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Light
Light has a dual nature.
Light enters the eye through a hole in the iris, called the pupil;
Light as an Electromagnetic Wave and
the Electromagnetic Spectrum
Wavelength (λ)
- distance between successive peaks (or troughs)
of a waveform in meters.
Period (T)
- the time, in seconds needed for one full wave to
pass a fixed point.
T f
Light as an Electromagnetic Wave and
the Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 108 m / s 300,000,000m/s
c f
60hertz 60hertz
5,000,000m=5.0 10 m 6
Light as an Electromagnetic Wave and
the Electromagnetic Spectrum
Calculating the wavelength of a 93.3-MHz
FM radio wave:,
3 108 m / s 300,000,000m/s
c f
60hertz 93.3MHz
300,000,000m/s
= 3.22m
93,300,000hertz
Light as an Electromagnetic Wave and
the Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 108 m / s 300,000,000m/s
c f
60hertz 474,000,000,000,000hertz
=6.33 10-7 m
Light as an Electromagnetic Wave and
the Electromagnetic Spectrum
The antenna of a cell phone is often ¼
wavelength long. A particular cell phone has
an 8.5-cm-long straight rod for its antenna.
Estimate the operating frequency of this
phone.
Light as an Electromagnetic Wave and
the Electromagnetic Spectrum
The antenna of a cell phone is often ¼
wavelength long. A particular cell phone has
an 8.5-cm-long straight rod for its antenna.
Estimate the operating frequency of this
phone.
c f
300,000,000m / s 300,000,000m / s
880MHz
8.5 / 1/ 4 cm 0.34m
The Ray Model of Light
A series of parallel lines can be drawn to show the path of the
sunlight from the window to the floor.
This is not exactly accurate – no matter how hard you look, you
will not find unique lines of light in the sunbeam!
Light rays are imaginary lines with arrows and are merely used
to show the path that light travels. Light rays are not real.
The most important thing to remember is that our eyes can only
see an object when light rays from the object enters our eyes.
Method:
1. Make a small hole in the middle of each of the three sheets of paper.
2. Light the candle.
3. Look at the burning candle through the hole in the first sheet of paper.
4. Place the second sheet of paper between you and the candle so that
you can still see the candle through the holes.
5. Now do the same with the third sheet so that you can still see the
candle. The sheets of paper must not touch each other.
You will notice that the holes in the
paper need to be in a straight line.
Can you still see the tree, flower or car? Why not?
The sheet of paper prevents
the light rays from reaching
the eye, and the eye cannot
see the object.
The Speed of Light and Index of
Refraction
Light changes direction when crossing a boundary from one medium
to another. This is called refraction.
If medium 1 is vacuum, or for all practical purposes air, then n1 = 1. Hence, it follows from
Equation that the index of refraction of any medium can be expressed as the ratio:
where λ is the wavelength of light in vacuum and λn is the
wavelength of light in the medium whose index of refraction is n.
Refraction: Snell’s Law
From Equation above, we see that because n > 1, λn < λ
This means that the angle of incidence is less than the angle
of refraction and the light ray is bent away from the normal.
Refraction: Snell’s Law
This shows that if the light ray is incident at 0°, then the
angle of refraction is also 0° . The ray passes through the
surface unchanged, i.e. no refraction occurs.
Refraction: Snell’s Law
Apparent Depth
If you reach for the coin, you will miss it because the light rays from the coin are
refracted at the water’s surface.
Consider a light ray that travels from an underwater object to your eye. The ray
is refracted at the water surface and then reaches your eye.
Your eye does not know Snell’s Law; it assumes light rays travel in straight
lines. Your eye therefore sees the image of the coin at shallower location.
Solutions.
the refractive index is 1.333 for water
the refractive index is 1.0003 for air.
angle of incidence is 35°
Solutions.
the refractive index is 1.333 for water
the refractive index is 1.0003 for air.
angle of incidence is 35°
Solutions.
the refractive index is 1.333 for water
the refractive index is 2.419 for air.
angle of incidence is 75°
Solutions.
the refractive index is 1.333 for water
the refractive index is 2.419 for air.
angle of incidence is 75°
Because this is less than the incident angle of 30°, the refracted ray is
bent toward the normal, as expected.
Its change in direction is called the angle of deviation and is given by:
Refraction: Snell’s Law
A laser in a compact disc player generates light that has a
wavelength of 780 nm in air. Find the speed of this light once it
enters the plastic of a compact disc (n = 1.55). What is the
wavelength of this light in the plastic?
Refraction: Snell’s Law
A laser in a compact disc player generates light that has a
wavelength of 780 nm in air. Find the speed of this light once it
enters the plastic of a compact disc (n = 1.55). What is the
wavelength of this light in the plastic?
Solution:
a. Applying Snell’s law gives
sin θA = 0.577, or θA = 35.3°.
b. Snell’s law gives
sin θB = 0.866, or θB = 60°.
n 1.33
realdepth 40cm
apparentdepth ?
40
1.33
x
40
x 30.08cm
1.33
The coin appears to be 30.08cm deep.
Refraction: Snell’s Law
n?
realdepth 7cm
apparentdepth 10.43cm
10.43cm
n 1.49
7cm
Law of reflection: the angle of reflection (that the ray makes with the
normal to a surface) always equal the angle of incidence and that the
reflected ray always lies in the plane of incidence.
Reflection; Image Formation by a
Plane Mirror
The incoming light ray is called the incident ray.
If the reflecting surface is rough, the surface reflects the rays not
as a parallel set but in various directions. Reflection from any
rough surface is known as diffuse reflection. With diffuse
reflection, your eye sees reflected light at all angles.
Reflection; Image Formation by a
Plane Mirror
When light reflects from a rough surface, The incident rays
are parallel but the reflected rays are not. Each point on the
surface has a different normal. This means the angle of
incidence is different at each point. the law of reflection still
holds, but the angle of incidence varies.
They are made of a flat piece of glass with a thin layer of silver
nitrate or aluminium on the back.
However, other mirrors are curved and are either convex mirrors
or are concave mirrors.
3. If the object is real, then the arrow is drawn with a solid line.
The ray then bounces back in the same direction. We also project the ray back behind
the mirror because this is what your eye does.
Another light ray leaves the top of the object and hits the mirror at its centre. This ray
will be reflected at the same angle as its angle of incidence, as shown.
If we project the ray backward behind the mirror, it will eventually cross the projection
of the first ray we drew. We have found the location of the image! It is a virtual image
since it appears in an area that light cannot actually reach (behind the mirror).
You can see from the diagram that the image is erect and is the same size as the
object. This is exactly as we expected.
hi
m
ho
Reflection; Image Formation by a
Plane Mirror
Reflection from flat mirrors.
Two flat mirrors are perpendicular to each
other. An incoming beam of light makes an
angle of 15° with the first mirror as shown.
What angle will the outgoing beam make with
the second mirror?
Reflection; Image Formation by a
Plane Mirror
Reflection from flat mirrors.
Two flat mirrors are perpendicular to each other. An incoming beam of light
makes an angle of 15° with the first mirror as shown. What angle will the
outgoing beam make with the second mirror?
θ1 + 15° = 90°
θ1 + 75° = θ2 (by the law of reflection)
θ2 + θ3 + 90° = 180° (sum of angles in a triangle)
θ3 = 180°- 90°- 75 °
θ3 = θ4 = 15° (by the law of reflection)
θ5 = 90°- 15° = 75°
The outgoing ray from the first mirror makes an angle of 15° with it, and an
angle of 75° with the second mirror. The outgoing beam then makes an
angle of 75° with the second mirror (and is parallel to the incoming beam).
Reflection; Image Formation by a
Plane Mirror
How tall must a full-length mirror be?
A boy is 1.5m tall and can just see his image in a
vertical plane mirror 3.0m away. His eyes are
1.40m from the floor level. Determine the
vertical dimension and elevation of the shortest
mirror in which he could see his full image.
Reflection; Image Formation by a
Plane Mirror
A boy is 1.5m tall and can just see his image in a
vertical plane mirror 3.0m away. His eyes are 1.40m
from the floor level. Determine the vertical
dimension and elevation of the shortest mirror in
which he could see his full image.
Solution:
At the minimum height, light
from her feet strikes the
bottom edge of the mirror and
reflects into her eyes; light
from the top of her head
strikes the top edge of the
mirror and reflects into her
eyes. Geometry then shows
that the mirror must be 80 cm
high, with its bottom 75 cm off
the floor.
Formation of Images by Spherical
Mirrors
Spherical mirrors are shaped like sections of
a sphere, and may be reflective on either the
inside (concave) or outside (convex).
Formation of Images by Spherical
Mirrors
Formation of Images by Spherical
Mirrors
This point is known as the focal point where the rays converge. If the
curvature is small, the focus is much more precise and the distance from
the focal point to the mirror is known as the focal length (symbol f).
The focal point of a mirror is the midpoint of a line segment joining the
vertex and the centre of curvature. It is the position at which all parallel
rays are focused.
Since the focal point is the midpoint of the line segment joining the
vertex and the center of curvature, the focal length would be one-half the
radius of curvature.
Formation of Images by Spherical
Mirrors
concave mirror
A real image can be cast on a screen; it is inverted, and on the same side
of the mirror as the object.
Below is a concave mirror with three rays drawn to locate the image.
Each incident ray is reflected according to the Law of Reflection.
The intersection of the reflected rays gives the location of the image.
Here the image created by a concave mirror is real and inverted as
compared to the virtual and erect image created by a plane mirror.
Formation of Images by Spherical
Mirrors
If an object is outside the center of curvature of a
concave mirror, its image will be inverted,
smaller, and real.
Formation of Images by Spherical
Mirrors
concave mirror
Formation of Images by Spherical
Mirrors
The reflected rays diverge. If the reflected rays are extended behind the
mirror, then their intersection gives the location of the image behind the
mirror. The images are diminished (smaller than the object) in size.
For a convex mirror, the image is virtual and upright as compared to the
real and inverted image created by a concave mirror.
Formation of Images by Spherical
Mirrors
For a convex mirror,
the image is always
virtual, upright, and
smaller.
Formation of Images by Spherical
Mirrors
The properties of mirrors are summarized in the
table below.
or
Formation of Images by Spherical
Mirrors
Mirror Equations for both concave and convex mirrors:
Formation of Images by Spherical
Mirrors
Mirror Equations for both concave and convex mirrors:
Example:
A concave mirror forms an image that is 4.8cm
high. The height of the object is 1.6cm.
Calculate the magnification of the mirror.
Formation of Images by Spherical
Mirrors
Example:
A concave mirror forms an image that is 4.8cm
high. The height of the object is 1.6cm.
Calculate the magnification of the mirror.
Formation of Images by Spherical
Mirrors
Object placed within the focal point F. The image is behind the mirror and is virtual,
[Note that the vertical scale (height of object = 1.0 cm) is different from the horizontal
(OA = 10.0 cm) for ease of drawing, and reduces the precision of the drawing.]
Solution: a. The figure shows the ray diagram and the image; the image is upright,
larger in size than the object, and virtual.
b. Using the mirror equation gives di = -30.0 cm. Using the magnification equation gives
M = +3.00.
Formation of Images by Spherical
Mirrors
Problem Solving: Spherical Mirrors
1. Draw a ray diagram; the image is where the rays
intersect.
2. Apply the mirror and magnification equations.
3. Sign conventions: if the object, image, or focal point
is on the reflective side of the mirror, its distance is
positive, and negative otherwise. Magnification is
positive if image is upright, negative otherwise.
4. Check that your solution agrees with the ray diagram.
Formation of Images by Spherical
Mirrors
An external rearview car mirror
is convex with a radius of
curvature of 16.0 m. Determine
the location of the image and
its magnification for an object
10.0 m from the mirror.
Formation of Images by Spherical
Mirrors
An external rearview car mirror
is convex with a radius of
curvature of 16.0 m. Determine
the location of the image and
its magnification for an object
10.0 m from the mirror.
Solution:
A convex mirror has a negative
focal length, giving di = -4.4 m and
M = +0.44.
SOLUTION.
We know that the critical angle is given by:
The critical angle for light travelling from water to air is 48.8◦.
Total Internal Reflection; Fiber
Optics
Binoculars often
use total internal
reflection; this gives
true 100% reflection,
which even the best
mirror cannot do.
Total Internal Reflection; Fiber
Optics
One of the most common applications of total
internal reflection is in fibre optics.
Endoscopy means to look inside and refers to looking inside the human body for
diagnosing medical conditions.
The main part of an endoscope is the optical fibre. Light is shone down the optical fibre
and a medical doctor can use the endoscope to look inside a patient.
Endoscopes are used to examine the inside of a patient’s stomach, by inserting the
endoscope down the patient’s throat.
Endoscopes allow minimally invasive surgery. This means that a person can be
diagnosed and treated through a small incision.
This has advantages over open surgery because endoscopy is quicker and cheaper
and the patient recovers more quickly.
The alternative is open surgery which is expensive, requires more time and is more
traumatic for the patient.