Unit-1 IoT

Internet of Things
• Introduction
• History of IoT
• About Objects/Things in the IoT
• The Identifier in the IoT
• Enabling Technologies of IoT
Introduction
• Over the last couple of decades the internet has been in a continuous state of evolution.
• World wide web-a network of linked HTML documents(INTERNET OF DOCUMENTS)
• World wide web gradually evolved into web 2.0 in which two way communication became common
which enabled user participation. Example social networking(INTERNET OF PEOPLE), BLOGS and
WIKI’s.
• Web 2.0 is evolved into web 3.0(semantic web) the goal of the semantic web is to mark up the web
content in a way that makes it understandable by machines, this marking up web contents allow
machines to process and share data on their own without human mediation.
• Alongside internet technologies are developing like sensor networks and near field communication
using RFID tags have also been evolving.
• Convergence of these two technologies ie the internet and sensor networks leads to a new
framework ie., INTERNET OF THINGS.
• INTERNET OF THINGS, where everyday objects can be equipped with identifying, sensing,
networking and processing capabilities that will allow them to communicate with one another and
with other devices and services over the internet.
Introduction
• Internet of Things, is a leading path to the smart world with ubiquitous computing and networking.
• With ubiquitous computing, computing will be embedded everywhere and programmed to act
automatically with no manual triggering.
• In this IoT framework, wireless and wired technologies already provide the communication
capabilities and interactions meeting a variety of services based on PERSON-TO-PERSON, PERSON-
TO-MACHINE, MACHINE-TO-MACHINE and MACHINE-TO-PERSON interaction.
• Connecting objects might be wireless, as with the radio frequency identification or sensor radio
technologies that offer
• Identification of items and
• sensing of the environment.
• Connection may be wired as with Power line communication(PLC) offers data transport over
electrical media
• Other enabling technologies for this real world networked services include
• Nanotechnology,
• Automatic processing and
• Robotics
Introduction
• Most devices currently on the internet were originally deigned to be part of the internet and have
integrated processing, storage and network capabilities. These devices include servers ,desktops,
laptops, tablets and smart phones.
• IoT proposes to attach technology to everyday devices such as audio /video receivers, smoke
detectors, home appliance etc and making them online even if they are not initially designed with
this capability.
Introduction
• Most devices currently on the internet were originally deigned to be part of the internet and have
integrated processing, storage and network capabilities. These devices include servers ,desktops,
laptops, tablets and smart phones.
• IoT proposes to attach technology to everyday devices such as audio /video receivers, smoke
detectors, home appliance etc and making them online even if they are not initially designed with
this capability.
History of IoT
• IoT was originally introduced by the Auto-ID research center at the MIT, where an important effort
was made to uniquely identify products. The result was termed EPC(electronic product code). And it
was then commercialized by EPCglobal.
• In 2005, ITU(international Telecommunication Unit) introduced a new axis in the ubiquitous
networking path to complete the existing anywhere and anytime connectivity.
• It’s the anything connectivity axes where the thing-to-thing or machine-to-machine interaction is
added to complete the existing person-to-person and person-to-machine interaction in the possible
connectivity framework.
History of IoT
By connecting these new objects will raise many questions such as
• The connecting technology of the object
• Interoperability between objects
• Communication model of these connected objects
• Possible interaction with the existing models(internet)
• Choice of the transport model
• The addressing, identifying and naming
• The security and privacy
Example: lighting replay application
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About Objects/Things in the IoT
• objects are classified based on their size and complexity their moveable aspect and whether they
are animate or inanimate as shown in the figure
About Objects/Things in the IoT
• In this terminology, classic devices such as PCs and Mobile phones are already connected objects
using wired or wireless communication.
• IoT will extend the connectivity and interworking of these currently existing objects with new
objects connected through radio sensing or identifying technologies such as sensor or RFID
networks, allowing the development of new services involving information from the environment.
• This information could be either a simple identifier as with RFID or captured information as with
sensors.
• Different technologies can be used to interconnect objects, consumer appliances are connected
through wired technology such as power line communication through the power line.
• There are two concerns to address in current home networking applications ie., objects are affected
more by interoperability problem.
• How to support the connectivity of heterogeneous objects.
The Identifier in the IoT
• In the IoT, objects are addressed via identifiers stored into tags and interrogated by networked
readers.
• The term identifier is similar to the term name. a name does not change with location and its
intended to be used to identify a thing, in contrast to an address which is intended to be used to
refer to the location of a thing.
• Any object can be assigned an identifier-a physical object, person, place or logical object.
Mechanism 1: tag identifier
Example in a museum an identifier on a tag attached to a painting could be used to find further
information on the painting and the artist.
Example in a grocery store an identifier on a food package could be used to check that the food is safe
to eat or not.
Other examples where identifier-triggered information access could be valuable are in:
medicine/pharmaceuticals, agriculture, libraries, the retail trade, the tourist trade, the tourist industry,
logistics an supply chain management.
Mechanism 2: EPC identifier, a standard identifier by ISO
Mechanism 3: ubiquitous ID center has defined a generic identifier called “ucode” which is not only
intended to identify physical objects but also extended to places and digital information.
Mechanism 4: IP(IPV4/IPV6) address can be used as identifier but IP addresses play two roles:
from network point of view, they act as a locator for routing and
from application point of view they identify hosts.
This dual role is seen to be problematic due to increasing demands for mobility of end-systems.
Solution is
Mechanism 5: Host Identity Protocol(HIP):HIP separates the identity of a host from its location.
The location of the host is bound to IP addresses and used for routing packets to the host in the same
way as in the current internet architecture.
Transport and application layers use host identity,
Each host is responsible for creating one or more public/private key pairs t o provide identities for
itself
Host identities are location independent identifiers.
A client host obtains the host identity of a server from the DNS.
SERVICE
SERVICE
SOCKET
SOCKET
END-POINT
END-POINT HOST IDENTITY
LOCATION IP ADDRESS
LOCATION IP ADDRESS
Mechanism 6:
EPC global ONS
Example: a product electronic identifier will call the webpage of the manufacturer and the history of
this products manufacturing and shipping information will be displayed.
Example:helping blind person in automatic reading a book tagged with an RFID where he or she can
put it on a reader connected to a computer as soon as the reader gets the identifier of the tagged
book, a webpage appears in the screen and starts reading the book.
Enabling Technologies of IoT
The main IoT enabling Technologies will be

• Electronic identification technology
such as RFID and Sensing and actuating technology such as sensors/actuators.
• Communication technologies
from object-to-object and from the network of objects to the existing network (wired and
wireless communication networks).
• Other technologies such as nanotechnology, smart technologies, robotics, location etc.
1. Identification technology:
The first identification technology is simple barcodes, that uniquely identify items which is used for
tracking the items.
Later barcodes are evolved into 2D barcodes in order to contain more information about the product
and more number of identifiers can be created with it.
Finally 2D barcodes are evolved into electronic bar code, where with the introduction of RFID we store
the identifier in the memory of the RFID tag.
RFID technology will identify, track the location and provide a specific IoT application to the object. It
mainly focus on answering the questions like “what(identify), which(what is the service) and
where(location)?”
Where the sensors answers the question “HOW?”
RFID systems consists of four main components:
• A transponder or a tag to carry data
• Microwave antenna or coil and a microchip data located on the object to be identified.
• An interrogator or reader, compared with tags, readers are larger more expensive and power-hungry
• Middleware, which forwards the data to another system, such as a database, a personal computer
etc.
Middleware
Tags can be classified into following types
The main difference between Active RFID tags and Passive RFID tags is
Passive RFID :passive tags have no internal power source, so it will wait for a signal from an RFID
reader. The reader sends energy to an antenna which converts that energy into an RF wave that is
sent into the read zone. Once the tag is read within the read zone, the RFID tag’s internal antenna
draws in energy from the RF waves. The energy moves from the tag’s antenna to the IC and powers
the chip which generates a signal back to the RF system. This is called backscatter. The backscatter, or
change in the electromagnetic or RF wave, is detected by the reader (via the antenna), which
interprets the information.
Active RFID:
Active RFID systems have three essential parts – a reader or interrogator, antenna, and a tag. Active
RFID tags possess their own power source – an internal battery that enables them to have extremely
long read ranges as well as large memory banks. Typically, active RFID tags are powered by a battery
that will last between 3 – 5 years, but when the battery fails, the active tag will need to be replaced.
essentially, two different types of active RFID tags are available – transponders and beacons.
• Transponders – In a system that uses an active transponder tag, the reader (like passive systems)
will send a signal first, and then the active transponder will send a signal back with the relevant
information. Transponder tags are very efficient because they conserve battery life when the tag is
out of range of the reader. Active RFID transponders are commonly used in secure access control
and in toll booth payment systems.
• Beacons – In a system that uses an active beacon tag, the tag will not wait to hear the reader’s
signal. Instead, true to its name, the tag will ‘beacon’, or send out its specific information every 3 – 5
seconds. Beacon tags are very common in the oil and gas industry, as well as mining and cargo
tracking applications.
the semi-passive tag does have a battery -- not for generating a response, but to power electronics
that are used in conjunction with off-board sensors such as a thermal sensor. The sensor reading is
incorporated into the tag return signal along with the tag serial number.
Different applications are possible with RFID technology
item tracking of products in retail chains
animal tracking
RFID communication system can cover long distances such as in an animal tracking application where
the reading distance is several kilometers.
Or
Near Field Communication is a short range wireless technology that enables easy and convenient
interaction between devices, NFC will use the RFID communication system but limit the reading range
to few centimeters.
Near Field Communication:
Near Field Communication is a way for your phone to interact with something in its close proximity.
it operates within a radius of about 4 cm and provides a wireless connection between your device and
another.
This allows a two-way communication between devices.
HOW NFC WORKS?
Put two NFC enabled phones in close proximity with each other and let the phones do the transfer.
NFC transmits or receives data via radio waves using NFC protocols.
Three modes of NFC
• READER/WRITER(FOR READING TAGS IN NFC POSTER)
• CARD EMULATION(FOR MAKING PAYMENTS)
• PEER-TO-PEER(FOR FILE TRANSFER)
GETTING STARTED WITH NFC
First enable NFC and android beam on your device and go to the file you wish to send, and tap the
devices together. You don’t even need to select any send via option.
Put the devices back-to-back and when it asks to confirm the transfer just hit “touch to beam”.
Applications of NFC:
Send a phone number-just navigate to the contact in your address book(it can be yours or somebody
else’s) then press the phone to the recipeints when your phone says “touch to beam” just tap the
display.
Send a picture,
Send a documents
Send directions
To launch an app on someone elses phone, if youre using an app or playing a game that is already
installed on someone else device you can launch it for them
Make payment,DOWNLOAD ANDROID PAY and add your credit or debit card details then use it in any
store that has a contactless payment terminal.
2. Sensing and actuating technology:
Sensor:
a sensor is an electronic device that detects, senses or measure physical stimuli from the real world
environment and converts signals from stimuli into analog or digital form. Some sensors also provide actuation
functionality, these are named sensors/actuators.
Sensors are classified according to the parameters they measure:

Mechanical sensor( position, force, pressure etc)
thermal sensor(temperature, heatflow)
electrostatic or magnetic fields
radiation intensity(electromagnetic, nuclear)
chemical(humidity, ion, gas concentration)
biological(toxicity, presence of biological organisms)
military-enemy tracking or battlefield surveillance.
Sensing and actuating technology:
The main technical constraints are
• Power, size, memory and storage capacity
• Trade off between power and size
• Interference, communication model
• The environment where the sensors are deployed(underwater, landfield, etc).
Many applications of sensors in different domains
• Exm: military environment, healthcare, construction, commercial applications, remote monitoring of
the temperature of products, home applications such as the smart home and so on.
Sensing and actuating technology:
Sensor classes:
Based on output:
analog sensors, analog output, temperature, speed, pressure, displacement, strain etc.
digital sensors, digital output, on or off signals
Based on data type:
scalar sensor , magnitude ex-temperature sensor
vector or multimedia sensors,direction and magnitude ex- camera sensor, sound,image,
• An actuator is a component of a machine or system that moves or controls the mechanism or the
system.
3. Other Technologies:
• Smart technologies, thinking and deciding technologies based on sensing and received information
building the autonomous communication.
• Process automation and robotics, executing the actuation and building the autonomous
communications
• Nanotechnology, the atom is the object, the smallest object in IoT
What is autonomous communication?

4. Connected objects communications:
Object to object communication:
Wireless based IoT services have become more popular since RFID and sensors have been able to
provide information through the radio interface.
Wired communication between objects will mainly be the power line communication since the home
electronic appliances considered to be objects will take advantage of the electrical communication to
also send information.
In object-to-object communication, the interoperability is very important and building the network of
objects with end-to-end communication is challenging.
Ex: RFID reader to RFID tags will use a point-to-point communication model where serial
communication is used at several kilobits per second and in some tech its up to megabit per second.
Sensor-to-sensor communication different wireless technologies are possible for instance Zeegbee is
one of the wireless technologies promoted for building wireless sensor networks.
In wired scenario, objects might communicate with other objects using PLC.
IP model COMMUNICATION IS POSSIBLE in the network of objects.
Object or network of objects to other networks:
New objects being connected to the network via technologies such as RFID, NFC, sensors to introduce
real world information into the network will be first connected to the gate way where interconnection
efforts will be made, and this gateway can be connected either by a wired or wireless mobile
communication system.
Other technologies to connect objects to the network are
smart cards for automatic payments, location technologies( real time location system, global
positioning system) barcodes etc.
Radio Frequency Identification Technology
• Introduction
• Principle of RFID
• Components of an RFID system
• Issues
Introduction:
RFID system consists of a tag attached to the object being identified. Tag usually consists of an
integrated circuit and an antenna.
Another important module in the system is a reader. The reader queries the tag using radio frequency
waves and gets the identity of the tag via the RF waves.
RFID system operates in various frequency bands. Some of the most popular frequencies are
125-134.2kHz(low frequency)
13.56MHz(high frequency)
860-915MHz(ultra high frequency) and
2.45GHz to 5.8GHz(Micro Wave Frequency)
Principle of RFID:
• Consider a coil made of copper wire through which alternating current is flowing.
• The coil offers impedance(OPPOSITION TO CURRENT FLOW) to the source. When alternating current
goes through an impedance, a voltage drop is produced.
• To increase the voltage capacitor is connected in parallel with the coil.
• Let us call this the primary coil.
Principle of RFID:
• Now we bring in another coil, called the secondary coil close to the first.
• Due to electromagnetic induction, voltage appears across the terminals of the secondary coil.
• The amplitude of the voltage depends on the size, shape, location and the orientation of the
secondary coil.
• If we connect a resistor(also known as load) across the terminals of the secondary coil, current flows
through it.
• The strength of the current flowing through the secondary coil depends on the load.
Principle of RFID:
• Current flowing in the secondary coil induces a voltage back into the primary coil.
• The induced voltage also known as back electromotive force that can be easily sensed by using
suitable electronics.
• By observing the voltage on the primary its possible to estimate what is connected to the secondary
coil.
Voltage V developed at the terminals of the primary coil versus the frequency of the excitation is
plotted below.as the frequency of the source increases the voltage also increases reaches a maximum
and then decreases.
Now if load resistance is changed the voltage at the primary corresponding to the resonant frequency
drops sharply.
From this we can conclude that its possible to change the voltage at the primary by changing the load
connected to secondary. This is known as load modulation.
Primary coil can be thought of as the reader of the RFID system
And secondary coil can be thought of as the transponder or tag.
The tag can convey any message back to reader by simply changing the load connected to its
terminals. This could be achieved by switching in a load to represent a logical state 1 and taking off the
load to represent a logical state 0.
The identity information is stored in a memory chip located on the tag. A processor reads this
information and modulates the load by operating a switch.
3.Components of an RFID system:
Important components are
• Reader
• Tag
• Server
• network
• Reader
a functional block schematic of an RFID reader is shown here
The Radio Frequency carrier is modulated according to the
Information to the tag.
The modulated carrier is amplified and radiated out of the antenna.
The reader also receives the electromagnetic waves backscattered
By the tag, amplifies the received signals and demodulates to
Extract the information.
An important component of the reader is the antenna.

the size of the antenna depends on the operating frequency,
• Reader
UHF RFID reader can be designed in 2 ways(whos antenna size is about 200-300mm)
With two antenna,(bistatic system) one antenna is used to transmit the RF signals and the other
antenna is used to receive the signal backscattered by the tag. And these 2 antennas will be placed
physically far apart to provide sufficient isolation between the transmitter and receiver.
With one antenna, (monostatic system),a single antenna transmits and receives the RF signals.
circulators are used to separate transmit and receive signals
• Reader
Circulator has three ports, port1-transmitter is connected, port-2 antenna is there and port3- receiver
is connected.
Signals from the transmitter flow from port 1 to port 2 and nothing goes into port 3.
Similarly the backscattered signal received by the antenna enters the circulator at port 2 and continues
to flow out of port 3.
• RFID tag
When a RFID tag is brought nearer to the reader, the tag induces back emf into the reader antenna
which can be sensed by the reader. This way reader knows the presence or absence of the tag. This is
called 1-bit tag.
Problem: with this tag is false triggering.
To avoid false triggering, a diode in the tag is introduced.
A diode is capable of generating harmonic frequencies. Consider a diode connected to an antenna,
when this tag is exposed to a radio frequency at 2.45 GHz, the diode generates a second harmonic at
4.9 GHz. This signal can easily be picked up by a receiver that is tuned to 4.9GHz.
Tag can be sophisticated by attaching IC to the terminals of an antenna. The antenna is placed in such
a way that maximum radio frequency power is delivered to the IC.
The IC consists of a detector stage that rectifies the incoming RF signal and the capacitor acts like a
filter removing the ripple from it.
• RFID tag
The rectified and filtered signal is used to power up the electronics, which respond to the query sent
by the reader by generating a bit stream.
This is used to modulate the load connected and change the backscattered signal from the antenna.
• RFID Middleware
• RFID Middleware
A typical RFID system can have large readers and tags and several application accessing these tags via
the readers.
Its necessary to perform some kind of pre-processing of data before the information is passed on to
the application.
Such tasks are performed by a software subsystem known as a middleware.
Middleware architecture will be comprised of three components.
• Device interface
• Core processing interface
• Application interface.
• RFID Middleware
• Device interface
It acts as an interface between core processing interface and RFID hardware. This is also known as
edgeware.
• It is responsible for directing data to the correct reader.
• This enables RFID system to discover, manage and control readers and tags.
• RFID Middleware
• Core Processing Interface
Its the decision-making component of the middleware.
The core processing interface gets the raw RFID data from the RFID hardware. And its responsible for
managing and manipulating the large amounts of raw RFID data before passing them on to the
application interface.
Processing of data includes removal of partial, erroneous, duplicate or redundant data.
Its also responsible for accepting business rules coming from the application into corresponding device
instructions and then passes them on to the device interface, which then passes these instructions to
the appropriate devices.
• RFID Middleware
• Application Interface
It acts as an interface between application and the core processing interface.
Application interface and core processing interface communicate using a uniform format. However the
application interface interacts with different kinds of applications and hence uses formats compatible
with each of the applications.
Therefore one of the important tasks of the application interface is to convert the data from
application specific format into a common format that is used by the core processing interface.
Core
Device Processin
Applicati RFID
RFID on
Interface g applicatio
hardware Interface
Interface n
3.Issues:
Problem:
There could be several tags trying to communicate with the reader and several readers trying to read
several tags at the same time. This results in a collision of data being transferred between the readers
and tags.
Algorithms to avoid collisions have been proposed.
Binary search algorithm is one of the most popular anti collision schemes used in RFID system.
Explanation:
Let us consider there are several tags in the vicinity of the reader and each of the tags has a unique
serial number, if the reader issues a command asking the tags to respond back with their serial
numbers all the tags receiving this command will respond back with their respective serial numbers,
causing collision.
Now the reader issues a request command with a parameter asking the tags whose serial number is
less than or equal to the parameter to respond.
Thus the reader is able to select a group of tags that would respond to the command.
3.Issues:
if there is no collision the reader gets the serial number of the only tag in the sub-group and selects
the tag by issuing the select command with its serial number as the parameter.
The reader can perform read and write operations on the selected tag.
If there is a collision, the reader issues another request command by lowering the value of the
parameter, thereby targeting a smaller group of tags to respond.
3.Issues:
Solution:
Listen-before-talk:
In this scheme reader always listens to the air space for any transmissions from other readers before
transmitting.
3.Issues:
Problem:
The behavior of a tag stuck on a dielectric sheet such as wooden board depends on the permittivity of
the material, thickness of the material and the location of the tag itself.
Consider a tag attached to a wooden board and placed at a distance of about a meter from the reader
antennas.
The transmission power of the reader is increased in steps of 0.1dB and an attempt is made to read
the tag.
The lowest transmission power at which a tag is read, which is known as the threshold power, is
recorded. Threshold power is the smallest transmission power required to detect the tag.
3.Issues:
There are two parameters that could measure the performance of a tag…
• threshold power
Higher threshold power indicates degradation in the system performance.
• Read range
Read range is the longest possible distance at which a tag can be read with all other parameters field
constant. Lower threshold power corresponds to a longer read range.
3.Issues:
Example:
Consider a tag placed above a wooden board, the reader antennas are placed at a height of about 1m
from the surface of the board.
The measurements are carried out inside a shielded RF anechoic chamber so that the interference
from external signals and reflection from structural members are minimized.
Measured threshold power as a function of board thickness is shown below
3.Issues:
Example:
The wooden board is 17mm thick. Zero thickness indicates that the measurement is carried out
without any board.
As the board thickness increases the threshold power increases and reaches a maximum when
d=51mm indicating degradation in the performance of the tag. Further increase in the thickness
results in improvement in the tag performance.
A similar experiment has been conducted with the tag placed below the board. In this configuration
the tag is detected with the transmission power set to 15.7 dBm, the lowest transmission power that
the reader can be set to. This is indicated by the flat line in fig.
When the tag is placed below the board, the wooden board blocks the line of sight between the
reader and the tag. Inspite of a blocked line of sight path, the tag has increased performance.
(below wooden board as the threshold power increases absorption of energy increases so the
performance of the tag is consistently maintained)
Other issues are privacy and security of information stored on the tag.

Unit-1 IoT

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Internet of Things

END-POINT HOST IDENTITY

The main IoT enabling Technologies will be

Sensors are classified according to the parameters they measure:

What is autonomous communication?

An important component of the reader is the antenna.

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