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Colors on Graphs
Outline
• Graph – definition, examples
• History of graph coloring
• Types of coloring – vertex, edge, map
• Vertex coloring – proper, chromatic number,
bounds, applications
• Edge coloring
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Graphs
• Mathematical structures used to model
pairwise relations between objects from a
certain collection.
• A graph G is a triple consisting of a vertex set
V(G), an edge set E(G), and a relation that
associates with each edge two vertices (not
necessarily distinct) called its endpoints.
y u
x V(G) = {u, v, w, x, y}
E(G) = {uv, uw, ux, vx, vw, xw, xy}
w v
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Narsingh Deo, Indian
Frank Harary (1921-2005)
American
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Petersen graph
1839-1910
Denmark, Northern Europe
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993
364 pages
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Graphs
Graph Vertices Edges
Flow
(Network) (Nodes) (Arcs)
Telephones exchanges, Cables, fiber optics, Voice, video,
Communications computers, satellites microwave relays packets
Gates, registers,
Circuits processors
Wires Current
Reservoirs, pumping
Hydraulic stations, lakes
Pipelines Fluid, oil
goods,
Airports, rail yards, Highways, railbeds,
Transportation street intersections airway routes
vehicles,
passengers
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The History of Graph coloring
ச ொல் ல மறந்த கதத
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The saga
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Augustus De Morgan (1806 –1871)
British mathematician
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Francis Guthrie (1831 - 1899 )
South African mathematician and botanist
• Postulated - four colors would be
sufficient to color any map.
• This became known as the Four
Color Problem.
• Remained one of the most
famous unsolved problems in
topology for more than a century.
• Proven in 1976 using a
controversial computer-aided
proof which was lengthy and
inelegant. DAMCS 11
Francis Guthrie (1831 - 1899)
South African mathematician and botanist
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Vertex coloring
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What is the chromatic number of this graph?
The labels are colors; the vertices of one color, form a color class.
In a proper coloring, each color class is an independent set (a set
of mutually non adjacent vertices).
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(G) for common class of G
• Petersen graph – 3
• n-vertex Complete graph – n
• Bipartite graph – 2
• Even order cycle – 2
• Odd order cycle – 3
• Odd order wheel – 3
• Even order wheel – 4
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Clique
Petersen graph
25
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To what depth can the colors sink?
Lower bound
• (G) (G)
• (G) Ceil(n(G)/(G)), - max ind set
Petersen graph
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1. Flight Gates
Flights need gates, but times overlap.
How many gates needed?
Time
122
145
Flights 67
257
306
99 DAMCS 29
Conflict Graph
• Each vertex represents a flight
Needs gate at same time
• Each edge represents a conflict
145
306
99
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122
145
67
257
306
99
257 122
145
67
306
99
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Coloring the Vertices
257 122
145
Assign gates:
67
306
257, 67
122,145
99
4 colors 99
306
4 gates
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Better Coloring
3 colors
257 122 3 gates
145
67
306
99
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2. Register Allocation in compilers
(introduced in 1981)
This is a
graph
coloring
problem.
a and b cannot use the same register, because they store different
values.
c and d cannot use the same register otherwise the value of c is
overwritten.
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Reuse pattern for reuse distance 2?
3
C
O
L
O
R
S
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Reuse distance 3 – reuse pattern
7
C
O
L
O
R
S
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5. Final Exams
Vertex Edge
coloring & coloring
Dual
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The Rainbow connection
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Call for emergency
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Call for emergency
• The information needs to be protected since it relates
to national security.
• There must also be procedures that permit access
between appropriate parties.
• Two-fold issue.
• Assign information transfer paths between agencies
which may have other agencies as intermediaries while
requiring a large enough number of passwords and
firewalls that is prohibitive to intruders, yet small
enough to manage.
• that is, one or more paths between every pair of
agencies have no password repeated.
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An immediate question
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Graph-theoretic model
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B
A D
G
F E
B
A D
G
F E
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Map coloring
• You are now in a position to define this
concept!
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References
• Appel, K. and W. Haken, Every Planar Map is Four Colorable, American
Mathematical Society, Providence, 1989.
• Basavaraju, M. Chandran, L.S., Rajendra Prasad, D. and Ramaswamy, A.,
Rainbow connection number and radius, Graphs and Combinatorics,
(2012): 1-11.
• Xueliang Li, Yuefang Sun, Rainbow connections of graphs – A survey,
http://arxiv.org/abs/1101.5747v2
• Xueliang Li, Yongtang Shi, Yuefang Sun, Rainbow connections of graphs – A
survey, Graphs and Combinatorics, (2013) 29:1-38
• www.graphtheory.com
• www-sop.inria.fr/members/Frederic.Havet/habilitation/intro.pdf
• www.site.uottawa.ca/~ivan/GA-FCA.ppt
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CANNOT
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One way to keep momentum going is to have
constantly greater goals.
Michael Korda
British writer
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