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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

DATA GATHERING
• What is Data ?
Data is a numerical expression of an activity.

Conclusions based on facts and data are necessary for


any improvement.
-K. Ishikawa

If you are not able to express a phenomenon in


numbers, you do not know about it adequately.
-Lord Kelvin
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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

TYPES OF DATA

CONTINUOUS DISCRETE
Measurable Subjective Assessment
e.g. :Length, Temperature e.g. :Score in a beauty
contest
Countable
e.g. :Number of defects

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN


THE NUMBER OF SHAFTS
A SHAFT DIAMETER
REJECTED FOR OVERSIZE
DIAMETER
The diameter of a shaft The number of shaft rejected
can take any value ever has necessarily to be a whole
after the decimal point number. e.g.. 0, 2, 7, 10
e.g.. 19.055, 19.0516 etc.. numbers rejected etc..

Data related to this type Data related to this type of


of parameters are called parameters are called Discrete
Continuous data. data.

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM
WHICH OF THE BELOW ARE CONTINUOUS
AND DISCRETE DATA?
• Width of sheet
• No. of liners thinned
• Tubes rejected by Go- Nogo Gauge
• Diameter of Piston
• Height of a Man
• Sheet thickness
• Out of 100 sheets the numbers that meet the thickness 4  0.9
• Time taken to process a purchase order
• No. of bugs in a program

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

OBJECTIVES OF DATA COLLECTION


• To know and quantify the status
• To monitor the process
• To decide acceptance or rejection
• To analyse and decide the course of action

HOW TO COLLECT DATA ?


• Define the purpose
• Decide the type of analysis
• Define the period of data collection
• Is the the required data already available ?

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

LOCATION CHECK SHEET

Hood Paint Defects


Name: ____
Date: ____
Model: ____
DD D
S

XXX
B X
X = Dirt
D = Dent
S = Scratch
B = Bubble
No. inspected: _____

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

STRATIFICATION
• The method of grouping data by common points or
characteristics to better understand similarities and
characteristics of data is called stratification.
• Such classification helps in obtaining vital
information by distinguishing and comparing data
in different class or strata.
• It also identifies the key strata to concentrate on.

• The stratification may be based on machines,


operators, shifts or any other source of variation.

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

STRATIFICATION
• The purpose of stratification is to ascertain the
difference between different categories and to
analyze the reasons behind abnormal distribution.

• Stratification of data is an effective method for


isolating the cause of a problem.

• You can also stratify the data you collect by


different QC tools such as graphs, Pareto diagrams,
check sheets, histograms, scatter diagrams, and
control charts.

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

STRATIFICATION-AREA OF APPLICATION
• Raw Material
Quantity supplied, Delivery time, Rejection % -
supplier wise and batch wise.

• Production
Rejection percentage with respect to machine,
shift, operator, raw material, tool, jig and so on.

• Engineering and design


Draftsman wise drawing errors, Type of drawing
wise.

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

POPULATION AND SAMPLE


• The entire set of items is called the Population.

• The small number of items taken from the population to


make a judgment of the population is called a Sample.
• The numbers of samples taken to make this judgment is
called Sample size.

POPULATION SAMPLE OF SIZE


THREE

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

POPULATION, SAMPLE AND DATA

NO ACTION

Measurement /
Random Sampling Observation
POPULATION Sample Data

ACTION

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ISI, SQC UNIT, BANGALORE SS-MEASURE PHASE
ISI, SQC UNIT, BANGALORE SS-MEASURE PHASE

Data Collection Plan Features


ISI, SQC UNIT, BANGALORE SS-MEASURE PHASE

Data Collection Plan Features, cont.


SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

SAMPLE SIZE RULES OF THUMB


Statistic or Recommended Minimum
Chart Sample Size (n)

Frequency plot 50
(Histogram)

Pareto chart 50

Scatter plot 24

Control chart 24

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

WHAT IS VARIATION ?
• No two things in nature are alike.
• This is also true for manufactured products.
• This dissimilarity between two products for the
same characteristic is called variation.
• The variation may be or can be made to be so
small so as to make the product SEEM similar.
• When we say that 2 things are similar we actually mean
that it is not possible to measure the variation present
within the accuracy of the existing measuring equipment.
• Variation between 2 products are compared for SIMILAR
features or characteristics.

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

TYPES OF VARIATION

• Variations among pieces at the same


time
• Variations across time

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

6.50 6.55 7.00

6.55 a.m.  5 minutes.


This man wants to reach his work place by 6.55 a.m.. But he can
not do so, exactly at 6.55 a.m. daily. Sometimes he reaches earlier
(but almost never before 6.50 a.m.). Sometimes he reaches later
(but almost never after 7.00 a.m.). WHY ?

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

THIS IS BECAUSE....
OF CERTAIN FACTORS WHICH
• Affect the time he takes
• He cannot control
• Vary randomly
e.g. The traffic you encounter under normal course of travel

THE VARIATION THAT OCCURS DUE TO THESE


KIND OF FACTORS IS CALLED INHERENT
VARIATION OR COMMON CAUSE VARIATION
OR WHITE NOISE.
e.g.. m/c vibration,tool wear etc.

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

UNDER NORMAL SCHEME OF


OPERATION

Maximum deviation
Inherent
Aimed value Variability
(white noise)
Minimum deviation

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

TODAY HE IS EARLY ! PROBABLY BECAUSE :


• His watch was running fast.
WHY ? • He got a lift.
• His bus driver took a shortcut.
• He stayed over in the colony.
• He had some important work to
be finished before 7.30.
These causes are characteristic of
6.30 a specific circumstance and do
not occur in the normal scheme
of actions.

Variation due to these types of


reasons is called assignable or
special cause variation or black
noise
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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

GRAPHICAL DISPLAY OF
VARIABILITIES
CASE I T
O
Assignable (Black noise) Assignable T
Variability Variability A
L
Inherent
Variability Aimed Value V
A
R
I
A
Assignable Assignable B
Variability I
Variability L
I
CASE II CASE III T
Y

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

COMMON PROBLEMS WITH MEASUREMENTS


•Problems with the measurements themselves
1. Bias or inaccuracy: The measurements have a different
average value than a “standard” method.
2. Imprecision: Repeated readings on the same material vary
too much in relation to current process variation.
3. Not reproducible: The measurement process is different
for different operators, or measuring devices or labs. This
may be either a difference in bias or precision.
4. Unstable measurement system over time: Either the
bias or the precision changes over time.
5. Lack of resolution: The measurement process cannot
measure to precise enough units to capture current product
variation.
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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

DESIRED MEASUREMENT CHARACTERISTICS


FOR CONTINUOUS VARIABLES
Good
accuracy if
difference is 1. Accuracy
small
The measured value has little
deviation from the actual value.
Standard
value
Observed
value
Accuracy is usually tested by
comparing an average of repeated
measurements to a known standard
value for that unit.

Good
repeatability
2. Repeatability
if variation is
small * The same person taking a
measurement on the same unit gets
the same result.
Data from repeated
measurement of
same item

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

DESIRED MEASUREMENT CHARACTERISTICS


FOR CONTINUOUS VARIABLES
3. Reproducibility
Data Collector 1
Other people (or other
Data from Part X
instruments or labs) get
the same result you get
Data Collector 2
when measuring the
Data from Part X
same item or
Good
reproducibility if
characteristic.
difference is small *

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

DESIRED MEASUREMENT CHARACTERISTICS


FOR CONTINUOUS VARIABLES

Time 1 4. Stability
Observed Measurements taken by a
value
single person in the same
Time 2 way vary little over time.
Observed
value

Good stability
if difference is
Small*

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

DESIRED MEASUREMENT CHARACTERISTICS


FOR CONTINUOUS VARIABLES

5. Adequate Resolution
There is enough resolution in the
X measurement device so that the
X product can have many different
X X values.
X X X
X X X X
X X X X X
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

MINITAB OUTPUT
Gage name:
Date of study:
Gage R&R (ANOVA) for legibility s Reported by:
Tolerance:
Misc:

Xbar Chart by reader reader*form Interaction


Fred J oe Martha 5 reader
5 3.0SL=4.824 Fred
Sample M ean

4 4 Joe

Averag e
X=3.531 Martha
3 3
2 -3.0SL=2.238
2
1 1
0 form 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

R Chart by reader By reader


Fred J oe Martha
3.0SL=2.246 5
2
Sample Rang e

1 3
R=0.6875
2
0 -3.0SL=0.000 1
0 reader Fred Joe Martha

Components of Variation By form


100 5
%Total Var
%Study Var 4
Percent

50 3

0 1
Gage R&R Repeat Reprod Part-to-Part form 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM
MINITAB OUTPUT
Gage R&R
Source %Contribution %Study Var

Total Gage R&R 37.39 61.15


Repeatability 28.64 53.51
Reproducibility 8.75 29.59
reader 8.75 29.59
Part-To-Part 62.61 79.13
Total Variation 100.00 100.00

Number of Distinct Categories = 2

Acceptance criteria for MSA


1. Gage R & R < 10% Excellent

2. Gage R & R 10% to 30% Acceptable

3. Gage R & R > 30% Not acceptable

In addition: No. of Distinct categories  4

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM
Interpretation of MSA Results
Repeatability error shall be low.
If it is high, then,
a. Instrument is improper
b. Method of measurement is not OK
c. System improvement is required

Reproducibility error shall be low.


If it is high, then,
a. Train the operator
b. Method of measurement is not OK
c. Inspector skill not OK
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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM
Interpretation of MSA Results
Part to Part variation shall be High.
If it is low, then,
a. Instrument is improper
b. Method of measurement is not OK

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

HISTOGRAMS: VARIATION FOR A PERIOD OF TIME

DEFINITION A Histogram shows the shape, or


distribution, of the data by displaying how
often different values occur.
EXAMPLE “Number of Days for Approval”
Number of Occurrences

40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of Days for Approval

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

WHAT
WHAT IS
IS THE
THE MEASURE
MEASURE
OF
OF CENTRAL
CENTRAL TENDENCY
TENDENCY OF
OF A
A SET
SET OF
OF
NUMBERS?
NUMBERS?

• There are three ways in which Central


Tendency of Numbers can be measured.
• These are the 3 M’s
MEAN
MEDIAN
MODE

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

MEASURES
MEASURES OF
OF DISPERSION
DISPERSION
 The extent of the spread of the values from the
mean value is called Dispersion.

 The measures of Dispersions are


– Range (R)
– Standard Deviation (s)
– Variance (s2)
– Co-efficient of Variation (CV)

 Standard deviation is the most


commonly used measure of dispersion.
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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

THE NORMAL CURVE

Smooth curve
Center of the bar interconnecting the
center of each bar

 Units of
Measure

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
• If the frequency distribution of a set of values is
such that :

– 68.26% of the values line within ±1s from the mean


AND
– 95.46% of the values line within ±2s from the mean
AND
– 99.73% of the values line within ±3s from the mean

Then the distribution is normal.


NORMAL DISTRIBUTION IS
CHARACTERISED BY A BELL SHAPED CURVE.

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM
Is the process free of special cause variation?

On the
On the shop
shop floor
floorthisthis isis aa control
control chart…
chart…
In reality
In reality itit isis aa process
process behavior
behaviorchart.
chart.
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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

A Process is Sending a Signal if...

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

THE INDIVIDUAL X CHART


When to Use:
In situations where opportunities to get data are limited, such as low
production volume or testing.
When sampling sizes greater than 1 simply do not apply, such as
accounting measures (overtime forecasting), sampling from
homogeneous batches (contaminants in a clean room); or when
samples have very small short-term variations (sheet metal
stamping).
How: By plotting each individual measurement on an Individual
X (IX) chart
Conditions:
• Sample size of one.
• Assumes normal distribution.

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

PLOT POINT CALCULATION STEPS FOR


IX CHART
Sample IX
1 4.25
2 4.78
3 3.95
4 3.86
5 3.72
6 5.17
7 5.07
8 4.65
9 4.70
10 4.35

IX Plot Points

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

THE INDIVIDUAL X CHART

IX Chart for Concentration


6

UCL=5.620

5
Concentration

Mean=4.45

LCL=3.280
3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Observation Number

Conclusion: The process is in Statistical Control


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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

PARETO DIAGRAM
• The Pareto Principle is generally used to prioritize
quality improvement projects to get most returns for the
resources invested.

• It is one of the most powerful tools and is widely used as


means of attacking bulk of the problems with the
optimal utilization of resources.

• The basic principle of Pareto is “Around 80% of


overall effect is contributed by 20% of causes & vice
versa”

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

PARETO CHART BY EFFECT

• To find out what the major problem is viz...

 Quality Defects, Faults , Failures, Complaints,


Repairs, Returned items etc.

 Cost Amount of loss, Expenses

 Delivery Stock, Shortages, Delay in delivery,


Default in payment.

 Safety Accidents, Breakdowns, mistakes.

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

PARETO CHART BY CAUSE


• To find out what the major problem is Viz.

 Operator Shift, Group,


Experience, Skill.
 Machine Machines, Equipment,
Tools
 Raw material Manufacturer, Lot
 Operational method Conditions, Order,
Method

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

HOW TO PREPARE A PARETO DIAGRAM


 Decide which item to be studied.
 Stratify the problem according to sources (by
defects, by supplier etc.) and tabulate the
corresponding data.
 Preferably data should be expressed in monetary
terms rather than quantity or percentage.
 Arrange the stratified items in descending order of
value and draw a bar diagram.
 Draw a curve showing the cumulative % above the
bar chart starting from the greatest value.
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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

USES OF PARETO DIAGRAM

 Find out the most important item/defect.


 Ratio of each item to the whole.
 Degree of improvement after remedial action in
some limited area.
 Improvement in each item/defect compared before
and after correction.

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

Pareto Diagram for Machine Stoppages (M/C No.14)

100
2000
80

Percent
60
Count

1000
40

20

0 0

Defect
Count 1115 430 145 140 120 120 115
Percent 51.0 19.7 6.6 6.4 5.5 5.5 5.3
Cum % 51.0 70.7 77.3 83.8 89.2 94.7 100.0

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

PARETO ANALYSIS OF
PASSENGER COMPLAINTS AT AN AIRPORT
97 100
100
140 87
90
120 70
80
100 70
No. of complaints

Cum. percentage
50
60
80 50
60 40
26
40 30
20
20 10
0 0
Flight Baggage Service Refund Fares others
Problems

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

PARETO ANALYSIS OF COMPLAINTS AT A LAUNDRY

200 93 98 100 100


180 85 90

160 75 80
140 70
60
No. of complaints

120 60
100 50

80 35 40
60 30
40 20

20 10
0 0
Late Missing or Fading Stains Creased Buttons Stretched
delivery wrong colours Missing or torn
items

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

PARETO
PARETO DIAGRAM
DIAGRAM FROM
FROM MINITAB
MINITAB
 Open MINITAB Worksheet.

 Put your data (no. of defects) in one column and the


nomenclature in the other column.
 Choose STAT > QUALITY TOOLS > PARETO
CHART
 Choose Chart Defects Table. In labels in: enter the
nomenclature column and in frequencies in: enter the
no. of defects column.
 Enter the required Title.
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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

IMPORTANT SPC RATIOS USED


LSL x USL

-3s
- 3s +3s
+3

Maximum allowable range of characteristic


Cp 
Normal variation of process
Tolerance USL - LSL
 
6s 6s
This compares the requirement of the process output vis-a-vis the
inherent variability of the process. Higher value than 1 implies that the
process has got the capability to give the product within the set limits.

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

PROCESS POTENTIAL INDEX (Cp)


The numerator is
controlled by Design
Engineering
Maximum Allowable Range of Characteristic
Cp =
Normal Variation of Process

The denominator is controlled by


Process Engineering

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

USL - X
Cpu 
3s
This gives us the positioning of the mean vis-a-vis the
USL and the relationship between the two.
X  LSL
Cpl 
3s
This gives us the positioning of the mean vis-a-vis the
LSL and the relationship between the two.
Cpk - Process Performance Index. This is important

Cpk = Minimum of (Cpu and Cpl) ; for bilateral tolerances


+Y
= C pu ;for unilateral tolerance on upper side i.e..
X -O

+O
= Cpl ;for unilateral tolerance on lower side i.e..
X -Y

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

These ratios help you in:

 Predicting whether rejections will take place on the


higher side or on the lower side.

 Taking centering decisions.

 Deciding whether to consider broadening of


tolerances

 Taking Decisions on whether to go in for new m/cs.

 Deciding on the level of inspection required .

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

LSL USL
SOME
SOME TYPES
TYPES LSL USL

Failure likely on higher side Failure likely on lower side

CENTERING RELATED PROBLEMS TOLERANCE OR NEW


MACHINE DECISION
LSL USL LSL USL

LSL USL
LSL USL LSL USL

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

A FEW TERMINOLOGIES
• Defect : Any non-conformity in a product or service
– e.g. Late delivery or no. of tubes rejected
• Units : The nos. checked or inspected
– 100 deliveries were monitored for being late, no. of units
are 100
– 1000 tubes were checked for oversize dia., no. of units
are 1000
• Opportunity : Anything that you measure or check for.
– Finished refrigerator is checked for 25 defects at final
inspection, the no. of opportunities is 25

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

WHAT IS A DEFECT?
 A defect is any variation of a required
characteristic of the product (or its parts) or
services which is far enough from its target value
to prevent the product from fulfilling the physical
and functional requirements of the customer, as
viewed through the eyes of your customer.

 A defect is also anything that causes the processor


or the customer to make adjustments.

 ANYTHING THAT DISSATISIFIES YOUR


CUSTOMER
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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

DEFINING AN UNIT
An 'unit' may be as diverse as
a:
 Piece of equipment
 Line of software
 Order
 Technical manual
 Medical claim
 Wire transfer
 Hour of labour
 Billable dollar
 Customer contact
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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

THE CONCEPT OF OPPORTUNITY


• Every possibility of making an error is called an opportunity
• The total opportunities available for an error to take place are
Nos.Chkd. x Opp
• If there are more than 1 opp. The sigma can be calculated by finding
DPMO.
• Knowing DPMO we refer to the Normal Dist. Table to get the Sigma
value
• One could inflate the opp. and hence get an enhanced Sigma But the
opp.are limited to what exactly is checked for.
E.g. a sheet is checked for thickness, length & width and can be rejected
for either.Hence the opp. is 3

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

 No. of opportunities = No. of points checked

 If you don’t check some points then it becomes a


passive opportunity. We should take only active
opportunities into our calculation of d.p.o., and
Sigma level.

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

TOTAL OPPORTUNITY (TOP)

TOP
TOP ==NO.
NO.OF
OFUNITS
UNITSCHECKED
CHECKEDxx
NO.
NO.OF
OFOPPORTUNITIES
OPPORTUNITIESOF
OFFALIURE
FALIURE

e.g. If in final inspection 100 refrigerators, each having


25 opportunities are checked

TOP = 25 x 100 =2500

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

DEFECTS PER OPPORTUNITY (DPO)

DPO = DEFECTS
TOP

e.g. If in the above e.g. there were found 25 defects

DPO = 25 = 0.01
2500

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

DEFECTS PER UNIT (DPU)

DPU = NO. OF DEFECTS


NO. OF UNITS CHECKED

e.g. In the above example DPU = 25 = 0.25

100

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

DPMO
DPMO = NO. OF DEFECTS x 106
NO. OF UNITS x OPP.

e.g. In the above example DPMO = 25 x 106 = 10000

100 x 25

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

HOW WOULD YOU ESTABLISH THE SIGMA FOR THE BELOW


CATEGORY DEFECTS UNITS OPP TOP DPU DPMO
TYPE1 10 1000 2
TYPE2 02 1500 1
TYPE3 22 1300 5
TYPE4 25 2500 3
TYPE5 16 3000 2
COMPOSITE ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ??

DPMO== 
DPMO DEFECTS
DEFECTS xx 10
6
106
 TOPTOP

 Units x Opp.) Should not be taken in the denominator as in


the normal case
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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

ATTRIBUTE DATA

Step 1: Examine a sample of size ‘n’ units


Step 2: Count the number of defectives/defects as per defect
definition
Step 3: Calculate
DPU or DPO = No. of Defectives (or defects) / Total no. of
Units (or total no. of opportunities)
Preferred no. of opportunities= 1
Step 4: DPMU or DPMO = DPU ( or DPO) x 106 in ppm.
Step 5: Refer the ppm to Sigma rating conversion table
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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

EXAMPLE

 We checked 500 Purchase Orders (PO) and PO had 10


defects then,
d.p.u. = d/u = 10/500 = 0.02

 In a P.O. we check for the following:


a) Supplier address/approval
b) Quantity as per the indent
c) Specifications as per the indent
d) Delivery requirements
e) Commercial requirements

 Then there are 5 opportunities for the defects to occur.


Then, The total no. of opportunities = m u = 5x500 = 2500
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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

EXAMPLE

 Defects per opportunity, d.p.o. = d/(m u) = 10/2500 = 0.004

 If expressed in terms of d.p.m.o. (defects per million


opportunities) it becomes
d.p.m.o . = d.p.o. x 106 = 4000 PPM

 Refer Sigma conversion table and read the value of


Sigma Rating

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SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

EXERCISE
• For a 100% inspection process, 10000 units are produced.
Each can be rejected for 8 different reasons. 100 were
rejected. What is the DPU, TOP, DPMO & DPO.

• For the above the next day 20 units were rejected such that
2 units had 3 defects & 1 unit had 2 defects rest all had 1
defect. Find the DPU,TOP, DPMO & hence DPO.

• 20000 Items are supplied by a vendor. 5% of these are to


be checked as per the sampling plan for 5 characteristics.
100 defects were found. Find the Sigma rating of the
process.

69
SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

CONTINUOUS DATA
Step 1: Ensure Gauge R&R (if the CTQ is measured using an
instrument) < 30%. Otherwise improve measurement
system
Step 2: Collect the data (Minimum of 50 readings) on the
CTQ’s as per the data collection plan.
Step 3: Check for trend or special cause using individual
control chart
Step 4: Plot Histogram (Follow MINITAB steps. GO TO: Stat
> Basic Statistics > Display Descriptive Statistics >Enter
Variables > ‘Click’ Graphs > ‘Tick’ Graphical
Summary>OK>OK
70
SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

CONTINUOUS DATA
Step 5: Read mean & standard deviation and interpret the
data as coming from Normal distribution if p > 0.05,
otherwise treat the data as non-normal.
Step 6: Do the process capability analysis as follows.
1. Stat > Quality Tools > Capability Analysis (Normal) > Enter Variable >
Sample Size = 1 > Enter Specification Limits ( L/ U/ or both) > Go to
Options>Remove the tick from Within subgroup analysis>OK>Stamp
> Use Variable (if the date/ Time/ Batch no. to be incorporated) > OK >
OK
2. Read Expected performance in PPM if the data is normal
3. Read Observed performance if the data is non-normal.
4. In either case go to PPM – Sigma conversion table and find the Sigma
rating.
71
SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM
EXAMPLE (Normal)
Process Capability Analysis for Dia.

LSL USL
Process Data
USL 5.20000
Within
Target *
LSL 4.80000 Overall
Mean 4.96330
Sample N 50
StDev (Within) 1.06439
StDev (Overall) 1.04820

2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Cpm *

Overall Capability Observed Perf ormance Exp. "Overall" Perf ormance


Pp 0.06 PPM < LSL 380000.00 PPM < LSL 438099.50
PPU 0.08 PPM > USL 400000.00 PPM > USL 410672.19
PPL 0.05 PPM Total 780000.00 PPM Total 848771.69
Ppk 0.05

PPM = 848771.67 Sigma Level = 0.47

72
SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM
EXAMPLE (Non-Normal)

Process Capability Analysis for Data

LSL
USL
Process Data
USL 4.10000
Target *
LSL 2.90000
Mean 3.92903
Sample N 50
StDev (Overall) 4.52914

Overall Capability
Pp 0.04
PPU 0.01
PPL 0.08
Ppk 0.01

-10 0 10 20 30
Cpm *

Observed Perf ormance Expected Performance


PPM < LSL 480000.00 PPM < LSL 410133.41
PPM > USL 280000.00 PPM > USL 484943.80
PPM Total 760000.00 PPM Total 895077.22

PPM = 760000 Sigma Level = 0.80

73
SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

Sigma and DPMO conversion table


Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO
0.01 931888 0.26 892512 0.51 838913 0.76 770350 1.01 687933 1.26 594835 1.51 496011 1.76 397432
0.02 930563 0.27 890651 0.52 836457 0.77 767305 1.02 684386 1.27 590954 1.52 492022 1.77 393580
0.03 929219 0.28 888767 0.53 833977 0.78 764238 1.03 680822 1.28 587064 1.53 488033 1.78 389739
0.04 927855 0.29 886860 0.54 831472 0.79 761148 1.04 677242 1.29 583166 1.54 484047 1.79 385908
0.05 926471 0.30 884930 0.55 828944 0.80 758036 1.05 673645 1.30 579260 1.55 480061 1.80 382089
0.06 925066 0.31 882977 0.56 826391 0.81 754903 1.06 670031 1.31 575345 1.56 476078 1.81 378281
0.07 923641 0.32 881000 0.57 823814 0.82 751748 1.07 666402 1.32 571424 1.57 472097 1.82 374484
0.08 922196 0.33 878999 0.58 821214 0.83 748571 1.08 662757 1.33 567495 1.58 468119 1.83 370700
0.09 920730 0.34 876976 0.59 818589 0.84 745373 1.09 659097 1.34 563559 1.59 464144 1.84 366928
0.10 919243 0.35 874928 0.60 815940 0.85 742154 1.10 655422 1.35 559618 1.60 460172 1.85 363169
0.11 917736 0.36 872857 0.61 813267 0.86 738914 1.11 651732 1.36 555670 1.61 456205 1.86 359424
0.12 916207 0.37 870762 0.62 810570 0.87 735653 1.12 648027 1.37 551717 1.62 452242 1.87 355691
0.13 914656 0.38 868643 0.63 807850 0.88 732371 1.13 644309 1.38 547758 1.63 448283 1.88 351973
0.14 913085 0.39 866500 0.64 805106 0.89 729069 1.14 640576 1.39 543795 1.64 444330 1.89 348268
0.15 911492 0.40 864334 0.65 802338 0.90 725747 1.15 636831 1.40 539828 1.65 440382 1.90 344578
0.16 909877 0.41 862143 0.66 799546 0.91 722405 1.16 633072 1.41 535856 1.66 436441 1.91 340903
0.17 908241 0.42 859929 0.67 796731 0.92 719043 1.17 629300 1.42 531881 1.67 432505 1.92 337243
0.18 906582 0.43 857690 0.68 793892 0.93 715661 1.18 625516 1.43 527903 1.68 428576 1.93 333598
0.19 904902 0.44 855428 0.69 791030 0.94 712260 1.19 621719 1.44 523922 1.69 424655 1.94 329969
0.20 903199 0.45 853141 0.70 788145 0.95 708840 1.20 617911 1.45 519939 1.70 420740 1.95 326355
0.21 901475 0.46 850830 0.71 785236 0.96 705402 1.21 614092 1.46 515953 1.71 416834 1.96 322758
0.22 899727 0.47 848495 0.72 782305 0.97 701944 1.22 610261 1.47 511967 1.72 412936 1.97 319178
0.23 897958 0.48 846136 0.73 779350 0.98 698468 1.23 606420 1.48 507978 1.73 409046 1.98 315614
0.24 896165 0.49 843752 0.74 776373 0.99 694974 1.24 602568 1.49 503989 1.74 405165 1.99 312067
0.25 894350 0.50 841345 0.75 773373 1.00 691462 1.25 598706 1.50 500000 1.75 401294 2.00 308538

74
SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

Sigma and DPMO conversion table


Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO
2.01 305026 2.26 223627 2.51 156248 2.76 103835 3.01 65522 3.26 39204 3.51 22216 3.76 11911
2.02 301532 2.27 220650 2.52 153864 2.77 102042 3.02 64256 3.27 38364 3.52 21692 3.77 11604
2.03 298056 2.28 217695 2.53 151505 2.78 100273 3.03 63008 3.28 37538 3.53 21178 3.78 11304
2.04 294598 2.29 214764 2.54 149170 2.79 98525 3.04 61780 3.29 36727 3.54 20675 3.79 11011
2.05 291160 2.30 211855 2.55 146859 2.80 96801 3.05 60571 3.30 35930 3.55 20182 3.80 10724
2.06 287740 2.31 208970 2.56 144572 2.81 95098 3.06 59380 3.31 35148 3.56 19699 3.81 10444
2.07 284339 2.32 206108 2.57 142310 2.82 93418 3.07 58208 3.32 34379 3.57 19226 3.82 10170
2.08 280957 2.33 203269 2.58 140071 2.83 91759 3.08 57053 3.33 33625 3.58 18763 3.83 9903
2.09 277595 2.34 200454 2.59 137857 2.84 90123 3.09 55917 3.34 32884 3.59 18309 3.84 9642
2.10 274253 2.35 197662 2.60 135666 2.85 88508 3.10 54799 3.35 32157 3.60 17864 3.85 9387
2.11 270931 2.36 194894 2.61 133500 2.86 86915 3.11 53699 3.36 31443 3.61 17429 3.86 9137
2.12 267629 2.37 192150 2.62 131357 2.87 85344 3.12 52616 3.37 30742 3.62 17003 3.87 8894
2.13 264347 2.38 189430 2.63 129238 2.88 83793 3.13 51551 3.38 30054 3.63 16586 3.88 8656
2.14 261086 2.39 186733 2.64 127143 2.89 82264 3.14 50503 3.39 29379 3.64 16177 3.89 8424
2.15 257846 2.40 184060 2.65 125072 2.90 80757 3.15 49471 3.40 28716 3.65 15778 3.90 8198
2.16 254627 2.41 181411 2.66 123024 2.91 79270 3.16 48457 3.41 28067 3.66 15386 3.91 7976
2.17 251429 2.42 178786 2.67 121001 2.92 77804 3.17 47460 3.42 27429 3.67 15003 3.92 7760
2.18 248252 2.43 176186 2.68 119000 2.93 76359 3.18 46479 3.43 26803 3.68 14629 3.93 7549
2.19 245097 2.44 173609 2.69 117023 2.94 74934 3.19 45514 3.44 26190 3.69 14262 3.94 7344
2.20 241964 2.45 171056 2.70 115070 2.95 73529 3.20 44565 3.45 25588 3.70 13903 3.95 7143
2.21 238852 2.46 168528 2.71 113140 2.96 72145 3.21 43633 3.46 24998 3.71 13553 3.96 6947
2.22 235762 2.47 166023 2.72 111233 2.97 70781 3.22 42716 3.47 24419 3.72 13209 3.97 6756
2.23 232695 2.48 163543 2.73 109349 2.98 69437 3.23 41815 3.48 23852 3.73 12874 3.98 6569
2.24 229650 2.49 161087 2.74 107488 2.99 68112 3.24 40929 3.49 23295 3.74 12545 3.99 6387
2.25 226627 2.50 158655 2.75 105650 3.00 66807 3.25 40059 3.50 22750 3.75 12224 4.00 6210

75
SQC UNIT BANGALORE, GREEN BELT PROGRAM

Sigma and DPMO conversion table


Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO Sigma DPMO
4.01 6037 4.26 2890 4.51 1306 4.76 557 5.01 224 5.26 85 5.51 30.4 5.76 10.2
4.02 5868 4.27 2803 4.52 1264 4.77 538 5.02 216 5.27 82 5.52 29.1 5.77 9.8
4.03 5703 4.28 2718 4.53 1223 4.78 519 5.03 208 5.28 78 5.53 27.9 5.78 9.4
4.04 5543 4.29 2635 4.54 1183 4.79 501 5.04 200 5.29 75 5.54 26.7 5.79 8.9
4.05 5386 4.30 2555 4.55 1144 4.80 483 5.05 193 5.30 72 5.55 25.6 5.80 8.5
4.06 5234 4.31 2477 4.56 1107 4.81 467 5.06 185 5.31 70 5.56 24.5 5.81 8.2
4.07 5085 4.32 2401 4.57 1070 4.82 450 5.07 179 5.32 67 5.57 23.5 5.82 7.8
4.08 4940 4.33 2327 4.58 1035 4.83 434 5.08 172 5.33 64 5.58 22.5 5.83 7.5
4.09 4799 4.34 2256 4.59 1001 4.84 419 5.09 165 5.34 62 5.59 21.6 5.84 7.1
4.10 4661 4.35 2186 4.60 968 4.85 404 5.10 159 5.35 59 5.60 20.7 5.85 6.8
4.11 4527 4.36 2118 4.61 936 4.86 390 5.11 153 5.36 57 5.61 19.8 5.86 6.5
4.12 4397 4.37 2052 4.62 904 4.87 376 5.12 147 5.37 54 5.62 19.0 5.87 6.2
4.13 4269 4.38 1988 4.63 874 4.88 362 5.13 142 5.38 52 5.63 18.1 5.88 5.9
4.14 4145 4.39 1926 4.64 845 4.89 350 5.14 136 5.39 50 5.64 17.4 5.89 5.7
4.15 4025 4.40 1866 4.65 816 4.90 337 5.15 131 5.40 48 5.65 16.6 5.90 5.4
4.16 3907 4.41 1807 4.66 789 4.91 325 5.16 126 5.41 46 5.66 15.9 5.91 5.2
4.17 3793 4.42 1750 4.67 762 4.92 313 5.17 121 5.42 44 5.67 15.2 5.92 4.9
4.18 3681 4.43 1695 4.68 736 4.93 302 5.18 117 5.43 42 5.68 14.6 5.93 4.7
4.19 3573 4.44 1641 4.69 711 4.94 291 5.19 112 5.44 41 5.69 14.0 5.94 4.5
4.20 3467 4.45 1589 4.70 687 4.95 280 5.20 108 5.45 39 5.70 13.4 5.95 4.3
4.21 3364 4.46 1538 4.71 664 4.96 270 5.21 104 5.46 37 5.71 12.8 5.96 4.1
4.22 3264 4.47 1489 4.72 641 4.97 260 5.22 100 5.47 36 5.72 12.2 5.97 3.9
4.23 3167 4.48 1441 4.73 619 4.98 251 5.23 96 5.48 34 5.73 11.7 5.98 3.7
4.24 3072 4.49 1395 4.74 598 4.99 242 5.24 92 5.49 33 5.74 11.2 5.99 3.6
4.25 2980 4.50 1350 4.75 577 5.00 233 5.25 88 5.50 32 5.75 10.7 6.00 3.4

76

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