BASIC ON/OFF CONTROL

Inflow
START

Qin

L2
Solenoid

L1
SP
P Solenoid
power supply

Qout
 In On/Off control- control signal is either 0% or 100%
 Control at set point not achievable, a dead band must be
incorporated
 Useful for large , sluggish system particularly those incorporating
electric heaters
 Examples- Large tank level control
- Lube oil tank temperature control by heaters
 BASIC PROPORTIONAL CONTROL

V1
Qo=50

Qin 50%
60% Air to Close Qo=60

SP
50kPa
40kPa 20-100 kPa
LT

50t/h
60t/h
Qout
 P.C provides a control signal, proportional to the magnitude
and direction of the error signal.

 After a disturbance, P.C will provide only a new mass balance

situation. A change in control signal requires a change in error
signal, therefore offset will occur.

 P.C stabilizes an error; it does not remove it

 TERMINOLOGY

M=Measure signal k= gain

SP=set point b=bias

e(error)= SP - M

m= controller signal output

m=ke + b
PB=proportional band

100%
Gain(k)=
PB

 Proportional band is defined as that input signal span change, in percent,

which will cause a hundred percent change in output
PRACTICAL PROPORTIONAL CONTROL

V1
Flow Change

50%
60% Air to Open Kp=1

Qin Kp=2

Kp=5

LIC Kp= 1
5
2

50kPa 20-100 kPa

LT
40kPa
45kPa
48kPa
60t/h
50t/h
Qout
 Loss In Volume
Higher PB Lower PB

Outflow

Inflow

t0

t
t t1
t0
Offset New Level SP
Offset New Level SP
Level originally SP t1
t1
 STEP
CHANGE
TIME

WIDE PB

OFFSET

MODERATE PB

NARROW PB
 SUMMARY & OPTIMUM PB
 Highly stable but sluggish system
 Fast acting system with large offset
 Unstable on/off system
 Require bias to avoid undesirable situation because m= ke, so m=
ke + b
 Optimum setting for PB should result in the process decaying in a ¼ decay
mode

A/4 A/16
A
 RESET OF INTEGRAL ACTION
 To restore the process to the set point after disturbance then only
proportional is insufficient
 The additional inflow must replace the lost volume

Initial mass balance

Reset action
Loss in volume

Outflow
Inflow

Set point

Offset removed

Additional Control signal restores process to set point

 PHENOMENA OF RESET ACTION
 Reset action is the Integration of the error signal to zero
 After time say ‘t’ reset action has repeated original proportional response , it is
called repeat time
 R.A is defined as either reset rate in repeats per minute (RPM) or reset time in
minutes per repeat (MPR) . MPR= 1/RPM
 Reset action will cause a ramping of the output signal to provide the necessary
extra control action.

Ke Proportional
Response
Example

 A direct acting controller has a proportional band of 50% is subjected to a

sustained error. The set point is 50% and the measurement 55%.
 After 4 minutes the total output signal from the controller has increased by 30%.
What is the reset rate setting in RPM and MPR?
Solution
PB = 50% gain = 100% = 2
50%
Since ↑↑ k will be negative
Proportional Signal = -2 x error = -2 x -5% = +10%
Total signal after 4 minutes = +30%
=P+I
∴Integral Signal = +20%
i.e., integral action has repeated original proportional signal twice in 4
minutes, 1 repeats per 2 minutes or 0.5 repeats per minute.
Reset rate = 0.5 RPM or 2 MPR
 SUMMARY
 Mathematical expression for integral action

• m = control signal
• e = error signal (e = SP . M) ∴(+ or -)
• k = controller gain (↑↑ = −) (↑↓ = +)
• TR = reset time (MPR)
• b = bias signal

 Reset action removes offset

 If reset action is faster than the process can respond, Reset Windup can
occur
 Reset Action makes a control loop less stable
 Do not subject process loops with reset control to sustained errors . the
control signal will be ramped to the extreme value . reset windup will
occur.
 DERIVATIVE ACTION

 The proportional mode considers the present state of the process error
 The integral mode looks at the past history of the error
 The derivative mode anticipates the future values of the error and acts on
that prediction
 Derivative is related to the rate of change of the error signal and an
anticipatory control, which provides a large initial control signal to limit
the final deviation

input

output Proportional
action
Derivative
action
 PHENOMENA
 Mathematical equation for PD controller

• m = controller signal
• k = controller gain
• TD = derivative time
• e = error
• b = bias signal

 It should help reduce the time required to stabilize an error, derivative

action ceases when the error stops changing.
 Its use, in practice, is also limited to slow acting processes.
 EXAMPLE
 Consider a simple flow control system

Process A C
t0 t1 t2 Time
Proportional action
A-B
Rate action due to end of increase in e
Rate action Rate action
A-B B-C
Control Control signal at end of excursion
signal
Rate action due to end of increase in e

Proportional action
B-C
 SUMMARY
 Derivative or rate action is anticipatory and will usually reduce, but
not eliminate, offset.
 Its units are minutes (advance of proportional action).
 It tends to reduce lag in a control loop.
 Its use is generally limited to slow acting processes.
PID Response
 PID Tuning

 The term tuning is used to describe methods used to select the best
controller setting to obtain a particular form of performance.
 There are three methods that widely used for tuning

1. Process reaction method

 This method uses certain measurements made from testing the system
with the control loop open so that no control action occurs.
 A test input signal is applied to the correction unit and the response of
the controlled variable determined.
  Give step input as a test signal
 The graph of controlled variable is plotted against time

Final value

Maximum
Measured gradient line
Variable
Response of
Controlled variable
M
Percentage change of
the variable per minute

Original value
Time
L
Start of test signal
 Criteria given by Ziegler and Nichols
Type of Kp Ti Td
controller
P P/ML
PI 0.9/ML 3.3L
PID 1.2P/ML 2L 0.5L
 The basis behind these criteria is to give a closed-loop response for the
system which exhibits a quarter amplitude decay
 EXAMPLE

8 L = 5 min
M = 8/10 = 0.8 % / min
Kp = 1.2P / ML = 1.2 X 10/0.8 X 5 =3
Ti = 2L = 10 min
Td = 0.5L = 2.5 min

0
5 10 15
0
2. Ultimate cycle method

1. Set the controller to manual operation and the plant near to its normal
operating conditions.
2. Turn off all control modes but proportional.
3. Set Kp to a low value, i.e. the proportional band to a wide value.
4. Switch the controller to automatic mode and then introduce a small set-
point change, e.g. 5 to 10% and observe the response.
5. Set Kp to a slightly higher value, i.e. make the proportional band
narrower.
6. Introduce a small set-point change, e.g. 5 to 10% and observe the
response.
7. Keep on repeating 6 and 7 until the response shows sustained oscillations
which neither grow nor decay.
 Note the value of Kp giving this condition (Kpu) and the period (Tu) of the
oscillation.
 tu

 The Ziegler and Nichols criteria controller settings to have quarter

amplitude decay is given by Table

Type of Kp Ti Td
controller
P 0.5 Kpu
PI 0.45 Kpu Tu/1.2
PID 0.6 Kpu Tu/2 Tu/8
 2. Quarter Amplitude Decay

 The controller is set to proportional only

Amplitude
 With a step input to the control system, the reduced by a
output is monitored and amplitude decay is quarter
determined

Controlled


variable
If the amplitude decay is greater than a
quarter the proportional gain is increased
 If the amplitude decay is less than a quarter T
the proportional gain is decreased
 By method of trial & error the test input is
repeated until a quarter wave amplitude decay
is obtained Time

 Note this value of proportional gain

 The integral time constant is set to be T/1.5
 The derivative time constant is T/6