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TRAINING COURSE

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


NDT LEVEL II

COURSE OUTLINE

• OVERVIEW: NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING


• OVERVIEW: VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESING
• FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHT AND LIGHTING
• PHYSIOLOGY OF VISION
• FACTORS AFFECTING VISUAL TESTING
• VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING EQUIPMENTS
NDT LEVEL II

OVERVIEW
NONE DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
NDT LEVEL II

OVERVIEW: NONE DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT):


• To test a part or material or system without impairing its future usefulness.
NDT APPLICATION:
1. Raw materials which are used in the construction of the product.
2. Fabrication processes which are used to manufacture the product.
3. Finished product before put into service.
4. In service product /equipment.
NDT LEVEL II

OVERVIEW: NONE DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

MOST COMMON NDT METHODS:


• Visual Testing (VT)
• Dye Penetrant Testing (DPT)
• Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT)
• Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
• Radiography Testing (RT)
• Eddy Current Testing (ECT)
• Leak Testing
NDT LEVEL II

OVERVIEW: NONE DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

NDT IMPORTANCE / ADVANTAGES:


1. Increases the safety and reliability of the product during operation.
2. Decreases the cost of the product by reducing scrap and conserving materials,
labor and energy.
3. Enhances the reputation of the manufacturer as a producer of quality goods.
4. All of the above factors boost the sales of the product which bring more
economical benefits for the manufacturer.
5. Used widely for routine or periodic determination of quality of the plants and
structures during service.
6. Eliminates forced shut down of the plants.
NDT LEVEL II

OVERVIEW
VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING
NDT LEVEL II

OVERVIEW: VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING

Visual & Optical Testing:


• Observation of a test object.
o Either directly with the eyes.
o Or indirectly using optical instruments, by an inspector.
o To evaluate the presence of surface anomalies.
o Object’s conformance to specification.
NDT LEVEL II

OVERVIEW: VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING

Remote or Indirect Technique:


• Include accessories such as mirrors, borescopes, video probes or cameras to correct
for the distance or angles of view.
• With a remote (indirect) technique, resolution must be equivalent to that of the
direct technique.
Direct Technique:
• Human eye is to place within 600 mm (24 in.) and not less than 30 degrees from the
test surface.
• Mirrors may be used to improve the angle of vision, and aids such as magnifying
lenses may be used to assist examinations.
NDT LEVEL II

OVERVIEW: VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING

Eye’s Resolving Power:


• Minimum angular separation of
the two points resolvable by the
eye.
• Determined by the angle of vision
and the distance of the eye from
the test.
Eye Resolutio
NDT LEVEL II

OVERVIEW: VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING

VISUAL TESTING EQUIPMENTS:


• Mirrors (especially small, angled mirrors).
• Magnifying glasses.
• Inspection glass.
• Microscopes.
• Borescopes and Fiber Optic Borescopes.
• Closed circuit television (CCTV) systems.
• Videoscope.
NDT LEVEL II

OVERVIEW: VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING

INTERPRETATION:
• For Interpretation: Interpreter must have a knowledge and consider the following:
o Product material and manufacturing process.
o Service of the product.
o Applicable technique & relevant optical aiding equipment's & inspection gauges.
o Adequate surface cleanliness & illumination.
o Possible source of false indication.
o Relevant potential discontinuities for each inspection stage & in service failures.
o Applicable documents (e.g. drawings), specifications, code & standard, acceptance &
rejection criteria.
NDT LEVEL II

OVERVIEW: VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING

INSPECTION STAGES:
• Before Process Inspection.
• During / In Process Inspection.
• After Process Inspection.
APPLICATIONS:
• Checking of the shape, surface condition & discontinuities of the components &
fabricated structures such as flat surfaces, airframes, piping, welds, castings, pressure
vessels, ships, bridges, & etc.
• Checking of alignment of mating surfaces.
• Checking for evidence of leaking.
NDT LEVEL II

FUNDAMENTALS
LIGHT AND LIGHTENING
NDT LEVEL II

FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHT AND LIGHTENING


OVERVIEW OF LIGHT

LIGHT:
• In visual and optical testing, the probing medium is light.
• Visible light:
o Electromagnetic Wave.
o Wavelength between 380 to 770 nm.
o Excite the human retina.
• Emitted and absorbed in tiny "packets" called photons.
• Exhibits properties of both waves and particles.
NDT LEVEL II

FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHT AND LIGHTENING


OVERVIEW OF LIGHT

LIGHT:
• Color of Light:
o Wavelength defines the color of light.
o A spectral color is monochromatic, consisting of entirely one
wavelength light.
o Most light sources are not monochromatic.
NDT LEVEL II

FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHT AND LIGHTENING


OVERVIEW OF LIGHT

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVELENGTH SPECTRUM


NDT LEVEL II

FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHT AND LIGHTENING


LIGHT SOURCES

Incandescent Light:
• By thermal excitation of atoms or molecules.
• Sources are:
o Filament Lamps (e.g. Tungsten filament).
o Pyroluminescence (such as glow in furnaces or foundries).
o Gas Mantles.
o Carbon Arc Lamps.
Filament Lamp
NDT LEVEL II

FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHT AND LIGHTENING


LIGHT SOURCES

Luminescent Light:
• By excitation of a single valence electron.
• More monochromatic in nature.
• Sources are:
o Gaseous Discharge Lamps.
o Lasers.
o Light Emitting Diodes (LED).
o Fluorescent Lamps.
Fluorescent Lamps. LED Flashlight
NDT LEVEL II

FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHT AND LIGHTENING


LIGHT SOURCES

Coherent Light:
• Visible light with
o Same frequency
o Same wavelength
o Having no or constant phase difference (Phase coherence).
NDT LEVEL II

FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHT AND LIGHTENING


VISUAL INSPECTION LIGHTING

Purpose Of Lighting:
• To provide the adequate contrast for the detection of relevant objects
discontinuities.
Contrast:
• Property of difference between object and its background of either:
o Luminance or
o Color.
NDT LEVEL II

FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHT AND LIGHTENING


VISUAL INSPECTION LIGHTING

Flash Lights:

House hold High Power In helmet


NDT LEVEL II

FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHT AND LIGHTENING


OPTICAL INSPECTION AND MACHINE VISION LIGHT

Optical Characteristic of Test Material:


• Primary factors for determining the lighting geometry and the type of light
source, following material optical characteristics to be consider:
o Reflective characteristic.
o Absorptive characteristic.
o Transmissive characteristic.
NDT LEVEL II

PHYSIOLOGY OF
VISION
NDT LEVEL II

PHYSIOLOGY OF VISION
T H E HUMAN EYE

Overview:
• Eye is the most common optical instrument during visual inspection test.
• Provides the following automatic adjustments for varying distances & light
intensities of different ranges.
o Easy vision adaption.
o Provide sharp vision.
• To detect all relevant indications, inspector eyesight should be adequate.
NDT LEVEL II

PHYSIOLOGY OF VISION
T H E HUMAN EYE

Overview:
• For adequate eyesight, periodic vision examinations are performed to verify:
o Visual Acuity.
o Depth Perception.
o Color Discrimination.
• An individual diagnosed with a deficiency, correctives lenses will be used
during any visual examination.
NDT LEVEL II

PHYSIOLOGY OF VISION
T H E HUMAN EYE
Near Vision Acuity:
• Near Sightedness when the eye lens focuses the light rays in front of the retina.
• As per SNT-TC-1A, natural or corrected near distance acuity in at least one eye capable of
reading the Jaeger Number 2 test chart or equivalent at a distance of not less than 30.5 cm
(12 in.) on standard jaeger chart.
• Administered annually.
Far Vision Acuity:
• Far Sightedness when the lens of the eye focuses light rays beyond the retina.
• It should be tested at 6 meter distance using charts with varying sizes of letters.
NDT LEVEL II

FACTORS AFFECTING
VISUAL TESTING
NDT LEVEL II

FACTOR AFFECTING VISUAL TESTING


MATERIAL ATTRIBUTES

Surface Conditions:
• Cleanliness:
o During inspection, test object should be free from unwanted foreign material
such as dirt, oil, grease, and etc.
o Unclean surface can mask the discontinuities.
o False indication might be accepted with unclean surface.
o It helps to prevent the possibility of missed indications.
NDT LEVEL II

FACTOR AFFECTING VISUAL TESTING


MATERIAL ATTRIBUTES

Surface Conditions:
• Color:
o The assessment of color is highly dependent on illumination sources and
perceptive abilities of the observer.
o Color of light can be used to increase the contrast by intensifying or
subduing the certain color.
o To intensify a color, a strong light should be used in that color.
o To subdue a color, a lighter light source should be used in that color.
o Color order system describes colors in terms of Hue, Value and Saturation.
NDT LEVEL II

FACTOR AFFECTING VISUAL TESTING


MATERIAL ATTRIBUTES

Physical Condition:
• Specimen Condition:
Following can influence the condition of the item being inspected:
o Manufacturing process stages.
o Service environment.
o Applied surface coatings & paint.
o Processing imperfections that can mask the discontinuities.
NDT LEVEL II

FACTOR AFFECTING VISUAL TESTING


MATERIAL ATTRIBUTES
Physical Condition:
• Shape
o The shape of an object also affects the outcome of an examination.
o Complex-shaped objects, such as keyways and splines, may hinder a
examination and care should be taken in these areas.
• Size
o When examining objects of substantial size, certain precautions should
be taken to ensure that a complete examination has been performed.
NDT LEVEL II

FACTOR AFFECTING VISUAL TESTING


PHYSIOLOGY FACTORS

Fatigue:
• Fatigue affects the
o Overall physical feeling of the inspector
o Reduces the efficiency and accuracy of the interpretation of the visual data.
• Fatigue of the eye muscles, caused by poor illumination and awkward body positions,
causes ineffective examinations.
Test Item Position:
• Inspection angle and distance with respect to test object,
• Position (elevated objects required additional suitable aid)
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL & OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Following are the equipment's:
• Borescopes & Fiberscopes
• Rules & Calipers
• Mechanical Gages & Weld Gages
• Magnifiers & Mirrors
• Automated Systems
• Computer-Based Systems
• Imaging Systems
• Optical Flat and comparators
• Closed-Circuit Television
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Borescope:
• An optical device consisting of a rigid or flexible tube with an eyepiece on one end, a
between.
• Allow visual inspection to be performed on following areas:
o Inside assemblies.
o On remote objects that are out of the normal inspection environment.
o On remote objects or assemblies with restricted physical access.
o In-service defects in a variety of equipment such as turbines,
automotive components and process piping etc.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Borescope:
Direction of View:
• As the initial image is formed on objec ive lens: Lenses produces following
direction of field of view, known as direction of view (DOV).
o Direct view borescope with DOV :00
o Forward oblique borescope with DOV :450
o Right angle or side viewing with DOV : 900
o Retrospective borescope with DOV :1100
• Field of view is always centered on DOV
• Field of view varies between 10-120 degree with 50-60 degree is the most common
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Borescope:
Magnification:
• The magnification of a object by borescope is determined by the field of view and the distance
between object and objective lens.
• Smaller the field of view, greater the potential of magnification.
• Image is magnified as object gets closer.
Depth of field:
• Range of distances that are in focus at the same time.
• Determined directly by aperture and indirectly by field of view.
• A narrow field of view provides greater depth of field.
• A wide angle borescope produces shallow depth of field.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Rigid Borescopes:
• Rigid Borescopes are generally limited to applications with a straight - line path
between the observer and area to be observed.
• The illumination system is either an incandescent bulb located at the distal end or
light guide bundle made from optic fibres that conduct light from an external lighte
source.
• An objective lens at the distal end gathers the image light and relays it to the optical
train
• After the light has been relayed along the length of the scope, it is picked up by the
ocular lens (eyepiece) and subsequently relayed to the eye.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Rigid Borescopes:
• Rigid borescopes size ranges are as follows:
o From 0.15 m to 30 m in length.
o From 0.9 mm to 70 mm are available in diameters.
• The magnification is usually 3X to 4X, but powers up to 50X are available.
• The ocular and objective lenses are made moveable on focusing scopes
o To compensate for observer eyesight differences.
o To expand the depth of field.
o To present a crisp image to the viewer.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Rigid Borescopes:
• Borescopes can use:
o Convex lens relay system.
o A hybrid rod and convex lens relay system.
o A rigid glass rod.
o Objective and ocular (eyepiece) lenses.
• The convex lens relay system transmits images by relaying them from one lens
to another along the length of the borescope.
• The hybrid rod lens consists of a series of rod lenses to relay the image.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Rigid Borescopes:
• Rod lens trains have an advantage over simple lens trains as follows.
o Fewer refraction points resulting in less light scattering.
o Made in smaller diameters, which in turn reduces the borescope diameter.
• The slimmest borescope available uses a single rod to transmit the image along the
length of the scope without the need for lenses.
o The image refracts within the rod at certain intervals similar to that with lenses.
o As the diameter of the rod is minimized, the effective aperture is small and result
in an infinite depth of field - eliminating the need for focusing.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Rigid Borescope Components:
Light Guide
• The optical fibre bundle that carries light from an external high intensity source to illuminate
the test part.
• These fibres are normally of about 30 μm in diameter; the size of the bundle is determined by
the diameter of the scope.
Distal End (Objective Lens):
• The choice of viewing heads vary according to their application,
• Field of view: Normally between 500-600 although field of view can range from 10° to 120°.
• Typically the distal tips are not changeable, but some models (extendable borescopes) may have
interchangeable viewing heads.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Rigid Borescope Components:
Image guide
• The image is brought to the eyepiece by an optical train consisting of
o Objective lens, sometimes a prism.
o Relay lensesand
o An eyepieces lens.
• The image is not a real image but in the air between the lenses.
• This implies that it is possible to provide both diopter corrections for the observer an
to control the objective focus with a single adjustment of the focusing ring at th
eyepiece.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Rigid Borescope Components:
Image guide
• The transmission of light in single optical fibre is limited and thus thousands of fibre
are bundled for transmission of light and images.
• To prevent light from diffusing, each fibre consists of a central core of light qualit
optical glass coated with a thin layer of another glass with a different refractive index.
• This cladding acts as a mirror and all light entering the end of fibre is reflecte internally
and travels that cannot escape by passing through the sides to an adjacen fibre in the
bundle. Some light is absorbed within the optical fibre depending on it
length.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Rigid Borescope Components:
Focusing control:
• The rigid borescopes are of fixed focus type and focusing type.
• The focus control in rigid borescope expands the depth of field over non-focusing or fixed
focus design.
Accessories:
• Still camera and video camera can be added to provide a permanent record of a visual test.
• Closed circuit television displays, with or without recording capabilities are common as well.
• Attachments at the eyepiece permitting dual viewing for increased accessibility are also available.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Flexible Fiberscopes:
• Generally used in situations that do not have a direct line of sight to
the observer such as around bends and corners.
• Uses a bundle of light transmitting fibers made of glass or quartz: image guide.
• While Borescope uses a system of lenses to transmit the image from the objec
to the eye.
• Available in diameters ranging from 1.4 mm to 13 mm and lengths up to12 m.
• Special quartz fiberscopes are available in lengths up to 30 m.
• The fibres used in the light guide bundle are generally 30 μm in diameter.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Flexible Fiberscopes:
• Fiber diameter in the image guide range: 6.5 μm to 17 μm (better
image resolution).
• Fiberscope collects the image with an objective lens and relays the light throug a
bundle of extremely thin fibers.
• Thin fibers transmit light along their entire length by total internal reflection of
the light within the fiber. This is possible because:
o Fibers are coated with a thin layer of glass, which has a lower refractiv
index than that of the fiber.
o This causes the light to reflect within the strand without escaping into the
air or into other adjacent fibers.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Flexible Fiberscopes:
• Each fiber transmits only a small portion of the image,
• The bundle must be arranged so that each fiber ends at the ocular lens in the
same position it originates in at the objective lens.
• This is called coherent alignment, which allows for a cohesive image at
the eyepiece.
• If the fibers were randomly placed at each end, the resultant image would be an
unrecognizable jumble of dots or pixels.
• A fiberscope can be focused by a moveable objective lens, or fixed focus where
the objective lens cannot be moved.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Flexible Fiberscopes:
• Light for the inspection area is generally provided by another bundle of fiber
that transmits light, produced by an e ternal high intensity source.
• These fibers have a larger diameter than the image fibers and they do not nee to
be aligned coherently because they do not transmit an image.
• An articulating tip is an optional piece of equipment that can be used on
fiberscope.
• Articulating tips are mechanical or pneumatic devices that allow the distal end of
the scope to achieve a greater field of view.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Flexible Fiberscopes Components:
Eyepiece lens:
• The eyepiece is a lens through which observer views the test area and image
formed for visual inspection.
• The observer can attach a photographic or video camera to it using
the appropriate adapters.
Focusing ring:
• For flexible fibrescopes with focusing type, the ring on the eyepiece adjusts the
position of the objective lens in the distal tip through a connecting control wire.
• As the objective lens is moved back and forth, the instrument is focused.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Flexible Fiberscopes Components:
Diopter adjustment ring:
• To adjust eyepiece to suitable vision by turning the ring till the image is in clea
focus.
Articulation Control:
• Controls two-way or four-way movement up, down, right and left of the distal tip.
• The distal tip contains the objective lens and the illumination window.
Light Guide Bundle:
• The function is similar to that in case of rigid borescope i.e. of transmitting light
from the light source to the test area to be illuminated.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Flexible Fiberscopes Components:
Insertion Tube:
• Recognized as the working length or probe, contains the image guide and light
guide bundles, and control wires.
• To one end of the light guide is light guide plug that is connected to light source
to conduct the light to the test area.
• These bundles are encased in a special protective sheath consisting of flexible
metallic spiral clad with plastic.
• The insertion tube is designed to be flexible and engineered to give a right
balance between flexibility and stiffness.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Calipers:
• Linear measurement instrument with:
o Normal resolution: upto 0.0005 inch or 0.013mm.
o Common measuring range: 4-24 inch.
• Frequently used to measure thickness, length, width, height, depth, & diameters
• Types of caliper:
o Indirect or Transfer Vernier Calipers
o Direct Vernier Calipers
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Indirect or Transfer Calipers:
• Used to transfer the measurement from item to steel rule with accuracy upto 1/64 in.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Direct Reading Calipers:
• Can be consists of:
o Jaws, fixed and movable. (Fixed jaws on beam along which movable jaw
slides)
o A rule for coarse measurement
o Vernier or dial or electronic digital gauge for more precise measurements.
Dial Caliper:
o Beam scale divided into graduations: 0.1 inch.
o One revolution of dial indicator: 0.1 inch (divided into 100 segments).
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Direct Reading Calipers:
Digital / Electronic Caliper:
• Measurement is displayed on a dig tal readout, easy to read out.
Vernier Caliper:
• Consist of:
o Fixed main scale, etched into beam. Divided into 10 equal division per inch
further divided into quarter. So each graduation is equal to 1/40 in.
o Sliding vernier scale, attached to movable jaw. Divided into 25 subdivision.
• The caliper is capable of reading to 1/1000 in. as 1/25th of 1/40th equals 1/100
or 0.001 in.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Palmgren Weld Gage:
(a) Leg Length Of Fillet Weld; (b) Convexity Of Fillet Weld; (c) Concavity Of Fillet Weld;
(d) Bead Height Of Butt Weld(Reinforcement)
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Welding Gage (Cambridge gage):
(a) Excess weld metal in reinforcement; (b) Pitting or depth of undercut;
(c) Fillet weld throat size; (d) High/Low misalignment.
(e) Zero to 60 degree angle of preparation.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Hi-Lo Welding Gauge:
• Multipurpose and versatile gauge.
• It can measure:
o Internal misalignment after fit up.
o Material thickness after fit up.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Types of Magnifiers:
(a) Hand Held Magnifiers (b) An Illuminated Magnifiers.
NDT LEVEL II

VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING


EQUIPMENTS
Inspection Mirrors:
NDT LEVEL II

THANKS
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having the will, desire and commitment to be your best
HAVE A GOOD PROFESSIONAL CAREER

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