(to ensure IA,max not exceeded)
 Pmax = constant  Pmax  

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 Note:
 max  KI A,max
 and
Pmax   max
 The shunt dc motor power and torque limitations for
safe operation as a function of speed are shown below.
RF control

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The effect of an open field circuit
 As RF is increased, the motor speed increases.
 What happens if the field circuit were actually opened
while the motor is running?
 The flux in the machine would drop drastically (i.e. all

the way down to res).
 Hence, EA (= K) also drops.
 This causes really enormous increase in IA.
 Since ind  IA, the induced torque would be quite a bit
higher than load torque in the motor.
 Therefore, motor’s speed rises and keeps going up.

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 Therefore, in a shunt dc motor operating with light
fields, armature reaction can be severe such
that increase in loads can weaken its flux enough
to cause motor’s speed to rise.
 However, most loads have torque-speed curves
whose torque increases with speed.

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Runaway!
Increases
Increased Increases armature
speed  load reaction
Further More flux

increase in weakening
speed 
This continues until motor overspeeds. This condition is

known as runaway.

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The permanent magnet dc motor (PMDC)
 PMDC is a dc motor whose poles are made of
permanent magnets.
 Advantage (compared to shunt dc motor):
1) No external field circuit is required, no field circuit copper

losses
2) Smaller than shunt dc motors – because of no field circuit
 Disadvantages:
1) Cannot produce high flux density as an externally

supplied shunt dc motor – lower induced torque per
ampere of armature current compared to a shunt motor of
same size.

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2) Runs the risk of demagnetisation due to armature
reaction or excessive heating during prolonged periods of
overload.
 The PMDC is basically the same machine as a shunt dc
motor except the flux in the PMDC motor is fixed.
 Speed control through varying the field current or
flux is not possible.
 Hence, speed control methods for PMDC motors are:
1) Armature voltage control
2) Armature resistance control

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The series dc motor
 A series dc motor contains field windings of
relatively few turns connected in series with the
armature circuit.
 The equivalent circuit:

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In the series dc motor,
IA = IS = IL
armature field line

current current current
The KVL equation for this motor is:
VT  E A  I A  RA  RS 

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Induced torque in a series dc motor
The basic behaviour of a series dc motor is due to the fact that

the flux is directly proportional to IA, at least until saturation
is reached i.e.
  cI S  cI A
where c = constant of proportionality.
As load increases (IA increases), flux  increases too.
This causes speed  to decrease.
Hence, the series dc motor has a sharply drooping torque-

speed characteristic.
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The induced torque is given by  ind  KI A .
By substituting for, the induced torque in the series dc

machine is:
 ind  KcI A 2
Torque in a series dc motor is proportional to

the square of its armature current.
Therefore, this motor is used in applications requiring very

high torques.
Example: starter motors in cars, elevator motors and tractor

motors in locomotives.
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The terminal characteristic of a series dc
motor
Assumption: The magnetisation curve is linear (no

saturation).
Hence, flux in the machine is given by equation :   cI A .
Derivation of torque-speed characteristic curve:
1. KVL for series dc motor, VT  E A  I A  RA  RS 
2. From torque equation, I A   ind Kc

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1. Also, E A  K . Hence, by substituting for EA and IA into
the KVL equation:
 ind
VT  K   RA  RS 
Kc
2. If the flux can be eliminated from this expression, it will
directly relate the torque of a motor to its speed. Notice that
IA   c , thus  ind   K c   2
. Therefore,
c
  ind
K
3. By substituting this flux expression into the equation

in part 3 and solving for speed, the resulting torque-
speed relationship for the series dc motor is:
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
VT 1  R  RS 
 A
Kc Tind Kc
1
Notice that for an unsaturated series motor,  
 ind
This ideal torque-speed characteristic is plotted below:

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Disadvantage of series dc motor:
When the torque goes to zero, speed goes to infinity – if no
load is connected to the motor, it can turn fast enough to
seriously damage itself.
Warning!
Never completely unload a series motor
Never connect motor to a load by a belt or other mechanism
that could break. Use steel chains instead.

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Speed Control
There is only one efficient way to change the speed of a series
dc motor:
By changing the terminal voltage
If VT is increased, the speed increases for any given torque

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Example 9.5
 A series dc motor with VT=250V , total RA+Rs=0.08
ohm , field circuit consists of 25 turns per pole.
Magnetizing curve is given in Fig. 9-22
a) Find the speed and induced torque of this motor

for when the armature current is 50A

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The compounded dc motor
 A compounded dc motor is a motor with both a
shunt and a series field. The equivalent circuit of
the compounded motor is shown below:
Current flowing into a

dot produced positive
mmf.
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 Cumulative compounding – current flows into
dots on both field coils. Hence, resulting mmfs
add to give a larger total mmf.
 Differential compounding – current flows into
dot on one field coil and out of the dot on the
other. Hence, resulting mmfs subtract

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There are two components of flux:
 one is constant and
 another which is proportional to IA (and hence to the
load)
Thus, CC motor has:

 higher starting torque than a shunt motor (whose flux is
constant)
 but a lower starting torque than a series motor (whose
entire flux is proportional to IA)
Combines best features of both the shunt and series

motors.
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Advantages of CC motor:
 extra torque for starting (like series motor)
 does not overspeed at no load (like shunt motor)
At light loads:
 series field has very small effect
 motor behaves approximately like a shunt dc motor
As load gets very large:

 series flux becomes quite important
 torque-speed curve begins to look like a series motor’s
characteristic

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The torque-speed characteristic of a
cumulatively compounded dc motor
compared to series and shunt motors
with the same full-load rating.
The torque-speed
characteristic of a
cumulatively compounded dc
motor compared to series and
shunt motors with the same
no-load speed.

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The torque-speed characteristics of a differentially
compounded dc motor
In a differentially compounded dc motor, the shunt mmf and

series mmf subtract from each other.
Therefore, as the load increases:

 IA increases (series  IA)
 flux  decreases (net  = shunt - series )
Since  decreases, speed  increases.
The increase in speed causes another increase in load, which

further increases IA, further decreasing the flux, and increasing
the speed again
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The result: differentially compounded motor is unstable and
tends to runaway.
This instability is much worse than that of a shunt dc motor

with armature reaction. It is so bad that a differentially
compounded motor is unsuitable for any application.

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It is also impossible to start a differentially compounded motor.
At starting conditions:
 The armature current and series field current are very

high.
 Since the series flux subtracts from the shunt flux, the
series field can actually reverse the magnetic polarity of
the machine’s poles.
 The motor will typically remain still or turn slowly in the
wrong direction while burning up because of the
excessive armature current.
Hence, when starting this type of motor, the series field must
be short-circuited, so that it behaves as an ordinary shunt
motor during the starting period
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Speed control in the cumulatively compounded dc motor
The techniques available for speed control of a cumulatively

compounded motor are the same as those available for a shunt
motor:
The arguments describing
 Change the field resistance RF the effects of these
methods are very similar
 Change the armature voltage VA to the arguments given
 Change the armature resistance RA earlier for the shunt motor
Theoretically, the differentially compounded dc motor could be

controlled in a similar manner.
However, since the differentially compounded motor is almost

never used, its speed control method hardly matters.

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Chapter 9: DC Motors (Only) : Motor Is Assumed Constant, Because It Help Simplifies

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Chapter 9: DC Motors (Only) : Motor Is Assumed Constant, Because It Help Simplifies

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Chapter 9: DC Motors (only)

 DC motors are driven from a dc power supply.

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 1

 The armature (rotor) circuit is represented by:

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 2

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 3

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 4

The tools necessary to analyse the behaviour

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 5

The magnetisation curve

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 6

EA vs IF for a given speed 0. (figure below)

Magnetisation curve of a dc machine

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 7

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 8

The equivalent circuit of a separately excited dc motor.

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 9

The equivalent circuit of a shunt dc motor.

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 10

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 11

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 12

Motor slows EA

The output characteristic of a shunt dc motor can be derived

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 13

The induced voltage EA = K, so

Since ind = KIA, current IA can be expressed as

Combining equations (9.4) and (9.5) yields

This equation is just a straight line with a negative slope.

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 15

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 16

 If a motor has compensating windings, there will be no flux

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 17

Assuming the field current is constant and there are no

Hence, the motor speed at condition 2 can be calculated using:

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 19

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 25

Note: Decreasing RF reverses the whole process and .

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 26

(b) Over the entire range from no load to

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 28

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 29

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 30

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 31

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 32

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 33

Field resistance control Armature voltage control

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 34

when motor’s field circuit has when motor’s armature

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 37

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 38

 The flux in the machine would drop drastically (i.e. all

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 43

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 44

Further More flux

This continues until motor overspeeds. This condition is

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 45

1) No external field circuit is required, no field circuit copper

1) Cannot produce high flux density as an externally

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 46

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 47

Electric Machines & Power Electronics 48

armature field line

The KVL equation for this motor is: