Language problems have become such a concern

that the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

has mandated that all pilots flying international routes
must meet stringent new standards for English
language proficiency by March 2008.
These new standards require both aviation and general
English language proficiency, with an emphasis on oral
skills.
Yet, language training in aviation has specific objectives, content, criteria of
proficiency, conditions of use and professional and personal stakes that set it
apart from the teaching of language in any other area of human activity:
 Language is designed to ensure unambiguous pilot-controller communication;
 The language used employs a very specific set of vocabulary, expressions and
functions;
 Operational efficiency, rather than linguistic correctness, is the ultimate criterion
by which proficiency is assessed;
 Communication is predominantly oral and most often with no visual contact;
 The question of communication may not only impact the safety of the travelling
public and individual careers, but also potentially have considerable economic
repercussions on all individuals involved in the aviation industry, directly through
testing and training costs and indirectly by its effect on staffing.
Aviation English can be defined as a
comprehensive but specialized subset of
English related broadly to aviation,
including the “plain” language used for
radiotelephony communications when
phraseologies do not suffice.
Not restricted to controller and pilot communications,
Aviation English can also include the use of English
relating to any other aspect of aviation: the language
needed by pilots for briefings, announcements, and
flight deck communication, and the language used
by maintenance technicians, flight attendants,
dispatchers, managers and officials within the aviation
industry or even the English language studied by
students in aeronautical and/or aviation universities.
Used in radiotelephony communications
between Air Traffic Controllers (ATC) and
pilots, Radiotelephony English (RTFE) is the
core of Aviation English. It includes (but
must not be limited to) the phraseology set
by the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) and can require the
use of general English at times.
Accordingly, Aviation English can be a subdivision of ESP, in the same
rank as English for Business and Economy, English for Science and
Technology, English for Social Sciences while RTFE, the core of Aviation
English, may be considered a kind of special English for occupational
purposes (EOP), or a restricted language as Mackay & Mountford (1978:
4) clearly illustrated:
 [...]the language of international air-traffic control could be regarded
as “special”, in the sense that the repertoire required by the controller
is strictly limited and can be accurately determined situationally, as
might be the linguistic needs of a dining-room waiter or air-hostess.
However, such restricted repertoires are not languages, just as a tourist
phrase book is not grammar. Knowing a restricted “language” would
not allow the speaker to communicate effectively in a novel situation,
or in contexts outside the vocational environment.
Thus Aviation English contains two meanings with regard to the time and
depth of language study:
 (a)Aviation English (such as RTFE) for occupational purposes (5 months) -
(a) Aviation English 1 (specifically RTFE) = typical selections from the
language corpuses in a specific field of air industry + register analysis
and/or discourse analysis (with a focus on aviation terminologies) for
practical use. Aviation English on this level includes English for air
communication, English for cabin attendants, English for maintenance
staff and English for airport service. It is actually a lingua franca and
targeted at adult learners.
 (b)
Aviation English for general use (1-2 years); (b) Aviation English 2
(general English for specific purpose, i.e. College English) = 21st Century
College English (Textbook edited by Zhai & Zheng (2002) and compiled at
Fudan University in Shanghai) for proficiency tests. Aviation English on this
level is not much different from general English teaching.
 (c)Aviation English for language skills and linguistic study (2 years).
Aviation English 3 (integrated Aviation English course) = linguistic
processing of language corpus in the field of air industry + register
analysis and/or discourse analysis (with a focus on phonetics and the
English language proficiency) for language skills and linguistic study.
Aviation English on this level is actually a combination of Aviation
English 1 and Aviation English 2. In addition, linguistics (such as
Forensic linguistics concerning international air regulations, aviation
psycholinguistics, aviation linguistics, etc.), translation theory and
practice and ESP theory become mandatory courses of this specialty.
Learners can further their studies by systematically learning linguistics
and ESP theories, thus getting to a higher level of language study.
Aviation English 3 is thus an academic and linguistic complex,
belonging to the scope of EAP and linguistics.
The ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements
apply to achieving and maintaining proficiency
in all languages used in radiotelephony
communications. However, as English is the
language most widely used in common by the
global aviation community, and the one which
there is a requirement to provide, it is in
improving levels of spoken English that the
community’s main focus currently lies.
(Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.)
(Microsoft® Encarta® 2008. © 1993-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.)
AVIATION LAW
 body of international and domestic law
governing various aspects of civil aviation.
Agreements concerning activities in space
have also been established.

(Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.)

IMPORTANCE OF AVIATION LAW
The importance of modern aviation was recognized
during world war II, when a conference was convened
in Chicago in 1944 to discuss regulation of Postwar
international civil aviation. The resulting Chicago
convention of 1944 codified public international aviation
law. Contracting nations adopted international
regulations, standards, and procedures for the use of
communication systems and air navigation aids; for
airport characteristics; for rules of the air and air traffic
control; for airworthiness of aircraft; for licensing of
operating and mechanical personnel; for aeronautical
maps and charts; for log books; and for measures to
facilitate air navigation.

(Microsoft ® encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007 microsoft corporation. All rights reserved.)

Aviation can be divided into two categories:

• Flight theory
• Verbal Communications between air traffic
controllers and pilots.
-Air Traffic Control (ATC) communications
FLIGHT THEORY
Incorporates aerodynamics,
meteorology, weight and balance,
aircraft performance, aerial
navigation, etc., is taught in the same
manner that any content course is
taught.
Aerodynamics, branch of fluid mechanics that deals
with the motion of air and other gaseous fluids, and
with the forces acting on bodies in motion relative to
such fluids. The motion of an airplane through the air,
the wind forces exerted on a structure, and the
operation of a windmill are all examples of
aerodynamic action.

( Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All

rights reserved.)
Aerodynamics

While the air traffic controller does not fly the airplane,
an understanding of aerodynamics and how an
aircraft flies can be of great benefit to the controller.
“the study of theory of flight and aerodynamics can
be a life time proposition. New theories are forever
being put forward. Some questions have answers that
are difficult to find. Others perhaps do not yet have
adequate answers. The information that comprises this
chapter can only be considered an introduction to a
substantial but fascinating study". Ftgup 21
“Forces acting on an airplane in flight.”
There are four forces acting on an airplane in flight. These
are thrust, drag, lift and weight.
(A) THRUST. The force exerted by the engine and its
propellers) which push air backward with
the object of causing a reaction or thrust, in the forward
direction.
(B) DRAG. The resistance
Bernouilli's Theorem.
Simply stated means; as the velocity of air
its pressure decreases and vice-versa.

“The wings of an airplane are so designed that when

moved through the air horizontally, the force
exerted on them produces a reaction as near
vertical as possible. It is this reaction that lifts the
weight of the airplane". Ftgu p 21
Airfoils
"an airfoil, or airfoil section, may be defined as any
surface designed to obtain a reaction from the
air through which it moves, that is, to obtain lift. It has
been found that the most suitable shape for
producing lift is a curved or cambered shape". Ftgup
21 ,
- the camber of an airfoil is the curvature of the upper
and lower surfaces. Usually the
upper surface has a greater camber than the lower.
.

Parts of an Airplane
The streamlined exterior of
modern airplanes hides a
complex balance of form and
function. The basic components
of an airplane include the
fuselage, wings, tail assembly,
and landing gear. The fuselage
houses the pilot, passengers,
and cargo. The wings provide
the lift that enables the plane to
fly. Movable ailerons on the
wings help control lateral
motions. The tail assembly
includes movable parts that
help control vertical motions
and fixed parts that increase
stability during flight. The
landing gear enables the plane
to move along runways during
takeoffs and landings. Light,
single-engine planes such as
this one are popular with
private pilots.
Weight and Balance
Managing the balance between these four forces is the challenge of
flight. When thrust is greater than drag, an airplane will accelerate. When
lift is greater than weight, it will climb. Using various control surfaces and
propulsion systems, a pilot can manipulate the balance of the four forces
to change the direction or speed. A pilot can reduce thrust in order to
slow down or descend. The pilot can lower the landing gear into the
airstream and deploy the landing flaps on the wings to increase drag,
which has the same effect as reducing thrust. The pilot can add thrust
either to speed up or climb. Or, by retracting the landing gear and flaps,
and thereby reducing drag, the pilot can accelerate or climb.

(Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.)

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL (ATC)
It needs to focus on the
discourse strategies
characteristic of both pilot-
controller and student-
instructor communications.
Communication procedures

1.1 the air traffic controller must communicate with skill and
precision. Optimum use of aeronautical radio communication
facilities depends on the good techniques of the controller. It is
a good procedure to listen briefly on the frequency to be used
before transmitting to ensure that you will not interrupt or cause
harmful interference to stations already in communications.
Plan the content of your message before transmitting so that
your call will be brief and clear. Always use standard
phraseology whenever practical.
 1.2 Proper speech techniques
(a) pronounce words clearly. Do not slur or run
words together
(b) speak at a moderate rate, neither too fast nor
too slow (recommended 100 words per
minute).
(C) keep the pitch of the voice constant. High-
pitched voices transmit better than low-pitched
voices.
(D) do not shout into the microphone.
(E) hold the microphone about 1 inch from the lips.
(F) know what you are going to say before starting the
communication. Minimize "ums and ahs", they take up
valuable air time.
(G) acknowledge receipt of all messages properly by
using approved phraseology. Do not click your
microphone button, it is not proper radio technique.
(H) profanity or offensive language is not permitted.

1.3 simple misunderstanding is one of the greatest

problems in pilot/controller communications. The
use of standard phraseology helps to avoid
misunderstandings and interjects professionalism into
all your communications.
 1.4 phonetics and numbers
clearly enunciate numbers used in
transmissions. Use the following
pronunciation if there is any likely hood of
: misunderstanding
0 ZERO 0 ZERO 5 FIFE
1 WUN 6 SIX
2 TOO 7 SEV en
3 TREE 8 AIT
4 FOW er 9 niner
if it is
necessary to
clearly
identify a
station or
spell a word
in a
message, use
the ICAO
phonetic
alphabet as
follows:
Use the following words and phrases, if practicable, in radio and interphone
communications.

ACKNOWLEDGE "let me know that you have received and understood this message".
AFFIRMATIVE "YES" or "permission granted".
BREAK "I hereby indicate the separation between portions of the message".
CONFIRM "my version is" .. is that correct
CORRECTION "an error has been made in this transmission", the correct version is
GO AHEAD "proceed with your message". Not to be used with ground vehicles.
HOW DO YOU READ self-explanatory
I SAY AGAIN self-explanatory
NEGATIVE "no", or "permission not granted", or "that is not correct"
OUT "this conversation is ended and no response is expected".
OVER "my transmission is ended and I expect a response from
you".
READ BACK "repeat all of this message back to me".
ROGER "I have received all of your last transmission".
SAY AGAIN self-explanatory
SPEAK SLOWER self-explanatory
STAND-BY self-explanatory
THAT IS CORRECT self-explanatory
VERIFY check coding, check text with originator, and send
correct version.
WORDS TWICE as a request: "communication is difficult. Please
say every word twice".
Navigation terms
(a) indicated airspeed - the speed as indicated by the airspeed
indicator.
(B) true airspeed - the speed corrected for density and
temperature.
(C) ground speed - the actual speed of the aircraft over the
ground.
(D) heading -the angle between the longitudinal axis of the
airplane at any moment and a meridian. Headings may be true,
magnetic or compass.
(E) track made good - the actual path of the aircraft over the
ground. This track may be expressed as true, magnetic or
compass.
(F) drift-the angle between the heading being flown and the track
made good. Drift is expressed in degrees and may be left or right.
How would the following reduced sentences be said in
slow and careful speech?
Example: Djeat yet? = Did you eat yet?

1. Whacha gonna say?

2. Dya know when ‘e’s leavin?
3. I dunno whaday hafta write.
4. They shoulda told er before.
5. Whadaya doin’ fer yer sister’s birthday?