Introduction to DBMS

As information systems specialist

You must
Analyze database requirements
Design and implement databases
Use databases to build DSS
 CONCEPTS

Data refers to known facts

Database is an organized collection of
logically related data.
Organized means data are structured so that
they can be easily stored, manipulated, and
retrieved by users
Related means that the data describes a
domain of interest to users
 INFORMATION

Information is data that has been

presented in such a way that that it can
increase the knowledge of the person
who uses it.
 METADATA
Data that describe the properties of data
Metadata are removed from data
Metadata does not include data
Data without clear meaning can be confusing
and misinterpreted
 METADATA EXAMPLE
Data Item Value
Name Type Length Min Max Description
Course Alphanumeric 30 Course name
Section Integer 1 1 9 Section number
:
:
:
Score Decimal 3 0.0 4.0
TRADITIONAL FILE PROCESSING
Orders Department

Prog A Prog B Prog C

Order Filling

Customer Inventory Back Order

Master Master Master
 Accounting Department

Prog A Prog B

Invoicing System

Inventory Pricing Customer

Master
 DISADVANTAGES OF FILE
PROCESSING SYSTEMS

 Program-data dependence
 Duplication of data
 Limited data sharing
 Lengthy development times
 Excessive program maintenance
Many of these can be limitations of databases
when
 Many separately managed databases
 No control on metadata
 Uncontrolled data duplication
 THE DATABASE APPROACH

 The database model emphasizes integration

and sharing of data throughout organization.
 Requires shift in thought process.
 Management should learn that information
is a competitive weapon
COSTS AND RISKS OF DATABASE
APPROACH

 New specialized personnel

 Installation and management cost and
complexity
 Conversion costs
 Explicit backup and recovery
 Organizational conflict
 COMPONENTS OF DATABASE
ENVIRONMENT
 CASE Tools to design databases and
application programs
 Repository – storehouse for all data definitions,
relationships
 DBMS Commercial software used to define,
create, maintain, and provide controlled access
to database
 Database Organized collection of logically
related data designed to meet information needs
of organization
Components of the Database Environment
 Application programs – Create and
maintain database and provide
information to users.
 User interface – facilities by which users
interact.
 COMPONENTS OF DATABASE
ENVIRONMENT

 Data administrators – Overall in-charge

of data. Improve productivity of database
planning and design.
 Systems developers – design and develop
new applications.
 End users – persons in organization who
add, delete, and modify data. Request for
information from it.
THE RELATIONAL DATA MODEL
Introduced in 1970 by E F Codd
Represents data in the form of tables
Easily understood
Comprises of Relational Data structure, Data
manipulation, and Data integrity
components
 Relation is a named, two-dimensional
table of data.
 Consists of a set of named columns and
arbitrary number of unnamed rows.
EMPLOYEE
Emp_ID Name Dept_Name Salary
101 Dev Marketing 48000
102 Ram Finance 52000

EMPLOYEE(Emp_ID,Name,Dept_Name,Salary)
 RELATIONAL KEYS

 Need to store and retrieve a row from relation

 Every relation must have a Primary key.
 Primary key is a value or a combination of values
that uniquely identifies each row in a relation.
 Primary key is underlined
EMPLOYEE(Emp_ID,Name,Dept_Name, Salary)
A Composite key is a primary key that consists of
more than one value
 PROPERTIES OF RELATIONS

 Each relation has a unique name

 An entry at the intersection of row and
column is single valued
 Each row is unique
 Each column in a table has a unique name
 The sequence of columns is insignificant
 The sequence of rows is insignificant
 INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS
Relational model includes several types of
constraints to facilitate maintaining the
accuracy and integrity of data.

1. Domain Constraints
2. Entity Integrity
3. Referential Integrity
4. Operational Constraints
 DOMAIN CONSTRAINTS

All values that appear in a column must be

taken from the same domain.

Domain definition consists of domain name,

meaning, data type, size and allowable
values or allowable ranges (if applicable)
 INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS

•Ensures that every relation has a primary

key.
•All data values in that primary key are valid.
•Every primary key is non-null.
 FOREIGN KEY
•Foreign key is value in a relation in a
database that serves as the primary key
of another relation in the same database.

•Associations between tables defined

through Foreign key.

•Maintains consistency among the rows

in two relations.
REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY

If there is a foreign key in one

relation either each foreign key must
match with a primary key value in
another table or it must be null.
Example Customer

Customer_ID Customer_Name Customer_Address

Order

Order_ID Order_Date Customer_ID

Pending_Order
Order_ID Product_ID Quantity

Product

Product_ID Product_Name Unit_Price

OPERATIONAL CONSTRAINTS

Business rules

Ex: An student can be allowed to take

exam only if he has 75% attendance.
ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP MODEL

An Entity is a person, place, object,

event, or concept about which
organization wishes to maintain data.
Example
Person: EMPLOYEE,STUDENT
Place:CITY,STATE
Object:MACHINE,AUTOMOBILE
Event: SALE,REGISTRATION
Concept:ACCOUNT,COURSE
ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP MODEL
•The E-R model is a detailed, logical
representation of the data for a
business area.

•It is expressed in terms of entities in

the business, the relationships, and
the properties of the entities and
relationships.

•Uses E-R Diagram

 E-R MODEL SYMBOLS

Strong Entity

Exists independently of other

types. STUDENT, EMPLOYEE

Weak Entity
An entity type whose existence depends on
other entity type. DEPENDENT
 E-R MODEL SYMBOLS

Relation ship

•Relation ships are glue that holds together

the various components of E-R model.
•An association among the instances of
one or more entity types.
 E-R MODEL SYMBOLS
Entity Type Versus Entity Instances
Entity type: EMPLOYEE
EMPLOYEE NUMBER NUMBER(4)
EMPLOYEE NAME ALPHABETS(30)
DATE HIRED DATE

Entity Instances (Two Instances of EMPLOYEE)

1343 5879
Gregory Peck Albert Einstein
08-08-88 09-09-99
 E-R MODEL SYMBOLS

Associative Entity

An entity that associates the instances of one or more

entity types and contains values that are peculiar to
relationship between those entities.
 E-R MODEL SYMBOLS

EMPLOYEE CERTIFICATE COURSE

Employee who may complete one or more courses,

may be awarded more than one certificate.

A course which may have one or more employees

completed it may have many certificates awarded.
 E-R MODEL SYMBOLS
Attribute

A property or characteristic of an entity type

that is interest to the organization.

STUDENT: Student_ID,Student_Name
AUTOMOBILE: Vehicle_ID, Color,
Initial capital followed by lowercase.
If it has two words, underscore is used to connect
the words a each word starts with a capital letter
 ATTRIBUTES

Flight_No Date Captain_Name

FLIGHT
 E-R MODEL SYMBOLS
Multi-valued attribute

An attribute that may take on more than

one value for a given entity instance

EMPLOYEE SKILL
 E-R MODEL SYMBOLS

Derived attribute

An attribute whose value can be calculated

from related attribute values

EMPLOYEE Years_Employed
 E-R MODEL

Degree of Relationship

The number of entity types that participate in

a relationship.
 E-R MODEL SYMBOLS
Degree of Relationship

Unary Relationship

A relationship between the instances of a

single entity type.
DEGREE OF RELATIONSHIPS
Unary Relationship

PERSON Is_married_to One-to-one

One-to-many
EMPLOYEE Manages
 DEGREE OF RELATIONSHIPS
Binary Relationship

A relationship between the instances of two

entity types
 DEGREE OF RELATIOSHIPS
Binary Relationship

EMPLOYEE Sits_in CABIN

One-to-one

COMPANY Contains DEPARTMENTS

One-to-many

STUDENT Register_for COURSE

Many-to-many
 DEGREE OF RELATIONSHIPS
Ternary Relationship
A simultaneous relationship among instances
of three entity types
 CARDINALITY CONSTRAINTS

A Cardinality constraint specifies the number

of instances of one entity that can be
associated with each instance of another
entity.
CARDINALITY CONSTRAINTS

PATIENT Has PATIENT HISTORY

PATIENT
PATIENT Has
HISTORY

Mark Visit 1 history

Visit 1 history
Fred
Visit 2 history
 ER Diagram Exercise
Team Exercise
60 Minutes
Draw an ER diagram for the following.

A company purchases items from a number of different vendors,

who then ship the items to the manufacturer. The items are
assembled into products that are sold to to customers who order
the products. Each customer order may order one or more
products.
 Send
SUPPLIER
Solution
s

Supplie
s

CUSTOMER

SHIPMENT Includ
ITEMS
es

Submit
Used_i s
n

Request
PRODUCT
s PRODUCT
 NORMALIZATION
The process of decomposing relations with
anomalies to produce smaller well-structured
relations.
Anomalies: Errors or inconsistencies that may
result when user attempts to update a table
that contains redundant data.
Well-structured relations contains minimal
redundancy and allows users to insert,
modify, and delete the rows in a table
without errors or inconsistencies.
 TYPES OF ANOMALIES

 Insertion anomaly
 Modify anomaly
 Deletion anomaly
INSERTION ANOMALY
EMPLOYEE
Emp_ID
Name
Dept_Name
Salary
Course_Title
Date_Completed
 INSERTION ANOMALY
To insert a row in the EMPLOYEE, user must
supply both Emp_ID and Course_Title,
since these together make a primary key,
hence can not be null.

This is an anomaly since the user should be

able to enter employee data without course
data.
 DELETION ANOMALY
Suppose the data of an employee has to be
deleted then the data that the employee had
completed a course on some date will be
lost.
This information may of importance to the
training department.
 MODIFICATION ANOMALY

Suppose an employee gets an increase in

salary and has done many courses, the
increase must be recorded in each of the
rows for the employee, otherwise, the data
will be inconsistent.
 STEPS IN NORMALIZATION
The process of decomposing relations with
anomalies to produce smaller well-
structured relations.

First normal form : Any multi-valued

attributes have been removed, so there is a
single value at the intersection of each row
and column of the table.
STEPS IN NORMALIZATION
Second normal form Any partial functional
dependencies have been removed
Third normal form Any transitive
dependencies have been removed
Boyce/Codd normal form Any remaining
anomalies that result from functional
dependencies have been removed
 FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCIES
AND KEYS
Normalization is based on the analysis of functional
dependencies.
Functional dependency A constraint between two
attributes or two sets of attributes.

Emp_ID, Course_Name Date_Completed

The date a course is completed is determined by the

identity of the employee and the name of the course.
 TABLE WITH REPEATING GROUPS
EMPLOYEE

Emp_ID Name Dept_Name Salary Course_Name Date_Complet

ed
1233 Andrew Market 48,000 SSAD 06/12/1999
MS-Office 12/05/1998
1245 James Accounting 52,000 Taxation 09/07/1998

1456 Mary MIS 80,000 C++ 03/03/2000

D2000 12/01/1998
Java Basics 14/06/1999
1789 Robert MIS 90,000 DB2 03/03/1998
CICS 29/10/1999
SSAD 15/05/1999
 TABLE IN FIRST NORMAL FORM
EMPLOYEE

Emp_ID Name Dept_Name Salary Course_Name Date_Complet

ed
1233 Andrew Marketing 48,000 SSAD 06/12/1999

1233 Andrew Marketing 48,000 MS-Office 12/05/1998

1245 James Accounting 52,000 Taxation 09/07/1998

1456 Mary MIS 80,000 C++ 03/03/2000

1456 Mary MIS 80,000 D2000 12/01/1998

1456 Mary MIS 80,000 Java Basics 14/06/1999

 FIRST NORMAL FORM

A relation is in first normal form when it

contains no multi-valued attributes.
The value at the intersection of each row and
column must be atomic.
 SECOND NORMAL FORM
A relation that is in first normal form and has
every non-key attribute functionally
dependent on the primary key.
 SECOND NORMAL FORM
A relation that is in first normal form is in
second normal form if and only if
1. The primary key consists of only one
attribute.
2. No non-key attribute exists in the relation.
3. Every no-key attribute is functionally
dependent on the primary key.
 SECOND NORMAL FORM
To convert relation into second normal form,
we decompose the relation into new
relationships.
 SECOND NORMAL FORM
EMPLOYEE is decomposed into two relations
EMPLOYE1
Emp_ID Name Dept_Name Salary
1233 Andrew Marketing 48,000
1245 James Accounting 52,000
1456 Mary MIS 80,000
EMPLOYE2
Emp_ID Course_Name Date_Completed
1233 SSAD 06/12/1999
1233 MS-Office 12/05/1998
1456 C++ 03/03/2000
1456 D2000 12/01/1998
1456 Java Basics 14/06/1999
 THIRD NORMAL FORM
Transitive dependency
Functional dependency between two nor more
non-key attributes.

A relation is in third normal form (3NF), if it

is in second normal form and no transitive
dependencies exist.
 3NF
Relation with transitive dependency
SALES
Cust_ID Name Salesperson Region

Cust_ID is the primary key. All of the remaining attributes are

functionally dependent on this attribute

However, region is functionally dependent on on sales

person and salesperson is functionally dependent on Cust_ID.
Normalization Exercise
2 Hours (Team exercise)
 SQL
S-Q-L/Sequel is the de facto standard
language for creating and querying
relational databases.

 DDL – Data Definition Language

 DML – Data Manipulation Language
 DCL – Data Control Language
Data Definition Language (DDL)
• These commands are used to define
database, including creating, altering, and
dropping tables, and establishing
constraints.
• Generally restricted to database
administrator.
 SQL Commands

DDL Design
Define the database
CREATE Tables, Indexes Views
Establish foreign keys
Drop tables Maintenance
 SQL Commands

DML
Load the database
INSERT data Implementation
UPDATE the database
Manipulate the database (SELECT)
 SQL Commands

Implementation
DCL
Control the database
GRANT, ADD, REVOKE
Maintenance
 DDL Commands

CREATE TABLE Define a new table and

its columns.
DROP TABLE Destroys table
(definition and contents
as well as any views
and indexes associated
with it).
 DDL Commands
ALTER TABLE Add, delete, and
redefine table columns.

CREATE INDEX Defines an index on one

column or a concatenation
of columns that enables
rapid access to the rows of
the table.
 DDL Commands
DROP INDEX Destroys an index.

CREATE VIEW Defines a logical table

from one or more tables
or views.
 DDL Commands
DROP VIEW Destroys a view
definition and any other
views defined from the
deleted view.
 CREATE TABLE
CREATE TABLE tablename
(column_name datatype, [NULL|NOT NULL]
[DEFAULT Default_value]
[Column_constraint_Clause].....
[column_name datatype, [NULL|NOT NULL]
[DEFAULT Default_value]
[Column_constraint_Clause].....]....
[table_constraint_clause].......);
 CREATE TABLE

CREATE Table Order

(Order_ID INTEGER NOT NULL,
Order_Date Date,
Order_Quantity INTEGER);
 CREATE TABLE
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE
(Emp_ID VARCHAR NOT NULL,
First_Name CHAR(15),
Last_Name CHAR(15),
CONSTRAINT EMP_PK PRIMARY KEY (Emp_ID)
CONSTRAINT PROJ_FK FOREIGN KEY
REFERENCES PROJECT(Proj_ID)

CREATE TABLE PROJECT

(Proj_ID INTEGER NOT NULL,
Proj_Location VARCHAR(15));
 CREATE TABLE
Other constraint clauses
UNIQUE Specifies alternate keys.
UNIQUE(Column_Name)

REFERENCES clause prevents making a

change in the foreign key value
 CREATE TABLE
ON UPDATE RESTRICT
Denies updates that delete or change a
primary key value unless no foreign key
value references that value in in any child
table.
CUSTOMER ORDER
(PK = CUST_ID) (FK=CUST_ID)

A Customer Id can only be deleted if it is not

found in ORDER table.
 CREATE TABLE
ON UPDATE CASCADE
Updates change of a primary key value in in
any child table.
CUSTOMER ORDER
(PK = CUST_ID) (FK=CUST_ID)

Changing Customer ID will result in that

value changing in the ORDER table.
 CREATE TABLE

CREATE TABLE CUSTOMER

(CUSTOMER_ID INTEGER NOT NULL,
CUSTOMER_NAME VARCHAR(40),
.......
CONSTRAINT CUSTOMER_PK PRIMARY KEY
(CUSTOMER_ID) ON UPDATE RESTRICT);
 CHANGING TABLE
ALTER TABLE

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMER

ADD (CUSTOMER_RATING VARCHAR(2));

The status of the new column is NULL..

Invaluable for adapting to inevitable modifications to
databases.
 REMOVING TABLES
DROP TABLE

DROP TABLE CUSTOMER;

Dropping table will cause associated indexes
and privileges granted to be dropped.
Must have DROP ANY TABLE system
privilege
 DML COMMANDS
INSERT Populates table with data
Data values must be ordered in the same order
as the columns in the table.

INSERT INTO CUSTOMER VALUES

( 001,’Richard’, ‘1267 First Main Green House’);
 INSERTING DATA INTO SOME
COLUMNS

When data is not entered into some columns

a) Enter the value NULL for that column
b) Specify the columns to which data are to
be added

INSERT INTO PRODUCT(PROD_ID, UNIT_PRICE)

VALUES (145, 78.65);
 DELETING DATA
Rows can be deleted individually or in groups

DELETE FROM CUSTOMER

Deletes all rows of table

DELETE FROM CUSTOMER WHERE STATE = ‘AP’;

Deletes rows that meet a certain criteria.
 CHANGING TABLE CONTENTS

UPDATE - used to modify column values of

one or more selected rows.

UPDATE PRODUCT SET UNIT_PRICE = 775

WHERE PRODUCT_ID = 7;
 CREATING INDEXES
 Indexes provide rapid random access.
 User need not directly refer to indexes.
 Indexes are created for Primary Key and
Foreign Key.
 Index is updated as data is entered or
updated.
 CREATING INDEXES
CREATE INDEX NAME_IDX
ON EMPLOYEE (EMP_NAME);

DROP INDEX NAME_IDX;

 PROCESSING SINGLE TABLES
SELECT Command with its various clauses
allows one to query on data contained in the
table.
SELECT commands may be syntactically
correct but do not answer the exact
question.
Parse queries into smaller parts, examine the
results, and then recombine them.
 Clauses for the SELECT statement

SELECT Lists the column(s) from table

FROM Identifies tables from which

columns will be chosen.

WHERE Includes the conditions for row

selection.
COMPARISON OPEREATORS IN SQL
Operator Meaning
= Equal to
> Greater than
>= Greater than or equal to
< Less than
<= Less than or equal to
<>/!= Not equal to
 BOOLEAN OPERATORS
AND Joins two or more conditions and
returns results only when all
conditions are true.
OR Joins tow or more conditions and
returns results only when any
condition is true.
NOT Negates an expression
 SELECT STATEMENT
Query: What is the address of customer
named Holmes? Use an alias, NAME for
customer name.

SELECT CUSTOMER_NAME AS NAME,

CUSTOMER_ADDRESS FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE NAME = ‘HOLMES’;
 SELECT STATEMENT
Result:
NAME CUSTOMER_ADDRESS
HOLMES 1998, Watson Road

Column alias name may be used in the

WHERE clause even though it is not
defined in the table.
 USING EXPRESSIONS
Query: What is total value of each product in
inventory?

SELECT
PRODUCT_NAME,UNIT_PRICE,QOH,
UNIT_PRICE * QOH AS VALUE FROM
PRODUCT;
 USING EXPRESSIONS
Result:
PRODUCT_NAME UNIT_PRICE QOH VALUE

Table 400 5 2000

Desk 200 3 600
Dining Table 800 4 3200

3 rows selected.
 USING FUNCTIONS

 Manipulate data from the row.

 Resulting table will contain aggregated data
instead of row-level data.
 Examples COUNT, MIN, MAX, SUM,
AVG..
 USING FUNCTIONS
Query: How many different items are ordered on
order number?

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM ORDER WHERE

ORDER_ID = 1004;

Result:
Count(*)
2
 RANGES
Query: Which products in the PRODUCT
table have unit price between 200 and 300?

SELECT
PRODUCT_NAME,UNIT_PRICE
FROM PRODUCT WHERE UNIT-
PRICE > 200 AND UNIT_PRICE < 300;
 RANGES
SELECT
PRODUCT_NAME,UNIT_PRICE
FROM PRODUCT WHERE UNIT-
PRICE BETWEEN 200 AND 300;

NOT BETWEEN CAN ALSO BE USED

 DISTINCT
DISTINCT rows without duplicates will be
displayed.

SELECT ORDER_ID FROM ORDER;

SELECT DISTINCT ORDER-ID FROM

ORDER;
 IN AND NOT IN LISTS
To match a list of values.

SELECT CUSTOMER_NAME,CITY,STATE
FROM CUSTOMER WHERE STATE IN
(‘AP’, ‘TN’, ‘MP’, ‘UP’, ‘JK’);
 SORTING RESULTS
ORDER BY Displays results in a sorted
order.

Query: List all customers from AP, TN, MP,

UP, and JK, alphabetically by state, and
alphabetically by customer within each
state.
 SORTING RESULTS
NAME STATE
SELECT CUSTOMER_NAME,
Amarnath MP CITY FROM CUSTOMER
Ramesh TN WHERE STATE IN
Sruthi AP (‘AP, ‘TN’, ‘MP’, ‘UP’, ‘JK’)
Kuldeep UP ORDER BY STATE,
CUSTOMER_NAME;
Ahmed JK
Laxman AP
Jairaj MP
 SORTING RESULTS
NAME STATE NAME STATE
Amarnath MP Laxman AP
Ramesh TN Sruthi AP
Sruthi AP Ahmed JK
Kuldeep UP Jairaj MP
Ahmed JK Amarnath TN
Laxman AP Ramesh TN
Jairaj MP Kuldeep UP
 CATEGORIZING
GROUP BY
Useful when paired with aggregate functions
like SUM or COUNT.
Divides table into subsets.
Provides summary information for that group.
 GROUP BY
Query: Count the number of customers in each
state.
SELECT STATE, COUNT (STATE) FROM CUSTOMER
GROUP BY STATE;

Result:
STATE COUNT(STATE)
AP 2
JK 1
MP 1
TN 2
UP 1
 HAVING CLAUSE
HAVING clause is similar to WHERE, but it
identifies groups that meet a criterion rather
than rows.

Query: Find only states with more than one

customer.
 HAVING CLAUSE
SELECT STATE, COUNT (STATE) FROM
CUSTOMER GROUP BY STATE
HAVING COUNT (STATE) > 1;
Result:
STATE COUNT (STATE)
AP 2
TN 2
PROCESSING MULTIPLE TABLES

JOIN A relational operation that causes

two tables to be combined into a
single table.
 EQUI-JOIN

A Join in which the joining condition is based

on equality between values in the common
columns.
 EQUI-JOIN
Query: What are the names of all customers who
have placed orders?

SELECT CUSTOMER.CUSTOMER_ID,
ORDER.CUSTOMER_ID, CUSTOMER_NAME,
ORDER_ID FROM CUSTOMER, ORDER
WHERE CUSTOMER.CUSTOMER_ID =
ORDER.CUSTOMER_ID;

What happens if the WHERE clause is

omitted?
 NATURAL JOIN
Natural join is same as Equi-join except on of the
duplicate columns is eliminated in the result table.

SELECT CUSTOMER.CUSTOMER_ID,
CUSTOMER_NAME, ORDER_ID FROM
CUSTOMER, ORDER WHERE
CUSTOMER.CUSTOMER_ID =
ORDER.CUSTOMER_ID;
 OUTER JOIN
A join in which rows that do not have matching
values in common columns are nevertheless
included in the table.

Query: List all customer name, identification

number, and order number for all customers
listed in the CUSTOMER table. List even if there
is no order available for that customer.
 OUTER JOIN

SELECT
CUSTOMER.CUSTOMER_ID,CUSTOME
R_NAME, ORDER_ID FROM
CUTOMER, ORDER WHERE
CUSTOMER.CUSTOMER_ID =
ORDER.CUSTOMERID (+);
 OUTER JOIN

The (+) indicates that a match with an all-null

row should be returned for any row in
CUSTOMER for which there is no match in
ORDER table.
 SUBQUERIES

Subquery technique involves placing an inner

query (SELECT, FROM, WHERE) within a
WHERE or HAVING clause of another
(outer) query.
Subquery is enclosed in parenthesis.
Also called nested queries.
 SUBQUERIES
Query: What is the name and address of the
customer who placed order number 6878?
Join query:
SELECT
CUSTOMER_NAME,CUSTOMER_ADDRESS
FROM CUSTOMER, ORDER WHERE
CUSTOMER.CUSTOMER_ID =
ORDER.CUSTOMER_ID AND
ORDER_ID = 6878;
 SUBQUERY

SELECT CUSTOMER_NAME,
CUSTOMER_ADDRESS FROM
CUSTOMER WHERE
CUSTOMER.CUSTOMER_ID =
(SELECT ORDER.CUSTOMER_ID FROM
ORDER WHER ORDER_ID = 6878);
 SUBQUERIES
Query: Which customers have placed orders?

SELECT CUSTOMER_NAME FROM

CUSTOMER WHERE CUSTOMER_ID IN
(SELECT DISTINCT CUSTOMER_ID
FROM ORDER);
 VIEWS

Simplifies query commands.

Provides valuable data security.
Uses little storage space.
Does not exist in physical form, a virtual table.
I
 VIEWS
CREATE VIEW INVOICE
SELECT Column names
FROM CUSTOMER, ORDER
WHERE <Conditions>;

SELECT CUSTOMER_ID,
CUSTOMER_ADDRESS FROM
INVOICE WHERE ORDER = 7678;
Suggested references

1. Modern Database Management, Fred Mcfadden,

Jeffrey A Hoffer, Mary B Presscott, Pearson
Education Asia

2. Fundamentals of Database Systems, Elmasri R and

S B Navathe, Benjamin Cummings

3. An Introduction to Database Systems, Date C J,

Addison-Wesley
Quiz