Gravity

MUTIARA GANI
Gravity History Lutgens et al (2012)

 Galileo Galilei (1589) dropped light and heavy

weights from Leaning Tower of Pisa
 Johann Kepler - Laws of Planetary Motion
 Sir Isaac Newton - Universal Law of Gravitation
 Isostasy >> G. B Airy (1801-1892) J.H Pratt(1809-1871)

Telford et al (1990)
Principles of Gravity
1. Newton’s Law of Gravitation

The force between two particles of masses

m1 and m2 is directly proportional to the
product of the masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between the center of the mass

F - Force on m2
r - Distance between m2 and m1
rˆ - Unit vector directed from m2 toward m1
G - Universal gravitation constant

Telford et al (1990)
Universal Gravitation Constant
γ or G is the universal gravitation constant. The value of G first was
determined by Lord Cavendish in 1798. The present value of G was
determined in 1942.

The value of G is equal to = 6.672 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2

= 6.672 x 10-8 dyne cm2/g2

Newton’s Second Law of Motion:

F = force
m = mass
a = acceleration
Acceleration of Gravity
Galileo Galilei (1589)

www.newscientist.com

a = acceleration
g = acceleration of gravity

G = Gravity Constant
m1 = Earth’s mass
R = Earth’s radius
Gravity Unit
The unit of acceleration of gravity: mGal
1 cm/s2 = 1 Gal (exploration purpose)

Acceleration of gravity at Earth’s surface:

9,8 m/s2 = 980 cm/s2 = 980 Gal = 980.000 mGal

The gravity unit gu is used instead of the mGal. It is equal to 0.1 mGal
0.1 mGal = 10-4 Gal = 10-4cm/s2 = 10-6m/s2
The Earth
Considering the gravitational attraction of a spherical , non-rotating and
homogeneous Earth.
Measuring Gravity
1. Pendulum
Over a century gravity was measured using compound pendulum. It is
introduced by Captain Henry Kater in 1817 and became the major tool for
gravity investigation. this pendulum completed with interchangeable centers of
oscillation and suspension.

𝑙
T = 2𝜋
𝑔

www.dict.space.4goo.net

Telford et al (1990)
Basement effect

After Gadallah and Fisher, 2009

Measuring Gravity - Indonesia
F. A. Vening Meinesz (1923) measure gravity with pendulums on board a Dutch
submarine and demonstrated gravity variations over various areas of the
oceans, especially the large gravity effects near the Indonesian trench.

http://www.cage.curtin.edu.au

Telford et al (1990)
Gravity of The Earth
The magnitude of gravity depends on five factors:
1. Latitude ≈ 5 Gal
2. Elevation ≈ 0.1 Gal
3. Density variation in the subsurface ≈ 1 – 10 mGal
4. Earth tides ≈ 0.3 mGal
5. Topography of surrounding terrain ≈ 0.1 mGal
Lutgens et al (2012)

Telford et al (1990)
Gravity Reduction
Latitude Correction
Free Air Correction
Bouguer Correction
Terrain Correction
Earth-Tide Correction
Isostatic Correction
Drift Correction
Is correcting the gravimeter reading due to the tools, temperature, time, and
shaking effected the sensitivity of the gravimeter.

C = P – Q (X-Y)
R–Q

C = Drift Correction
P = time in n station
Q = time in first station
R = time in last station
X = Last station gravity reading
Y = First station gravity reading
www.nrcan.gc.ca
The Reference Spheroid
Is an oblate ellipsoid that approximates the mean sea-level surface (geoid) with
the land above it removed.

Formula for the theoretical value of gravity (normal gravity) by Geodetic

Reference System 1967:
Gt = 978978031.85 (1.0 + 0.005278895 sin2(lat) + 0.000023462 sin4(lat)) (mGal)

The Geoid defined as mean sea level (the equipotential for the Earth’s gravity
plus centrifugal effects). Local mass warp the Geoid.

Telford et al (1990)
Tidal Correction
Gravimeter record the changes in g caused by movement of the sun and moon.
However, because the variation is smooth and relatively slow, usually it is
included in the instrument drift correction.
Latitude Correction
Rotation of the Earth and its equatorial bulge produce an increase of gravity with
latitude.

DGL = 0.811 sin 2f mGal/km

Re  6368km (equator)

The correction is maximum at latitude 45 where it is amount 0.01 mGal/13 meter and it is
zero at the pole and equator.

Telford et al (1990)
www.geol.lsu.edu
Free Air Correction
Free Air Correction (FAC) =0.3086h (mGal)

dg dg d  GM  GM 2g
   2   2  
dz dR dR  R  R3 R

Rate of Change of Gravity with Elevation based on theoretical considerations

(Jeffreys’,1952): http://www.geologyrocks.co.uk

-2g/Re
Latitude
sea level h=10.000
0 -0.3067 -0.3062
45 -0.3080 -0.3075
90 -0.3093 -0.3088

Howell (1959)
Bouguer Correction
Pierre Bouguer (1698-1758)- one of the leaders of the French Academy of
Sciences gravity expedition to Lapland and Peru (1735-1745)
This expedition proved that the Earth approximates an oblate spheroid instead
of perfect spheroid and established many of basic gravitational relationship;
variation of gravity with elevation and latitude, horizontal attraction due to
mountains and the density of the Earth.

Bouguer Correction (BC) = 0.04193ρh (mGal)

 Free Air – Bouguer - Isostatic
An isostatic correction
occasionaly is
necessary in large
scale surveys to
compensate for crustal
variations.

Bouguer Anomalies on
land near sea level is
approximately zero
(worldwide average)
pubs.usgs.gov
Isostatic Correction

Telford et al (1990)
Gravity Anomalies Interpretation
Gravity interpretation means precisely Interpretation of gravity anomalies
It requires: an observation and a norm or reference or something expected to
represent a normal field.
Exercise
Exercise - Geoid
1. What is the geoid?
2. How does it differ from the ellipsoid that best represents the surface of the
Earth?
3. Is the geoid a surface of equal gravitational acceleration? Explain

http://www.cambridge.org
Exercise – Normal Gravity
gt = 978031.85 (1.0 + 0.005278895 sin2(lat) + 0.000023462 sin4(lat)) (mGal)

Count the value of theoretical gravity using Geodetic Reference System 1967
formula at latitude written below:
a. Lat 0
b. Lat 30
c. Lat 45
d. Lat 60
e. Lat 90
Exercise – Drift Correction
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 C = P – Q (X-Y)
R–Q

Corr Reading (mGal)

Reading (mGal)

R-Q (minutes)
P-Q (minutes)

C Drift corr
Stasiun

C = Drift Correction
jam

X-Y
P = time in n station
Q = time in first station
1 6.20 1873.3600
R = time in last station
2 6.40 1846.8250 X = Last station gravity reading
3 6.55 1848.3290
4 7.07 1844.7080
Y = First station gravity reading
5 7.20 1844.5210
6 7.30 1843.7560
7 7.42 1842.1140
8 7.50 1843.4910
9 7.59 1845.3340
10 8.05 1848.7346
11 8.11 1846.8940
12 8.18 1845.3892
13 8.25 1873.3340
Result – Drift Correction
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

R-Q (minutes)
P-Q (minutes)

Corr Reading
C Drift corr
Reading
Stasiun

jam

X-Y
1 6.20 1873.3600 0 125 -0.0260 0 1873.3600
2 6.40 1846.8250 20 125 -0.0260 -0.00416 1846.8292
3 6.55 1848.3290 30 125 -0.0260 -0.00624 1848.3352
4 7.07 1844.7080 47 125 -0.0260 -0.009776 1844.7178
5 7.20 1844.5210 60 125 -0.0260 -0.01248 1844.5335
6 7.30 1843.7560 70 125 -0.0260 -0.01456 1843.7706
7 7.42 1842.1140 82 125 -0.0260 -0.017056 1842.1311
8 7.50 1843.4910 90 125 -0.0260 -0.01872 1843.5097
9 7.59 1845.3340 99 125 -0.0260 -0.020592 1845.3546
10 8.05 1848.7346 105 125 -0.0260 -0.02184 1848.7564
11 8.11 1846.8940 111 125 -0.0260 -0.023088 1846.9171
12 8.18 1845.3892 118 125 -0.0260 -0.024544 1845.4137
13 8.25 1873.3340 125 125 -0.0260 -0.026 1873.3600
Exercise – Specific case
1. Gravity force is always positive; however, in geophysical exploration
many gravity anomalies are negative such as those associated with salt diapirs
in the Gulf Coast of the US. Explain.
References
Gadallah, M., Fisher, R. (2009). Exploration Geophysics. An Introduction. Springer.
Howell,. B.F.Jr., (1959). Introduction to Geophysics. The Maple Press Company.
Jacob, W., Smilde, P. L., (2009). Gravity Interpretation. Fundamentals and
Application of Gravity Inversion and Geological Interpretation. Springer.
Kearey, P., Brooks, M., Hill, I. (2002). An Introduction to Geophysical Exploration.
Third Edition.
Lutgens, F. K., Tarbuck, E.J., Tasa, D., (2012). The Essential of Geology. Pearson.
Telford, W.M., Geldart, L.P., Sheriff, R.E, (1990). Applied Geophysics. Second
Edition. Cambridge University Press.
www.geol.lsu.edu
Exercise - Gravity
1. What is the difference between weight, mass and density?
2. A gravity anomaly is determined to be 10 mGal. What is its value in
(a) cm/s2, (b) m/s2, (c) μGal, and (d) the gravity unit?
3. The mean equatorial radius of the Earth is 6378.4 km and the polar radius is
6356.9 km.
(a) what is the difference in normal gravity between the equator and the pole?
(b) Why does this difference in radius not account for the total observed
gravitational acceleration of the Earth between the equator and the pole?
Explain.
4. The normal change in gravity on the best-fitting Earth ellipsoid varies with
latitude, but not longitude. Explain.
QUIZ - 1
1. What is the geoid?
2. How does it differ from the ellipsoid that best represents the surface of the
Earth?
3. What is the difference between weight, mass and density?
4. Acceleration of gravity at Earths surface? (mGal)
5. What is the differeces between Law of Gravitation (The Force of Gravitation)
and Acceleration of Gravity?
6. What is the radius of the Earth in kilometers?
7. The normal change in gravity on the best-fitting Earth ellipsoid varies with
latitude, but not longitude. Explain.