Energy, Processes and

Cycles
Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics
Part 2
Graciano Emmanuelito E. Dela Cruz III
School of Mechanical Engineering
Mapua Institute of Technology
Some Commonly Used
Conversions:
 Pressure:
1 atm = 14.696 psia = 101.325 kPa
1 atm = 29.921 in Hg = 760 mmHg
1 bar = 105 Pa = 105 N/m2
1 bar = 14.5 psi
1 kgf/cm2 = 14.22 psi
 Force:
1 kgf = 1 kilopond, kp
1 kgf = 9.80665 N
1 lbf = 4.448 N
1 kgf = 2.2046 lbf

 Power:
1 kW = 3413 Btu/hr
1 kW = 3600 kJ/hr
1 HP = 0.746 kW = 2545 Btu/hr
1 PS (Metric HP) = 0.7355 kW
1 HP = 33000 ft-lb/min
 Mass:
1 short ton (US) = 2000 lbs
1 long ton (British) = 2240 lbs
1 Metric ton(tonne) = 2204.6 lbs = 1000 kg
1 kg = 2.2046 lbs

 Energy:
1 Btu = 1.055 kJ
1 Btu = 778.16 ft-lb
1 kCal = 4.186 kJ
1 Btu/lb = 2.326 kJ/kg
 Length:
1 kilometer = 3280.8 ft
1 mile = 5280 ft
1 yard = 3 ft
1 meter = 3.2808 ft

 Volume:
1 (US) gallon = 3.78543 liters
1 ft3 = 7.481 gal (US)
1 liter = 1000 cm3
1 m3 = 1000 liters
15.85 gal/min = 1 liter/s
15850 gal/min = 1 m3/s
264.177 gal = 1 m3
1 petroleum barrel (unrefined) = 42 gal (barrel)
1 petroleum barrel (refined) = 55 gal (drum)
Mechanical Work and
Power
 Mechanical Work is defined as the
product of a force F and a
displacement D when both are
measured in the same direction
(collinear).
 W=F x D
 Power is the time rate at which work is
done on or by a system.
Kinetic and Potential
energies
Kinetic energy is defined as the work in
moving the system a distance.
– Acceleration work is the work done on
the system to change its velocity.
– KE = ½ mV2 = ½ (m/gc)V2
– Where gc is the gravitational constant
The curse of gc
Kinetic and Potential
energies
 Potential energy of a system mass
depends on its position in the
gravitational field.
– Gravitational work is the work done
against gravity to change the elevation of
a system
– PE =mgz, where z is the elevation
Shaft work

 Shaft work, sometimes called

rotational mechanical work, is
evaluated in terms of the external
torque transmitted by a rotating shaft.
– Torque is the turning moment exerted by
a tangential force acting at a distance
from the axis of rotation.
Electrical work

 Electrical work is
the mechanical
work required to
move the charge in
the electrostatic
field (for example,
an electric circuit).
Internal energy

 The sum of the energies of all the

molecules in a system, energies that
appear several complex forms, is the
internal energy, U.
 ΔU = mcvΔT , where Cv is a the
specific heat at constant volume.
Flow energy

 Flow energy is a special form of work

that is significant for a moving stream.
 Often called flow work, it is work done
in pushing a fluid across a boundary,
usually into or out of a system.
Wf = pV, where p is the pressure and V is
the volume of the system.
Heat

 Heat, Q, is energy in transit (on the

move) from one body or system to
another solely because of a
temperature difference between the
systems.
Enthalpy, H

 The sum of the internal energy and

the flow work is known as the
enthalpy.
 Also known as heat content.
 ΔH = ΔU + ΔpV
 ΔH = mcpΔT , where Cp is a the
specific heat at constant pressure.
Entropy, S

 Degree of randomness or disorder.

Thermodynamics
processes
 Constant pressure process or isobaric or isopiestic
process
 Constant volume process or isometric or isochoric
process
 Constant temperature process or isothermal
process
 Constant entropy process or isentropic process or
adiabatic process (heat is zero)
 Constant enthalpy process or isenthalpic process
 Polytropic process
Thermodynamic cycles

 A combination of two or more

processes which, when completed,
returns the system to its initial state is
known as a THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE.
In other words, the system goes
through a number of states and finally
reaches the original state again.
Factors of a
thermodynamic cycle
 Working fluid
 Hot body / hot reservoir
 Heat engine or heat pump
 Cold body / heat sink
Thermodynamic cycles
 Carnot Cycle
 Internal combustion engines
– Otto cycle
– Diesel cycle
 Stirling and Ericsson cycles
 Gas turbine cycle (Brayton cycle)
 Vapor power systems
– Rankine cycle
 Reheat, regenerative, reheat-regen, cogeneration
 Refrigeration cycle
– Reversed Carnot cycle / vapor compression cycle
Carnot cycle

 Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle

– Sadi Carnot

Tlow
  1
Thigh
Nicolas Leonard Sadi
Carnot
 1796-1832
 French physicist
and military
engineer who, in
his 1824 Reflections
on the Motive
Power of Fire, gave
the first successful
theoretical account
of heat engines.
Internal combustion
engines
Air Standard Otto cycle

 A theoretical cycle
of interest in
analyzing the
behavior of
reciprocating spark
ignition engines
– Nicholas August
Otto (1832-1891)
Air Standard Diesel Cycle

 Basis for the

Compression
Ignition engine or
the Diesel Engine
– Rudolf Karl Christian
Diesel (1858-1913)
The 1st Diesel engine
4 stroke and 2 stroke
Brayton cycle

 Continuous
combustion process
 Gas turbine cycle
– George Brayton
(1830-1892)
Vapor Power Systems

 Electrical Power available in homes

and industry is developed in an
electrical generator at a steam power
plant.
 This model for a steam power cycle is
called the Rankine cycle.
William John Macquorn
Rankine
 Scottish engineer
and physicist.
 Professor of
engineering at the
Univ. of Glasgow.
You should know your
cycle!