Presentations PPT Unit-2 27042019063328AM

Mobile Computing and
Wireless Communication
(2170710)
Unit – 2: Cellular Wireless Network

Prof. Maulik Trivedi
 9998265805
 maulik.trivedi@darshan.ac.in
Computer Engineering Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
Topics to be covered
 Antennas and Propagation
 Type of Antenna
 Propagation Modes
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Multipath Propagation & Fading
 CDMA
 Spread Spectrum Technique
 3G & Applications
Unit: 2 – Mobile Computing and Wireless Communication 2 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
Antennas
 An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of conductors.
 Transmission: radiates electromagnetic energy into space.
 Reception: Collects electromagnetic energy from space.
 In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for
transmission and reception.
Antennas – Cont…
 Radiation Patterns:
 An antenna will radiate power in all directions but, does not
perform equally well in all directions.
 So, we have needed graphical representation of radiation
properties of an antenna.
 It is depicted as two-dimensional cross section.
 Beam width (or half-power beam width)
✔ Measure of directivity of antenna
 Receiving antenna’s
reception pattern equivalent
to radiation pattern.
Radiation Patterns in Three dimensions
Types of Antennas
 Isotropic antenna (idealized)
✔ Radiates power equally in all directions
 Dipole antennas
✔ Half-wave dipole antenna (or Hertz antenna)
✔ Quarter-wave vertical antenna (or Marconi antenna)
 Parabolic Reflective Antenna
✔ A curved surface with the cross-sectional shape of a parabola, to direct
the radio waves, known as a dish antenna.
✔ High directivity
Types of Antennas – Cont…
 Antenna Gain: It is a measure of the directionality of an antenna.
 It is defined as a power output, in a particular direction, compared
to that produced in any direction by a perfect omnidirectional
antenna (isotropic antenna).
 Effective area related to physical size and shape of antenna.
 Relationship between antenna gain and effective area.
Where:
✔ G = antenna gain
✔ Ae = effective area
✔ f = carrier frequency
✔ c = speed of light (3*108 m/s)
✔  = carrier wavelength
Propagation Modes
 In the earth environment, electromagnetic waves propagate in
ways that depend an own properties but also on those of the
environment itself.
 Radio propagation is the behaviour of radio waves as they travel,
or are propagated, from one point to another, or into various
parts of the atmosphere.
 It depends largely on frequency.
Propagation Modes – Cont…
 A signal radiated from an antenna travels along one of three
routes.
1. Ground wave propagation
2. Sky wave propagation
3. Line-of-sight propagation
Ground Wave
 Radio waves in the very low frequency - VLF band (below 2 MHz)
propagate in a ground, or surface wave.
 The wave is connected at one end to the surface of the earth and
to the ionosphere at the other.
 The ionosphere is the region above the troposphere (where the
air is), from about 50 to 250 miles above the earth.
 Example of ground wave communication is AM radio.
Ground Wave – Cont…
 It is a collection of ions, which are atoms that have some of their
electrons stripped off leaving two or more electrically charged
objects. The sun's rays cause the ions to form which slowly
modified.
 Ground waves travel between two limits, the earth and the
ionosphere, which acts like a channel.
Sky Waves
 Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back down to
earth.
 Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth between
ionosphere and earth’s surface.
 Sky waves are reflections from the ionosphere.
 Example: Used in amateur radio, CB radio, international broadcast
such as BBC.
Sky Wave – Cont…
 While the wave is in the ionosphere, it is strongly bent, or
refracted, ultimately back to the ground.
 In this mode, a signal can be picked up thousands of kilometers
from the transmitter.
Line-of-sight Propagation
 Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within line of sight.
 Satellite communication - Signal above 30 MHz is not reflected by
ionosphere.
 Therefore it can be transmitted between an earth station and
satellite.
 Ground communication - Antennas within effective line of site due
to refraction.
Line-of-sight Propagation – Cont…
 Refraction – Bending of microwaves by the atmosphere.
 It depends on conditions, such as curvature of the earth.
 Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the density of
the medium.
 When wave changes their medium, their speed also changes.
 Wave bends at the boundary between mediums.
 Example: Speed of light (3 x 108 m/s) is varies in a vacuum, in air,
water, glass.
Multipath Propagation
 Reflection – It occurs when signal encounters a surface that is
large relative to the wavelength of the signal.
 Diffraction – It occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that is
large compared to wavelength of radio wave.
 Scattering – It occurs when incoming signal hits an object whose
size in the order of the wavelength of the signal or less.
Fading
 In wireless communications, fading is variation or the attenuation of
a signal with various variables.
 These variables include time, geographical position, and radio
frequency. Fading is often modeled as a random process.
 A fading channel is a communication channel that experiences
fading.
 The term fading, or, small-scale fading, means rapid fluctuations of
the amplitudes, phases, or multipath delays of a radio signal over a
short period or short travel distance.
 Factors Influencing Fading:
✔ Multipath propagation
✔ Speed of the mobile
✔ Speed of surrounding objects
✔ Transmission bandwidth of the signal
Fading – Cont…
 It is experienced by the signal parameter like bandwidth and period.
 Types of Small-Scale Fading:
 Flat Fading
✔ Its occurs when bandwidth of the transmitted signal is less than the coherence
bandwidth of the channel.
 Frequency Selective Fading
✔ Its occurs when the signal bandwidth is more than the coherence bandwidth of the
mobile radio channel.
 Fast Fading
✔ Its occurs when channel impulse response changes rapidly within the time duration
of the signal spreading.
 Slow Fading
✔ It does not vary quickly with the frequency.
✔ It originates due to effect of mobility. It is result of signal path change due to
shadowing and obstructions such as tree or buildings etc.
Encoding and Modulation
 For digital signaling, Data source g(t) which may be either digital
or analog, is encoded into digital signal x(t).
 Actually its depends on encoding technique.
Encoding and Modulation – Cont…
 For analog signaling, continuous constant-frequency signal known
as a carrier signal.
 Data can transmitted using a carrier signal by modulation.
 Modulation is the process of encoding source data onto a carrier
signal with frequency fc.
✔ The frequency of the carrier signal is chosen to be compatible with the
transmission medium being used.
 Modulation techniques involve operation on one or more of the
three parameters: amplitude, frequency, and phase
Encoding and Modulation – Cont…
 According to the input source signal m(t) (either analog or digital),
which is called baseband signal (or modulating signal) , the carrier
signal fc(t) will be modulated into modulated signal s(t).
Encoding and Modulation Terminology
 Digital data, Digital signal
✔ For encoding digital data into a digital signal is less complex and less
expensive than digital-to-analog modulation equipment.
 Analog data, Digital signal
✔ Conversion of analog data (e.g., voice, video) to digital form permits the use
of modern digital transmission & switching.
✔ It’s a common to digitize voice signals prior to transmission over either
guided or unguided media to improve quality and to take advantage of TDM
scheme.
Encoding and Modulation Terminology – Cont…
 Digital data, Analog signal
✔ Digital data and digital signals must be converted to analog signals for
wireless transmission.
✔ Optical system and unguided media (wireless system) only propagate
analog signals.
 Analog data, Analog signal
✔ A baseband analog signal, such as voice or video, must be modulated onto
a higher-frequency carrier for transmission.
✔ Baseband: easy and cheap, e.g., in voice telephone lines, voice signals are
transmitted over telephone lines at their original spectrum.
Signal Encoding Criteria
 Unipolar
✔ If all signal elements have the same algebraic sign (all positive or all
negative), then the signal is unipolar.
 Polar
✔ One logic state represented by positive voltage, the other by negative
voltage.
 Duration or length of a bit
✔ Time taken for transmitter to emit the bit.
 Modulation rate
✔ Rate at which the signal level changes.
✔ Measured in baud - signal elements per second
Signals at the Receiver
 The receiver needs to know:
✔ The timing of each signal element, i.e., when a signal element begins and
ends.
✔ Signal levels
✔ These tasks are performed by sampling each element position in the middle
of the interval and comparing the value to a threshold.
 Factors affecting successful interpreting of signals
✔ Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
✔ Data rate
✔ Bandwidth
Signals at the Receiver – Cont…
 Some principles:
✔ An increase in data rate increases bit error rate (BER)
✔ An increase in SNR decreases BER
✔ An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in data rate
 Another factor that can improve performance:
✔ Encoding scheme: A mapping from data bits to signal elements.
Evaluation of Encoding Schemes
 Signal Spectrum
✔ Lack of high frequencies reduces required bandwidth.
✔ Lack of dc component allows ac coupling via transformer, providing
electrical isolation and reducing interference.
✔ Concentrate power in the middle of the bandwidth.
 Clocking
✔ Need to determine the beginning and end of each bit
✔ Synchronizing transmitter and receiver
1. Use external clock, which is expensive
2. Synchronization mechanism based on the transmitted signal
Evaluation of Encoding Schemes – Cont…
 Signal interference and noise immunity
✔ Some codes are better than others in the presence of noise
✔ Performance is usually expressed in terms of BER
 Cost and complexity
✔ Higher signal rate (thus data rate) leads to higher cost
✔ Some codes require a signal rate greater than the actual data rate
Digital data, Analog signal
 To transmitting digital data using analog signal.
 Most familiar use of this transformation is Public telephone
system.
✔ Designed to transmit analog signals in 300Hz to 3400Hz.
✔ Use modem for digital data to analog, vice versa. (modulator-demodulator)
 Modulation involves operation on one or more of the three
characteristics of a carrier signal.
Amplitude Shift Keying
 Values represented by different amplitudes of carrier signal;
represent binary 0 or 1.
 Both frequency & phase remain constant while amplitude changes
and one of the amplitudes is zero.
 Inefficient because Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines.
 Application: ASK is used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.
32
Binary Frequency Shift Keying
 The most common form of FSK is binary FSK (BFSK).
 Two binary values represented by two different frequencies (near
carrier frequency).
 Peak amplitude & phase remain constant during each bit interval
 BFSK is less susceptible to error than ASK.
 Application: it is used over voice lines, high frequency (3 to
30MHz) radio transmission.
Phase Shift Keying
 The phase of the carrier signal is shifted to represent data.
 Peak amplitude & freq. remain constant during each bit interval.
 More efficient use of bandwidth (higher data-rate) are possible,
compared to FSK.
 Two Type are in PSK; binary PSK and differential PSK
Analog Data, Analog Signals
 Modulation:
✔ Combine an input signal m(t) and a carrier frequency fc to produce a
signal s(t) whose bandwidth is usually centered on fc.
 E.g., voice signals are transmitted over telephone lines at their
original spectrum.
 Types of modulation
1. Amplitude modulation: AM
2. Angle Modulation
 Frequency modulation: FM
 Phase modulation: PM
Carrier Signal
Sinusoidal Modulating
Signal
Amplitude Modulation - AM
Phase Modulation - PM
Frequency Modulation - FM
Analog Data, Digital Signal
 Digitization: Digitizing Analog Data
 Conversion of analog data into digital data

✔ Digital data can then be transmitted using NRZ-L
✔ Digital data can then be transmitted using code other than NRZ-L
✔ Digital data can then be converted to analog signal
 Analog to digital conversion done using a codec (coder-decoder)
 Two principle codec techniques
✔ Pulse Code Modulation
✔ Delta modulation
37
Pulse Code Modulation
 Sampling Theorem: If a signal is sampled at regular intervals of
time and at a rate higher than twice the highest signal frequency,
then the samples contain all the information of the original signal.
 For example, voice data are limited to below 4000Hz then 8000
samples per second is sufficient to characterize the voice signal.
 Samples are analog samples, called Pulse Amplitude Modulation

(PAM) samples.
Pulse Code Modulation
 To convert to digital, each analog sample must be assigned a
binary code.
 Each sample is quantized into some level
✔ The original signal is now only approximated and cannot be recovered
exactly.
✔ This effect is called quantizing error or quantizing noise.
 For example, 4 bit sample gives 16 levels
 8000 samples per second and 8 bits per sample gives 64kbps, for a
single voice signal.
PCM Example
Delta Modulation
 Modulation:
✔ An analog signal is approximated by a staircase function that moves up or
down by quantization level at each sampling interval.
✔ If the value of the sampled waveform exceeds that of the staircase function,
1 is generated, otherwise, 0 is generated.
 Two important parameters:
✔ Size of the step
✔ Sampling rate
Delta Modulation - Example
Mobile Technology Generation
 Mobile phone technology had a reincarnation from first
generation analogue (using FDMA) to second generation digital
(using TDMA).
 The next incarnation is from second generation digital TDMA to
third generation packet (using CDMA).
 CDMA is a specific modulation technique of Spread-Spectrum
technology.
 Third generation or 3G is more of a generic term to mean mobile
networks with high bandwidth.
Spread Spectrum - Basics
 In a conventional transmission system, the information is
modulated with a carrier signal and then transmitted through a
transmission medium.
 When it transmitted, all the power of the signal is transmitted
centered around a particular frequency.
 This frequency represents a specific channel and generally has a
very narrow band.
 In spread-spectrum techniques are methods by which a signal
generated with a particular bandwidth is deliberately spread in
the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider
bandwidth.
Spread Spectrum Technique
 It is spread the transmission
power over the complete band.
 The transmission signal
bandwidth is much higher than
the information bandwidth.
 There are numerous ways to
cause a carrier to spread;
 First, the data to be
however, all spread-spectrum
transmitted is modulated.
systems can be viewed as two  Second, the carrier is
steps modulation processes. modulated by the spreading
code, causing it to spread out
over a large bandwidth.
Different Spreading Techniques
 Direct Sequence (DS): is a spread spectrum modulation technique
used to reduce overall signal interference.
✔ A common practice in DS systems is to mix the digital information stream
with a pseudo random code.
 Frequency Hopping (FH): is a method of transmitting radio signals
by rapidly switching a carrier among many frequency channels,
using a pseudorandom sequence known to
both transmitter and receiver.
 Chirp: The third spreading method employs a carrier that is swept
over a range of frequencies.
✔ This method is called chirp spread spectrum and its primary application in
ranging and radar systems.
Different Spreading Techniques
 Time Hopping: In a time-hopped signal, the carrier is on-off keyed
by the pseudo-noise (PN) sequence resulting in a very low duty
cycle.
✔ The speed of keying determines the amount of signal spreading.
 Hybrid System: A hybrid system combines the best points of two
or more spread-spectrum systems.
✔ The performance of a hybrid system is usually better than can be
obtained with a single spread-spectrum technique for the same cost.
✔ The most common hybrids combine both frequency-hopping and
direct-sequence techniques.
Different Spreading Techniques – Cont…
 Application:
 Amateurs and business community are currently authorized to use
only two spreading techniques. These are frequency hopping and
direct sequence techniques.
 Rest of the Spread-Spectrum technologies are classified and used
by military and space sciences.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum DSSS
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) is often compared to a
party, where many pairs are conversing, each in a different
language.
 Each pair understands only one language and therefore,
concentrates on his or her own conversation, ignoring the rest.
 A Hindi-speaking couple just homes on to Hindi, rejecting
everything else as noise.
 Its analogous to DSSS is when pairs spread over the room
conversing simultaneously, each pair in a different language.
 The key to DSSS is to be able to extract the desired signal while
rejecting everything else as random noise.
DSSS – Cont…
 The analogy may not be exact, because a roomful of people all
talking at once soon becomes very loud.
 In general, Spread-Spectrum communications is distinguished by
three key elements:
✔ The signal occupies a bandwidth much larger than what is necessary to
send the information.
✔ The bandwidth is spread by means of a code, which is independent of the
data.
✔ The receiver synchronizes to the code to recover the data.
✔ The use of an independent code and synchronous reception allows multiple
users to access the same frequency band at the same time.
DSSS – Cont…
 DSSS is commonly called Code Division Multiple Access or CDMA
in short.
 Each station is assigned a unique m-bit code.
 This code is called the CDMA chip sequence.
 To transmit a 1 bit, the transmitting station sends its chip
sequence, whereas to send 0, it sends the complement chip
sequence.
DSSS – Cont…
 Thus, if station A is assigned the chip sequence 00011011, it sends
bit 1 by sending 00011011 and bit 0 by sending 11100100.
 Using bipolar notations, we define bit 0 as +1 and bit 1 as –1.
 The bit 0 for station A will now become (–1, –1, –1, +1, +1, –1, +1,
+1) and 1 becomes (+1, +1, +1, –1, –1, +1, –1, –1).
Example
 Station – A Data 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 Data: 0 0 (2 bit) ⊕ Code 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
 Spreading code: 0 1 0 1 0101 0101
Spreading message: 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
 Station – B Data 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
 Data: 1 0 (2 bit) ⊕ Code 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1100 0011
 Spreading code: 0 0 1 1
 Station – C Data 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
⊕ Code 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 Data: 1 1 (2 bit)
1111 1111
 Spreading code: 0 0 0 0
Example – Cont…
 Combined all three spreading message
 Bit 0 then -1
 Bit 1 then +1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
+1
A
-1
+1
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
B
-1
+1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C
-1
-1 -3 1 -1 1 -1 -1 -3
Example – Cont…
2
1 -1 -3 1 -1 1 -1 -1 -3
Combined 0
Signal
-1
-2
-3
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
+1
For First Code
Station A -1
Multiply -1 3 1 1 1 1 -1 3
+1 means 0 bit then
4/4 = 1 4/4 = 1 data bit are 0 0
Error Control & Detection - Basics
 For reliable communication, errors must be detected and
corrected.
 Data can be corrupted during transmission.
 Data-link layer uses some error control mechanism to ensure that
frames (data bit streams) are transmitted with certain level of
accuracy.
 Need to understand how errors is controlled and to know what
types of errors may occur.
 Error detection and correction are implemented either at the data
link layer or the transport layer of the OSI model.
Types of Errors
 There may be three types of errors:
In a frame, there
Frame
Frame is onlywith
is received
contains onemore
more bit,
than1anywhere
than one bitsthough,
consecutive in
bits which
corrupted
corrupted. is corrupt.
state.
Error Detection Method
 Error detection means to decide whether the received data is
correct or not without having a copy of the original message.
 Error detection uses the concept of redundancy, which means
adding extra bits for detecting errors at the destination.
 Redundancy:
Error Detection Method – Cont…
 Detection methods:
Detection
Methods
Cyclic
Parity Check Redundancy Checksum
Check
Parity Check
 A parity bit is added to every data unit so that the total number of
1s (including the parity bit) becomes even for even-parity check or
odd for odd-parity check.
Transmission Medium
Parity Bit - Example
 Sender send:
1110111 1101111 1110010 1101100 1100100
 Parity bit added, the actual bits sent:
11101110 11011110 11100100 11011000 11001001
 The receiver counts the 1s in each character and comes up with
even numbers (6, 6, 4, 4, 4). The data are accepted.
 Corrupted during transmission :
11111110 11011110 11101100 11011000 11001001
 The receiver counts the 1s in each character and comes up with
even and odd numbers (7, 6, 5, 4, 4). The receiver knows that the
data are corrupted, discards them, and asks for retransmission.
Cyclic Redundancy Check - CRC
 CRC is based on binary division.
 In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, are appended to the end of
data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly divisible
by a second, predetermined binary number.
 At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same
number.
 If at this step there is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be
correct and is therefore accepted.
 A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in
transit and therefore must be rejected.
 The binary number, which is (r+1) bit in length, can also be
considered as the coefficients of a polynomial, called Generator
Polynomial.
Cyclic Redundancy Check - Process
Data CRC
Cyclic Redundancy Check - Example
Sender Receiver
Checksum
 Data is divided into k segments each of m bits.
 Sender side: Segments are added using 1’s complement arithmetic
to get the sum.
 Sum is complemented to get the checksum.
 Checksum segment is sent along with the data segments.
 Receiver Side: All received segments are added using 1’s
complement arithmetic to get complemented sum.
 If the result is zero, the received data is accepted; otherwise
discarded.
Checksum - Example
 Add two 16-bit integers word
Sender Receiver
1 1110011001100110 1 1110011001100110
1 1101010101010101 1 1101010101010101
wraparound 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1011101110111011
+ +
sum 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1011101110111100
sum
checksum 0100010001000011 1 0100010001000011
1111111111111111
If one of the bits is a 0, then we can
say that error introduced into packet
Note: when adding numbers, a carryout from the most significant

bit needs to be added to the result
Block Error Correction Code
 Hamming code is a set of error-correction codes that can be used
to detect and correct the errors that can occur when the data is
moved or stored from the sender to the receiver.
 Redundant bits are extra binary bits that are generated and added
to the carrying bits of data transfer.
 The number of redundant bits can be calculated by:
2r > m + r + 1
 where, r = redundant bit, m = data bit
 Example, the number of data bits is 7, then the number of
redundant bits can be calculated using:
= 24 > 7 + 4 + 1
 Thus, the number of redundant bits= 4
Hamming Code – Step:1
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
d d d r d d d r d r r
Redundancy bits
r1 will take care of these bits
1011 1001 0111 0101 0011 0001

11 9 7 5 3 1
d d d r8 d d d r4 d r2 r1
1011 1010 0111 0110 0011 0010 0
11 10 7 6 3 2 1
0111 0110 0101 0100 0

7 6 5 4 1
1011 1010 1001 1000 0

11 10 9 8 1
Hamming Code – Example
Data: 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
Data 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
Adding r1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
Adding r2 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
Adding r4 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
Adding r8 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
Data: 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
Hamming Code – Example
 Error in transmission:
Error bit Detection
Sent Received
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Error
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
The bit in position 7 0 1 11

is in error 7
Automatic Repeat Request
 Automatic repeat request (ARQ), also known as automatic repeat
query, is an error-control method for data transmission that
uses acknowledgements and timeouts to achieve reliable data
transmission over an unreliable service.
 If the sender does not receive an acknowledgment before the
timeout, then re-transmits the frame/packet until the sender
receives an acknowledgment.
 The types of ARQ protocols include Stop-and-wait ARQ, Go-Back-N
ARQ, and Selective Repeat ARQ / Selective Reject.
 These protocols reside in the Data Link or Transport Layers of
the OSI model.
Thank You

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Mobile Computing and

Unit – 2: Cellular Wireless Network

 Conversion of analog data into digital data

 Samples are analog samples, called Pulse Amplitude Modulation

 Spreading code: 0 1 0 1 0101 0101

Note: when adding numbers, a carryout from the most significant

1011 1001 0111 0101 0011 0001

r2 will take care of these bits

1011 1010 0111 0110 0011 0010 0

r4 will take care of these bits

0111 0110 0101 0100 0

r8 will take care of these bits

1011 1010 1001 1000 0

The bit in position 7 0 1 11

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