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What is internal energy?
The molecules within a body all posses kinetic energy (Ek).
This is the energy due to their random motion.

The molecules also contain potential energy (Ep) due to the

chemical bonds holding them together and the bonds within
their nuclei.

The sum of all these molecular kinetic and potential energies

represents the body’s internal energy (U):

U = Ek (molecules) + Ep (bonds)

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Temperature and heat
The temperature of a body is a measure of the kinetic
energy of its molecules. Temperature indicates in which
direction heat will flow when two bodies are placed close
together.

Thermal energy is the component of a body’s internal

energy due to its temperature. Thermal energy can be
supplied to a body by heating it.

Heat is the thermal energy transferred from a body at a

higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature due
solely to the temperature difference. It is measured in joules,
not °C or K.

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Thermal equilibrium
If two bodies of different temperature are placed close together,
thermal energy will be transferred from one to the other.
thermal
energy

initial temp: 50 °C 10 °C
final temp: 25 °C 25 °C

The direction of flow of thermal energy will be from the body at

a higher temperature to the body at a lower temperature.

Once the bodies are at the same temperature, there is no net

flow of thermal energy: the bodies are in thermal equilibrium.

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Kinetic energy and temperature

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Measuring temperature
Historically, temperature was measured based on the
changing properties of a substance, e.g. expansion of a gas.

The absolute or thermodynamic scale of temperature does

not rely on a change in the property of a substance due to
temperature. It is measured in degrees Kelvin (K).

T (K) = θ (°C) + 273.15

θ (°C) = T (K) - 273.15

Absolute temperature starts at absolute zero – the

theoretical lowest possible temperature, at which point a
body would have no internal energy and its particles would
have no kinetic energy.

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Absolute scale vs. Celsius scale

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Energy and temperature: summary

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Specific heat capacity

Specific heat capacity is the thermal energy required to

raise the temperature of a body of mass 1 kg by 1 K.

For a change of temperature:

Q = mcΔθ or E = mcΔθ

Where:
 Q or E = thermal energy supplied to, or lost by, the body (J)
 m = the mass of the body (kg)
 c = specific heat capacity (J kg-1 K-1)
 Δθ = the temperature change of the body (K).

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Specific heat capacity

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Specific heat capacity: calculations

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Specific latent heat

Specific latent heat is the amount of energy needed

to change the state of unit mass of a pure substance
without a change in temperature.
For a change of state:

Q = ml

Where:
 Q = thermal energy supplied to, or lost by, the body (J)
 m = the mass of the body (kg)
 l = specific latent heat (J kg-1).

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SLH of fusion and vaporization

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Specific latent heat: calculations

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The three experimental gas laws

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The gas laws: true or false?

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Boyle’s law and real gases
An ideal gas is one that obeys Boyle’s law under all
conditions. In reality, however, no real gas is an ideal gas
under all conditions.

Under conditions of low pressure and high temperature, real

gases will obey Boyle’s law and are said to be behaving in an
ideal manner.

At high pressures/low volumes or at temperatures near the

gas’s boiling point, real gases stop behaving ideally and no
longer follow Boyle’s law.

This is because the gas’s molecules/atoms are occupying a

significant proportion of the volume.

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Ideal gas assumptions
When describing an ideal gas, the following assumptions are
made:

 all molecules of a particular gas are identical

 the internal energy of the gas is entirely kinetic
 all collisions between molecules and the walls of the
container are completely elastic
 Newton’s laws of motion apply
 molecules take up negligible volume
 gravitational and electrostatic forces can be ignored
 the motion of all molecules is random
 all molecules travel in straight lines.

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Moles and the Avogadro constant

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Avogadro’s law
In 1811 the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro developed a
theory about the volume of gases.

Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of

different gases at the same pressure and
temperature will contain equal numbers of particles.

For example, if there are 2 moles of O2 in 50 cm3 of oxygen

gas, then there will be 2 moles of N2 in 50 cm3 of nitrogen
gas and 2 moles of CO2 in 50 cm3 of carbon dioxide gas at
the same temperature and pressure.

Using this principle, the volume that a gas occupies will

depend on the number of moles of the gas.

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Molar volumes of gases
If the temperature and pressure are fixed at convenient
standard values, the molar volume of a gas can be determined.

At standard temperature and pressure (273K and

100 kPa), 1 mole of any gas occupies a volume of
2.27 × 10-2 m3. This is the molar volume.

Example: What volume does 5 moles of CO2 occupy at

standard temperature and pressure?
volume occupied = no. moles × molar volume
= 5 × (2.27 × 10-2)
= 0.114 m3

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The ideal gas equation
From Charles' law, for a fixed mass
V / T = constant
of an ideal gas at constant pressure:

where T is the ideal gas temperature, measured in K.

From Boyle’s law, for a fixed mass of

pV = constant
an ideal gas at constant temperature:

Combining the two gives: pV / T = constant

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The ideal gas equation
The ideal gas equation is:

pV = nRT

Where:

 p = pressure of the gas (Pa)

 V = volume of the gas (m3)
 n = number of moles of the gas (mol)
 R = molar gas constant (8.31 J mol-1 K-1)
 T = absolute temperature of the gas (K).

The molar gas constant is sometimes called the universal

gas constant, or just the gas constant.

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pV / T graph: calculating number of moles
Plotting a graph of pV against T for an ideal gas:

pV = nRT, so pV / T = nR

Therefore the gradient of

the graph is equal to nR.

Because R is a constant, the number of moles can be

calculated from the gradient.

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Ideal gas calculation: worked example
Example: A cylinder contains 400 moles of an ideal gas at a
temperature of 290 K. If the volume of the container is 8 m3,
what is the pressure of the gas?

Write down the ideal gas equation: pV = nRT

Rearrange equation: p = nRT / V

Substitute in values: p = (400 × 8.31 × 290) / 8

Calculate pressure: p = 1.20 × 105 Pa

p = 120 kPa

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The Boltzmann constant
When dealing with individual molecules of gas, a different gas
constant is needed because the molar gas constant, R, is
applicable for n number of moles of gas.

pV = NkT

Where N is the total number of molecules of the gas, and

k is the Boltzmann constant: the gas constant for a
single molecule. What is the value of k?

k = R / NA

k = (8.31 J mol-1 K-1) / (6.02 × 1023 mol-1)

k = 1.38 × 10-23 J K-1

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Ideal gas calculations

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Ideal gas equations: summary

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Distribution of particle speeds

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Root mean square speed of particles
At constant temperature the speed of a particle will not remain
the same – it will change as it collides with other particles.
However, the distribution of speeds will remain the same, as
will the average speed. This is the sum of all the speeds
divided by the total number of particles.
The root mean square speed, crms, of the molecules is
different from the average speed:
½
(c1 + c2 + c3 + … +
2 2 2 2
cN )
crms =
N

Where c1, c2, c3 …cN represent the speeds of individual

particles, and N represents the total number of particles.

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What is kinetic theory?
The kinetic theory of gases links the macroscopic behaviour
of a gas with its microscopic behaviour.

 In macroscopic terms, a gas is a phase of matter that

has a fixed mass and whose volume is equal to the
volume of its container. The gas exerts pressure on the
walls of the container

 In microscopic terms, a gas is a collection of many

particles that collide with each other and with the
container walls.

The kinetic theory relates the pressure exerted by a gas to

the motion of its particles.

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Kinetic theory equation
For an ideal gas, the kinetic theory equation is:

pV = 1/3Nmcrms2 or pV = 1/3Nmc 2

Where:

 p = pressure of the gas (Pa)

 V = volume of the gas (m3)
 N = total number of identical particles of the gas
 m = mass of the gas (kg)
 crms or c = root mean square speed of the particles (m s-1).

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Kinetic theory model assumptions
The kinetic theory equation requires certain assumptions to
be made about the gas particles.

 The particles move in constant, random motion.

 The particles have negligible volume.
 All collisions between particles and the walls of the
container are completely elastic (no loss of kinetic energy).
 The duration of each collision is much less than the time
between collisions.
 Gravitational and electrostatic forces are negligible.

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Derivation of pV = 1/3Nmcrms2

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Mean kinetic energy
For an individual particle of gas with mass m and travelling at
speed c1, its kinetic energy (EK) is linked in the following
equation:
EK = ½mc2

What is the mean kinetic energy of a particle in a sample of

an ideal gas?
mean EK = total EK / total number particles (N)
mean EK = (½mc12) + (½mc22) + (½mc32) + … + (½mcN2)) / N
mean EK = (½m(c12 + c22 + c32 + … + cN2)) / N

mean EK = ½mcrms2

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Linking kinetic energy and temperature
As the temperature of an ideal gas increases, so the does the
mean kinetic energy of its particles. How can the two be linked?
pV = nRT pV = 1/3Nmcrms2

Therefore: nRT = 1/3Nmcrms2 but N = nNA

nRT = 1/3nNAmcrms2
RT = 1/3NAmcrms2
RT = 2/3NA(½mcrms2) but ½mcrms2 = mean EK
Therefore: RT = 2/3NAEK k = R / NA so R = kNA
kNAT = 2/3NA(mean EK)
3/
2kT = mean EK

mean EK = 3/2kT
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Total kinetic energy
The mean kinetic energy (EK) of a particle of ideal gas = 3/2kT.
What is the total EK of 1 mole of an ideal gas?

Total EK of 1 mole of an ideal gas = NA × 3/2kT = 3/2kNAT

but k = R / NA

Therefore:
total EK 1 mole = NA × 3/2(R / NA)T
total EK 1 mole = 3/2RT

And therefore:

The total kinetic energy of

n moles of an ideal gas = 3/2nRT

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EK and temperature: calculations

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Glossary

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What’s the keyword?

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Multiple-choice quiz

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