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 INTRODUCTION
÷ Gypsum is a mineral that is mined in various parts of
the world.
÷ The word gypsum derived from Greek word meaning
¶to cook· referred to burnt or calcined mineral.
÷ Chemically it is CaSo4;2H2O i.e. calcium sulphate
dihydrate.
÷ Three types of gypsum products are available in
dentistry ²
1. Model plaster
2. Dental stone
3. High strength dental stone or die stone
÷ Êll these types differ in their physical form ,
but have the same chemical structure.
÷ The term Plaster of Paris was given to this
product as this was obtained by burning
the gypsum from deposits near Paris ,
France .
OTHER FORMS OF GYPSUM
Gypsum has variety of names
that are widely used in the mineral trade
1} Selenite 2} Satin spar
3} Êlabaster 4}Plaster of Paris
[
[

ÊCCORDING TO ÊDÊ SPECIFICÊTION NO 25-

TYPE I -IMPRESSION PLÊSTER

TYPE II -DENTÊL PLÊSTER
TYPE III - DENTÊL STONE
(Hydrocal, Êlpha hemihydrate)
TYPE IV - DENTÊL STONE (HIGH STRENGTH)
(Die stone, Densite,Modified alpha hemihydrate)
TYPE V - DENTÊL STONE (HIGH STRENGTH, HIGH EXPÊNSION)
 Types of gypsum products
m
  
 
 

Impression Earlier plaster was Preliminary impression
Plaster modified for use as of edentulous ridge in
(Type ² I) impression material by fabrication of dentures.
Now rarely used. addition of chemicals and [MUCOSTAIC
flavoring agents IMPRESSION]

Dental Plaster Heating the gypsum Weakest and least

(Type ² II) powder in open container. expensive of all gypsum
Plaster of paris This direct and rapid products.
heating results in powder Making preliminary cast
_àhemihydrate that consist of porous for CD
Model plaster and irregular particles. To secure cast to
articulator ,
to fill a flask in denture
construction
Dental Stone Made for gypsum by
(Type ² III) carefully controlled
Hydrocal calcinations under steam
pressure in a closed
Class I stone container. The method
vàhemihydrate releases the water of
crystallization slowly and
resultant powder particles
are more uniform in shape
and less porous.
Dental Stone, Made by calcining in calcium
high strength chloride solution. This
(Type IV) calcination result in a
Class II Stone, powder particles that is
Densite, very dense and cuboidal in
Improved shape, with a reduced
stones, Die surface area.
Stone
Stone is stronger
and more expensive
than plaster.
Use for making cast
for diagnostic purpose.
Cast for CD and RPD
construction
It is strongest and most
expensive. Densite is
the densest of all the
material.
Used mainly for cast and
dies for inlay and crown
fabrication.
Dental Stone, Same as Type IV, For making very
high strength, Added with strong dies (has
high expansion accelerators and highest
(Type V) retarders and compressive
surface tension strength) this is
reducing agent like achieved by
LIGNON SULFATE lowering the w/p
ratio and
increasing the
setting expansion
to compensate
for alloy
solidification
shrinkage.
cased on crystal structure:
1. ceta hemihydrate- Type I , II
å fibrous aggregate of fine crystals with capillary
pores.
åFluffy porous and least dense

2. Êlpha hemihydrate- Type III, IV, V

åcleavage fragments and crystals in form of
rods or prisms
å Higher density and more crystalline
w

[

å CaSO4.2H2O CaSO4.1/2 H2O CaSO4

Gypsum

à
 oC Plaster or Stone
 ࢠoC CaSO4
Hexagonal
CaSO4 anhydrite
Orthorhombic
anhydrite
¢ à
oC

å Commercially, the gypsum is ground and

subjected to temperature 110-120 0C to drive
off the water of crystallization and produce
calcium sulphate hemihydrate .
[
[


å CaSO4;2H2O
boil,
CaCl2

open kettle high

pressure Type IV Type V

steam

Type II

Type III
 [ 

Î àhemihydrate ǀ àhemihydrate

The difference between Î and ǀ

hemihydrate are the result of differences
in crystal size, surface area and degree of
lattice imperfection
 Î àhemihydrate ǀ àhemihydrate

a hen dihydrate is a hen dihydrate is

heated under steam heated in an open
pressure kettle or kiln.
a Dense & prismatic a Spongy & irregularly
crystals shaped crystals.
a Stronger & harder a Less strong products
products on mixing on mixing with water
with water (Type I,II)
(type III,IV,V)
a Smaller w/p ratio a Larger w/ p ratio
_

 †



  
6





 
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å The following reaction takes place in the hardening

process
CaSO4.2 H2O+ 3H2O å2(CaSO4 .2H2O) + heat
3900Cal/g mol)
å The product of the reaction is gypsum.
å The heat evolved in the exothermic reaction is
equivalent to the heat used originally in calcination.
å This chemical reaction takes place regardless of
whether the gypsum material is used as impression
material , Die material, or a binder in casting
investment.

 6 [


åThere is distinct difference in the solubility of

hemihydrate and dihydrate.
åHemihydrate is 4 times more soluble in water
than dihydrate near room temp.(200c)
T s tti g r cti c rst s
f ll s:
å i y r t is ix it t r,
s s si is f r t t is fl i
r l .
å W t r c s s t r t it i y r t .
å T is s t r t s l ti is s r s t r t
it i y r t ,s t l tt r r ci it t s t.

å l ti is l g rs t r t it
i y r t .
it c ti s t iss lv , till f rt r
i y r t r ci it t s t f s l ti .
åThe process continues until most of the
hemihydrate is converted to dihydrate.
åThe crystals of dihydrate are spherulitic in
nature and grow from specific growth sites
called nuclei of crystallization.

 



Theories of Setting
of Gypsum products

å Colloidal Theory
å Hydration Theory
å Dissolution precipitation Theory or Crystalline
Theory
å Colloidal Theory:
hen mixed with water ,
plaster enters into the colloidal state through sol-
gel mechanism .
In the sol state ,hemihydrate particles are
hydrated to form the dihydrate, thereby entering
into an active state .
Ês the measured amount of water is
consumed, the mass converts into a solid gel.
Hydration Theory
å This theory suggests that rehydrated plaster
particles join together through hydrogen bonding
to the sulfate groups
to form the set material.
Dissolution precipitation Theory: by Louis Chatelier in
1885
å This theory is based on dissolution of plaster and
instant recrystilization of gypsum, followed by
interlocking of the crystals to form the set product
 NUCLEI
OF
CRYSTALLIZATION

SPHERULITIC
GROWTH

OUTWARD THRUST AS
SPHERULITES MAKE
CONTACT
 6 6



ater/Powder ratio-
å The proportion of water to powder used to make a
workable mix of a particular gypsum product is called
water/powder ratio
å It is the quotient obtained when the weight or volume of
the water is divided by the weight of powder.
å It is usually abbreviated as :P
å The :P ratio is an important factor in determining the
physical and chemical properties of the final gypsum
product
å Chief factors that determine the amount of
gauging water required are:-
1. Particle size

2. Total surface area

3. Particle size distribution

´_ r t l s , xc ss
 f s
r
r is l ys css ry v 
 ric lly c rrc
 r
ir f r
yr i  ic is . 6%
´T xcss is    r l ix
 c 
r  s 
´T xcss r is isri
 s fr r i
 s ss i
 
ig r i cicl
rci   i c ri
s   s
s

r siis r v is i  s r 
c
´The proper :P ratio for each product depends on
physical characteristics of powder particles
´Therefore plaster requires more measured water
(gauging water) to float the irregular porous
particles than the dense particles of stone
´Ê mixture of Calcium oxide (0.1 ) & Gum arabic
(1 ) reduces the amount of water necessary to mix
gypsum products: resulting in Improved properties.
The excess water is distributed as free
water in the set mass without taking
part in the chemical reaction .When
the set mass is dried the excess water
evaporates & leaves porosity in the
structure weakening it.
Recommended ranges of w/p ratio:
´Type I ³ 0.50-0.75
´Type II ³ 0.45-0.50
´Type III³ 0.28-0.30
´Type IV ³0.22-0.24
´Type V ³0.18-0.22

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Mixing time-
å Time from addition of powder to water
until mixing is completed.
å Mechanical mixing:20-30 secs
å Hand spatulation:1 min.
orking Time: The time available to use a workable
mix, one that maintains an even consistency that
may be manipulated to perform one or more tasks.
General 3 min working time is adequate
Setting time
hen the powder is mixed with water, the
time that elapses from the beginning of mixing
until the materials hardens is known as setting
time.

This is usually measured by some type of

penetration test, using the following instruments-
Vicat penetrometer
Gilmore needle
Ä. L ss f gl ss s f r iiil s.
cc
rs  xcss r i  ix is


i f rig  iyr, s 
ix l ss is gl ss.
Tis cc
rs  r x.  is. 
ss s  s
rl c  rssiv
srg.
. Iiil il r s f r iiil s
Tis cc
rs  r x  Ä is is i
is r
 y fii icrs i srg.
å Initial gillmore test for initial set:-
the mixture is spread out , the needle of ¼ lb
weight and dia of 1/12µ is lowered onto the surface
and the time at which it no longer leaves an
impression is called the O O
O
 This time is
marked by a definite increase in strength.

å Gillmore test for final setting time:-

this uses a heavier gillmore needle(1lb, 1/24µ). The
time elapsed when it leaves only a barely perceptible
mark on the surface is called the final setting time. It
is 45- 0 min.
It is rarely used as an indication for the ready-for-use
stage
m  
a) MATERIAL IS UNSET

b) MATERIAL IS SET
. ic s f r sig
i:i s  i
il g
g
f r j
gig  sig
crcrisics. T sig
ril is i y 
l f Ä i. r 
l  f

g.sig i is
civ  l c 
l gr r     f
 i  ril.

Vicat
penetrometer
´ I c siss f  r  igig

g i 
l f Ä- ir. A rig c ir is
fill i  ix,  sig i f ic
is   s
r. T r  is l r
il i
c cs  s
rfc f  ril, 
 l is rls  ll  
r  ix. W  l fils 
r      f  c ir, 
ril s rc  ic r  iiil
sig i
[w6


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w

Ready for use criterion

´ It is a subjective measure of the time at

which material may be safely handled
´ Technically it is the time when compressive
strength is atleast 80 of that attained at
1 hour.
´ Most modern products reach the ready to
use state in 30mins.
 [  
 w


T .T. f gy s
 r 
cs c  c r ll

y 
fc
rrs ric
lr f r
li 
cc rigly ir  fs sig r  sl sig
r 
c c 
rcs.
T riclly r r  s
Ä. T s l
iliy f iyr c  icrs r
crs.
. . f 
cli f crysllizi  c  icrs
r crs.
.  f crysl gr  is icrs r crs.
The operator can vary the S.T.within reason
cy altering :P ratio & mixing time.
Decrease in setting time (fast setting) -
å O mixing
å  :P ratio
å Êddition of certain chemicals called accelerators.
Increase in setting time (slow setting) ²
å  mixing
å O :P ratio
å Êddition of certain chemicals called retarders.
å The operator can accelerate the setting time
by adding gypsum (<.20 ),Potassium
sulfate or sodium chloride(<.28 )
å Retarder act by forming an adsorbed layer
on the hemihydrate to reduce its solubility
and on the gypsum crystals to present to
inhibit growth. Organic materials like glue,
gelatin and some gums behave in this
manner.
Nacl when added in small
quantities will act as accelerators ,
cUT in large quantities will act as
retarder
Other factors-
´Impurities
´Fineness
´Temperature
 w6 


´ Presence of set gypsum particles, shortens

the setting time because of the increase in
the potential nuclei of crystallization.
´ Orthorhombic anhydrite: Induction period is
increased. Hence setting time increased.
´ Hexagonal anhydrite: Induction period is
decreased.
hence setting time is decreased.
Fineness:
Finer the particle size of the hemihydrate«
«faster is the set.
Temperature:
´ Little change occurs between 0*C to 50*C.
´ If temperature of the plaster exceeds 50*C
then gradual retardation occurs.
´ Ês the temperature approaches 100*C, no
reaction takes place.
´ Êt higher temperature there is a tendency
for the gypsum crystals formed to be
converted back to hemihydrate form
Setting Expansion

´This thrust results in an external

expansion with resulting internal porosity
in set mass.
[  
 
6



´Less the :P ratio O S.E.
O mixing time O S.E.
´However the most effective method for control of S.E.
is the addition of chemicals. (accelerators or
retarders)
´Êccelerators or retarders have an effect of reducing
setting expansion and are referred as Ênti expansion
agents.

[[


 





Êccelerators : It increases the solubility of
hemihydrates without increasing the solubility
of dihydrate. Thus accelerates the process.
Eg. NaCl upto about 2
NaSO4 upto 3.4
K2SO4 > 2
Terra Êlba/Set calcium sulfate dihydrate.
Liquids of High pH accelerate the
setting reaction while the liquids of low pH
like saliva retard the setting reaction
Retarders : Certain chemicals form a
coating on the hemihydrates particles and
thus prevent the hemihydrates from going
into solution in the normal manner.
Eg. Citrates, Êcetates, corates
Colloidal system such as agar & alginate
retard the setting reaction by being
adsorbed on the hemihydrate or the
dehydrate nucleation sites thus
interfering in hydration reaction
 [6[


´So far we have assumed that the plaster or

stone is allowed to set in air.
´If the setting process is allowed to occur under
water, the setting expansion is more than
double in magnitude.
Stage I : Initial mix is represented
by three round particles of hemihydrate
surrounded by water

As the crystals of dihydrate

grow, they contact each other,
and the S.E. begins
Stage II : Reaction started and crystal
of dihydrate start forming
´In left, water around particles is reduced by
hydration and particles are drawn more closely
together by surface tension action of water.
´In right, because the setting is taking place
under water, the water of hydration is replaced
and distance between the particles remains the
same.
 Stage III :
´The water around particles is again decreased in
the eg. on left.
´The particles with their attached crystals tend to be
drawn together as before but the contraction is
opposed by the outward thrust of growing crystals.
´On the other hand the crystals in right diagram are
not so inhibited, as water is again replenished.
Stage IV & Stage V:
å The effect become more marked.
The crystals being inhibited on the left
become intermeshed and entangled much
sooner than those on right, which grow much
more freely during early stages before the
intermeshing finally prevents the further
expansion.
´The basic mechanism of crystal growth
is same in both instances, and both
phenomenon are true setting
expansion.
´To distinguish between them, S.E.
without water immersion is often
termed as Normal setting expansion
(NSE) where as the expansion that
occurs under water is known as
Hygroscopic setting expansion (HSE) .

[  
[ 

´ :P ratio O HSE

´O mixing time O HSE
 
 

´The strength of gypsum products is

usually measured in terms of compressive
strength.
´Ês seen in setting reaction the strength
develops rapidly during the first 30 to 45
min as the hydration is completed.
å The wet strength of dental plaster is 9MPa and
Improved stone is 35MPa
å 1 hour tensile strength of model plaster is 2.3
MPa
´The strength depends on porosity of set
material, which is related to :P ratio
necessary to make a workable mix.
´Eg ² Plaster (which require the most
gauging water to make a fluid mix) is the
weakest, while improved stone is
strongest.
´The presence or absence of excess of
free water affects strength and two types
of strength are recognized.

et strength
Dry strength
W rg : I is  srg
s
r   s l c is
s  r ll f  r is xcss f 
 ricl 
 r
ir f r
yri .
ry rg : I is  srg
s
r   xcss f r is  
rs.
å ry srg is  r  r is  r
   srg.

[  
[ 


 
´O :P ratio  strength.
´O mixing time O strength.
´O accelerator or retarder  strength.
 
[









[

´ DEFINITION - IN MINEROLOGY SURFÊCE HÊRDNESS OF

SUcSTÊNCE IS ITS ÊcILITY TO RESISTS SCRÊTCHING

SURFÊCE HÊRDNESS ~ COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Detail Reproduction:
ÊNSI/ÊDÊ Specification No.25 requires

´ Type I & Type II to reproduce a

groove of 75 m
´ Type III , IV & V to reproduce a
groove of 50 m.
6 6  w 
[
 
 6 [
The technical use of gypsum products is relatively
simple requiring only
´Mixing bowl
´Mixing spatula
´Room-temperature water
´Êppropriate gypsum product
6 6

å cecause the strength of a stone is indirectly

proportional to the :P ratio, it is most
important to keep the amount of water as low
as possible. However it should not be so low
that the mix will not flow in every detail of the
impression.
å Thus, water and powder must be proportioned
accurately for optimum properties.
a. Measuring the ater
The water is usually dispensed by volume in
a graduated cylinder, as 1 gm of water has a
volume of very close to 1 ml.
b. Measuring the Powder
å The power can be weighed in grams with a
simple balance or scale.
å Volume dispensers may be used, but volume
dispensing of the power is not accurate because
of varying packing effect on the powder.
å eighing with a scale is a simple and convenient
method to ensure accurate proportions.


 

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w













å w  w
6

w

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´ The preferred method of mixing is to add the
measured water first, followed by the gradual
sifting of the pre weighed powder into it.
´ Guess work of repeatedly adding water and
powder to achieve proper consistency is to be
avoided, as it may cause an uneven set in the
cast, resulting in low strength and distortion.
´Hand mixing involves using spatula at a rate of
2 revolutions /sec.
w
´Done in a flexible plastic or rubber bowl
with a stiff bladed spatula to combine the
powder and water.
´The mix should be smooth, homogenous,
workable and free of air bubbles.
´Ê minimum of air inclusion in the mixed
product is desirable to prevent surface
bubbles and internal defects.

[[ww
´Often, mixing is done mechanically with a
vaccum mixing and investing machine.
´This provides a gypsum mix that is free of air
bubbles and homogenous in consistency.
´Many other devices are available which will
mix gypsum products mechanically and they
are used where the application of product is
critical

[[ww

[
  [

å Once the setting reaction in the cast have been
completed, its dimension will be relatively constant
thereafter under ordinary conditions of room
temperature and humidity.
å However it is sometimes necessary to soak
gypsum cast in water. If the stone cast is
immersed in running water, its linear dimension
may decrease approximately 0.1 for every 20
min of such immersion.
å The safest method is to soak the cast in saturated
solution of calcium sulfate.
å Storage of set plaster or stone at room
temperature produces no significant dimensional
change.

å However if the
o
storage temperature is raised to
o
between 90 and 100 c, a shrinkage occurs as
the water of crystallization is removed and the
dihydrate reverts to hemihydrate.

å Therefore, it is not safe to store or heat a stone

cast in air at temperature higher than 55oC

[ 6w

´This is done with waste products or by-

products of phosphoric acid production
´The synthetic product is usually much more
expensive than that made from Natural
gypsum, but when properly made its properties
are equal to or exceed those of the latter.
6
[
 6w6 [
In addition to the standardized gypsum
materials there are some that have been
characterized for special purposes
For Eg.
å Orthodontist prefer a white stone or plaster for
study models and may even treat the surface with
soap solution for added sheen.
These products have a longer
working time for ease of trimming.
´The mounting stones or plasters are used to
mount the cast on articulator, are fast setting
and have low S.E.
The mounting plaster has low strength to
permit easy trimming and to separate the cast
readily from articulator
´Since 1991, a plethora of new dental stones
have appeared mostly as time savers.
´One type is ready to use in 5 min. but it has
little working time.
´Ênother product changes color to help denote
when it is ready for use.
´Most recently, the trend is to add a small
amount of plastic or resin that reduces
brittleness and improves the resistance to
scratching during the carving of wax pattern.
[
  6w6 [

[[ 
´There is always a risk of cross contamination
to a dental office personnel by micro-organism,
including
hepatitis c and HIV , via dental impressions.
´Thus the impressions should be disinfected
using spray and immersion disinfecting
techniques
å If the impression is not disinfected it is prudent to
disinfect stone cast
å Usual disinfectants for stone cast include spray
disinfectants, hypochlorites and iodophores
å Disinfecting solutions can be used that do not
adversely affect the quality of gypsum cast.
å Êlternatively, dental stone containing disinfectant
may be employed.
å hen patients with known cases of infection are
being treated, overnight ethylene oxide gas
sterilization is an option.



[


´ Phillips Science of
DENTÊL MÊTERIÊLS- 10th &11th Edition
´ CRÊIG·S Dental Materials- Properties and
manipulation. 8th edition
´ Clinical aspects of dental materials .Theory,
practice and cases. Marcia Gladwin.
´ Êpplied dental Materials. McCabe
THANK YOU